For thousands of years, humans have gazed up at the moon, wondering what secrets it holds. Now, new research suggests that water on the moon's surface is more widespread than we thought -- even in places bathed in sunlight.



Roger Clark, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a>, and his team have uncovered evidence that could change our understanding of the moon's resources. 



"Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas," Clark said. "Previously, it was thought that only the polar region, and in particular, the deeply shadowed craters at the poles were where water could be found in abundance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-the-lunar-landscape">Closer look at the lunar landscape</h2>



Back in 2008 and 2009, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/chandrayaan-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandrayaan-1</a> spacecraft orbited the moon, collecting detailed maps of its surface using the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) imaging spectrometer. 



The M3 instrument wasn't your average camera -- it captured 85 different colors from the visible spectrum into the infrared range. 



This allowed the team to search for the unique fingerprints of water and hydroxyl in the sunlight reflected off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a>.



Imagine trying to spot a drop of water on a vast desert. Sounds tricky, right? 



But by using infrared spectroscopy, scientists can detect tiny amounts of water and hydroxyl (a molecule made of one hydrogen and one oxygen atom) by the way they absorb light. 



Different materials absorb and reflect light differently, giving each a unique spectral signature.



"Just like we see different colors from different materials, the infrared spectrometer can see many (infrared) colors to better determine the composition, including the water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH)," Clark explained. 



This means that even in sunlit areas, where water was thought to be scarce, we can now detect these vital molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteors-moon-rocks-and-lunar-water">Meteors, moon rocks, and lunar water</h2>



One of the key findings is that meteor impacts play a significant role in distributing water across the moon. 



When meteors crash into the surface, they excavate water-rich rocks from beneath, scattering them across all latitudes. 



This challenges the long-held belief that useful amounts of water are only found in the dark, frigid craters near the poles.



By studying where this water is located, scientists can learn more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon's geological history</a>. Plus, it opens up new possibilities for future lunar missions. 



If astronauts can find water closer to the equator, it could make long-term habitation more feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-metastable-moon-water">Mystery of metastable moon water</h2>



But there's a catch. Water on the moon doesn't behave quite like it does on Earth. It's what's known as "metastable," meaning it's slowly broken down over millions of years. 



"By studying the location and geologic context, we were able to show that water in the lunar surface is metastable," Clark noted. "H2O is slowly destroyed over millions of years, but with hydroxyl, OH, remaining."



So, while water molecules may degrade over time, hydroxyl sticks around. This hydroxyl can potentially be combined to create water and even oxygen -- a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-building-space-station-called-gateway-will-orbit-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valuable resource for astronauts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-and-space-weathering">Solar wind and space weathering</h2>



The moon's surface is also coated with a thin layer of hydroxyl, thanks to the solar wind. Protons from the sun slam into the lunar soil, interacting with oxygen in minerals to form hydroxyl in a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-moon-is-drifting-away-and-earth-will-never-be-the-same-without-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weathering</a>. It's like a constant drizzle of particles reshaping the very surface of the moon.



"Elsewhere on the lunar surface, there appears a patina of hydroxyl, probably created from solar wind protons impacting the lunar surface," Clark said. This means that the moon is continually evolving, even without an atmosphere or weather as we know it.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/moon_covered-water-hydroxyl_Moon-Mineralogy-data_credit-NASA-ISRO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/moon_covered-water-hydroxyl_Moon-Mineralogy-data_credit-NASA-ISRO_1s.webp" alt="Top: Black and white image of the Moon from Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. Bottom: Map of water on the Moon. Credit: NASA/ISRO/M3 Team/PSI/R. Clark" class="wp-image-1945396"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Top: Black and white image of the Moon from Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. Bottom: Map of water on the Moon. Credit: NASA/ISRO/M3 Team/PSI/R. Clark</figcaption></figure>



Putting all these pieces together reveals a moon that's more geologically complex than we imagined. "Both cratering and volcanic activity can bring water-rich materials to the surface, and both are observed in the lunar data," Clark pointed out.



The moon primarily consists of two types of rocks: dark basaltic mare, similar to lava flows in Hawaii, and lighter anorthosite rocks that make up the highlands. 



Interestingly, the anorthosites contain a lot of water, while the basalts have very little. This difference affects where water and hydroxyl are found and how they're bonded within the minerals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-shadows-and-mysterious-swirls">Shifting shadows and mysterious swirls</h2>



Another intriguing aspect is how the strength of water and hydroxyl signals changes with the lunar day. When the sun is low on the horizon, the infrared absorptions become stronger. 



This led scientists to think that water might be moving around the moon daily. However, Clark's team found a different explanation.



The effect is due to a thin surface layer that's different from the deeper soil. When the sun is low, light passes through more of this top layer, enhancing the absorption signals. 



So, while there might still be some movement of water, the layering of the soil plays a significant role.



Have you ever heard of lunar swirls? These are diffuse patterns seen in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-magma-ocean-molten-rock-found-moons-surface-south-pole-chandrayaan-3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">areas of the moon</a>, and their origins have puzzled scientists. 



They're thought to be related to magnetic fields that divert the solar wind, reducing hydroxyl production. The new study confirms that swirls are low in hydroxyl and water content but adds that they sometimes have higher amounts of pyroxene, a common mineral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-features-hidden-in-plain-sight">New features hidden in plain sight</h2>



What's even more fascinating is that the global hydroxyl maps have revealed areas similar to known swirls but invisible in regular light. 



These features only show up through hydroxyl absorption, suggesting they might be old, eroded swirls or entirely new types like arcs and lines.



By mapping the moon in these new ways, we're <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-cave-found-moon-mare-tranquillitatis-could-shelter-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uncovering secrets</a> that were hiding right under our noses -- or telescopes, in this case. It goes to show that there's always more to learn, even about our closest celestial neighbor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-moon-water-matter">Why does moon water matter?</h2>



So, why does all this matter? For one, it could have a big impact on future moon missions. Knowing that water is more widely available means astronauts might not have to rely solely on the poles for resources. 



This could simplify mission planning and open up new areas of exploration.



"Knowing where water is located not only helps to understand lunar geologic history, but also where astronauts may find water in the future," Clark emphasized.



Moreover, understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-is-shrinking-moonquakes-potential-problems-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon's complex geology</a> helps us piece together the history of our solar system. Each discovery adds another chapter to the story of how planets and moons evolve.



In the end, these findings remind us that the moon is more than just a barren rock in the sky. It's a dynamic world with a rich geological tapestry. From water hidden in sunlit soils to mysterious swirls etched by magnetic fields, there's a lot more going on than meets the eye.



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Alongside Clark, scientists Neil C. Pearson, Thomas B. McCord, Deborah L. Domingue, Amanda R. Hendrix, and Georgiana Kramer delved into data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) instrument aboard India's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad5837" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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The Moon's entire surface is covered with water, not just the poles

For thousands of years, humans have gazed up at the moon, wondering what secrets it holds. Now, new research suggests that water on the moon's surface is more widespread than we thought -- even in places bathed in sunlight. Roger Clark, a senior scientist at the Planetary Science Institute, and his team have uncovered evidence that could change our understanding of the moon's resources. "Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas," Clark said. "Previously, it was thought...

The global prevalence of the Arctic tern is declining, and efforts by researchers to study colony <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/painted-lady-butterflies-execute-the-longest-known-insect-migration/">migration</a> bottlenecks have become challenging due to the bird’s record-breaking geographical range. However, research from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> has concluded that despite its long-range annual migration, the Arctic tern only uses a few routes. The new insight may ultimately help conservation efforts.



“We don’t have a more far-ranging animal. They are an indicator species that can tell us so much about the different ecosystems that they travel through,” explained Joanna Wong, the lead author of the study. “If they don’t make it to their destination one year,&nbsp;then you know there might be an environmental problem somewhere along their route.”&nbsp;



The birds breed and nest in Northern Europe and Canada before migrating over 70,000 kilometers to forage in Antarctic waters, yet migrations patterns have so far only been tracked across Europe.&nbsp;



“We don’t know exactly what kills terns,” stated&nbsp;<a href="https://oceans.ubc.ca/marie-auger-methe/">Dr. Marie Auger-Méthé</a>, co-author of the study. “However, because all Terns share only a few routes, a human-created barrier on one of these routes - such as a spot with lots of fishing or a wind farm - is likely to affect a very large portion of the world’s Arctic terns.”



Wong explained that her only expectation for this study was to get a clearer picture of Canadian Arctic tern migration.&nbsp;“But when we compared our results to other tern tracking studies, it was crazy that there was such a similarity between all of them. It was a pattern that we couldn’t just ignore.”&nbsp;



The UBC team collaborated with eight other research groups across North America and Germany to capture and track the migration routes of terns. The route analysis showed that the majority of the species took one of three routes across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when migrating south, staying close to the coast. However, migrating north led the terns to fly directly over the middle of the oceans.



“It’s clear that food is a huge driver when they take the coastal routes. It makes sense because they’re leaving after breeding, where they use a lot of energy,” said Wong.&nbsp;“The northbound journey is influenced by wind. They want to get back to breeding spots as soon as possible because there’s a lot of competition for the best nesting spots.”



According to the study authors, the assessment of seasonal&nbsp;“mobile marine protected areas” can be used as a tool to help protect Arctic tern populations from human-related impacts on habitat during seasonal activity.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/meps/">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Surprising insights into the migrations of Arctic terns

The global prevalence of the Arctic tern is declining, and...

New research from the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> gives hope to older people that it is never too late to start exercising and increase longevity. The study, led by Dr. Nathalia Gonzalez of the University of Bern, shows that getting active later in life can have major heart health benefits. 

“These encouraging findings highlight how patients with coronary heart disease may benefit by preserving or adopting a physically active lifestyle," explained Dr. Gonzalez.

The researchers analyzed data from 33,576 patients who suffered from coronary heart disease with an average age of 62.5 years old. On average, follow-up exams were conducted every 7.2 years. 

Activity levels in the patients were assessed via a questionnaire and were divided into four different categories: inactive over time, active over time, increased activity over time, decreased activity over time. 

Unsurprisingly, patients who were inactive over time were the most likely to die of cardiovascular disease. They were also more likely to die prematurely from any cause. 

Patients who were active over time were 50 percent less likely to die, while patients who increased activity over time were 45 percent less likely to die. 

When it comes to heart health, similar results were observed. The risk for cardiovascular mortality was 51 percent lower among those who remained active, and 27 percent lower among patients who increased their activity. 

“The results show that continuing an active lifestyle over the years is associated with the greatest longevity. However, patients with heart disease can overcome prior years of inactivity and obtain survival benefits by taking up exercise later in life," said Dr. Gonzalez.

"On the other hand, the benefits of activity can be weakened or even lost if activity is not maintained. The findings illustrate the benefits to heart patients of being physically active, regardless of their previous habits.”

In case you needed extra motivation to get outside or hit the gym, remember, years of your life could depend on it. 

The research was presented at <a href="https://www.escardio.org/Congresses-&amp;-Events/ESC-Congress">ESC Congress 2021</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Exercise can improve heart health at any age

New research from the European Society of Cardiology gives hope...

A new type of "exoplanet" (a planet outside of our solar system) was recently discovered by astronomers. The new class of planets is very different from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-outer-core-is-its-largest-carbon-reservoir/">Earth</a>, but the researchers suspect they could still harbor life.

When looking for habitable exoplanets, astronomers usually look for those similar to the only one we know hosts life - ours. Scientists look for planets that are similar to Earth in mass, size, temperature and atmosphere.

Now, researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> report that experts may have been narrowing their search parameters unnecessarily, suggesting that other planets may host life as well.&nbsp;

A new class of potentially habitable "Hycean" planets - hot, ocean covered exoplanets with nitrogen heavy atmospheres are more common in the universe than Earth-like planets.&nbsp;

The scientists suggest that it might be easier to find life on one of these more plentiful exoplanets, more quickly answering the question of whether we are alone in the universe.

“Hycean planets open a whole new avenue in our search for life elsewhere,” said lead researcher Dr. Nikku Madhusudhan of Cambridge’s Institute of Astronomy.

The research predicts that biosignatures originating outside of our solar system could be discovered within two or three years.

Hycean planets are often bigger and hotter than Earth but - because of the oceans they may support - could have life forms similar to those found in extreme marine environments on our planet. A wider range of temperatures could support life on such planets, greatly increasing the planets to search for life.

“Essentially, when we’ve been looking for these various molecular signatures, we have been focusing on planets similar to Earth, which is a reasonable place to start," said Dr. Madhusudhan. "But we think Hycean planets offer a better chance of finding several trace biosignatures.”

Finding a biosignature outside of our solar system would just confirm what many scientists already suspect - that life exists throughout the universe. Dr. Madhusudhan emphasizes that we need to be open-minded about where we look for this proof.&nbsp;

“A biosignature detection would transform our understanding of life in the universe. We need to be open about where we expect to find life and what form that life could take, as nature continues to surprise us in often unimaginable ways.”

The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New class of exoplanets discovered

A new type of "exoplanet" (a planet outside of our...

In the small village of Kotzebue, Alaska, seal hunting has been an essential feature of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-fishing-practices-are-needed-to-revive-salmon-fisheries/">indigenous</a> way of life since times immemorial. A recent study found that over the past 17 years, climate change has significantly reduced the length of the seal hunting season, threatening one of the locals’ most cherished traditions.

For many generations, the Iñupiaq people of Kotzebue have depended on bearded seals (ugruk) for both food and clothing. The seals congregate on chunks of floating ice from the Kotzebue Sound (an arm of the Chukchi Sea in the western region of Alaska). In the last couple of decades, sea ice decline associated with climate change has shrunk the seal hunting season by approximately one day per year.

“Kotzebue Sound provides important spring habitat for bearded seals, with ice floes as platforms for seals to rest on between foraging bouts,” said study lead author Donna Hauser, a marine mammal biologist from the <a href="https://uaf-iarc.org/">International Arctic Research Center</a> at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. “We learned from our Kotzebue research partners that hunting ugruk is actually like hunting the right kind of ice.”

With ice floes melting from the Kotzebue Sound almost a month earlier than they did in 2003, the seal hunting season is significantly shortened, offering less flexibility for hunters. 

“Now in some years there is only a good weekend or two, and, if people want to maximize their opportunity, they have to prepare before the season even starts,” explained study co-author Alex Whiting, director of the <a href="http://www.kotzebueira.org/programs/environmental-protection.html">Native Village of Kotzebue’s Environmental Program</a>.

However, researchers found that harvest success has not significantly changed, regardless of the shrinking annual hunting season. What has changed the most is the type of hunting experience. In the past, the ice floes were huge and complex, and hunters had to search for a long time to find seals. Today, they must embark on shorter, but more frequent trips.

If the current rate of climate change persists, ice floes and seals may be further away from Kotzebue across large areas of open waters. This means that hunters will have to face increasing risks and challenges to reach them.

The research was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1a36">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change threatens seal hunting in Alaska

In the small village of Kotzebue, Alaska, seal hunting has...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> has revealed that tropical mountain forests in Africa store a much larger amount of carbon than previously thought. With about 150 tons of carbon per hectare, the African mountain forests surpass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-recovery-is-lacking-in-the-most-deforested-areas-of-the-amazon/">Amazon</a> rainforests, and thus play a crucial role in global climate regulation.

“Previous carbon estimates for tropical mountain forests in Africa were much lower than the values we report in our study,” said study co-author Dr. Martin Sullivan from <a href="https://www.mmu.ac.uk/natural-sciences/">the Department of Natural Sciences</a> at Manchester Metropolitan University. 

Scientists also found that, unexpectedly, mountain forests store as much carbon as lowland forests. “The results are surprising because the climate in mountains would be expected to lead to low carbon forests,” explained lead author Aida Cuni-Sanchez, a postdoctoral fellow from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/environment/">Department of Environment and Geography</a> at the University of York.

“But unlike other continents, in Africa we found the same carbon store per unit area in lowland and mountain forests. Contrary to what we expected, large trees remain abundant in mountain forests, and these large trees (defined as having diameters over 70 cm) store a lot of carbon.”

Unfortunately, many of the African mountain forests had been cleared in the past 20 years. Researchers found that over 0.8 million hectares of forest from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, and Ethiopia have been lost during this period. If these deforestation rates continue, a further 0.5 million hectares would disappear by 2030. 

 “About five percent of Africa’s tropical mountain forests have been cleared since 2000, and in some countries the rate exceeds 20 percent,” said study co-author Dr. Phil Platts. “Besides their importance for climate regulation, these forests are habitats for many rare and endangered species, and they provide very important water services to millions of people downstream.”

Luckily, following the <a href="https://www.bonnchallenge.org/">Bonn Challenge</a>, a global initiative aiming to bring 350 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2030, most African nations eagerly engaged in forest restoration. As scientists argue, however, avoiding deforestation is a greater priority than restoration in the quest of mitigating climate change.

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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

African mountain forests store huge amounts of carbon

A new study published in the journal Nature has revealed...

An international team of scientists reports that the increased use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-overuse-of-antibiotics-threatens-wild-chimpanzees/">antibiotics</a> in medicine and agriculture between the 1950s and 1990s led to a significant rise in antibiotic resistance among Scandinavian brown bears.

Antibiotic resistance is a major threat to public health that is caused by the overuse of antibiotics. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people die of infections from antibiotic resistant bacteria. These antibiotics and bacteria often escape from hospitals through wastewater treatment plants and spread rapidly through water and wind over vast distances. In the wild, they can be picked up by animals and transmitted back to humans during activities like hiking or hunting.

The researchers studied specimens from the <a href="https://www.nrm.se/en/16.html">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a> to investigate changes in the bacterial communities living in the mouths of wild brown bears. Such bacteria can remain preserved for thousands of years as calculus deposits on teeth.

“We specifically looked for bacterial genes that provide resistance to antibiotics,” said study lead author Jaelle Brealey, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. “Their abundance closely follows human antibiotic use in Sweden, increasing in the 20th century and then decreasing in the last 20 years. We also find a greater diversity of antibiotic resistance genes in the recent past, likely as a result of different kinds of antibiotics being used by humans.”

Although researchers expected to find more antibiotic resistant genes in brown bears living closer to major Swedish metropolitan areas, no such correlation was discovered.

“We found similar levels of antibiotic resistance in bears from remote areas and those found near human habitation. This suggests that the contamination of the environment with resistant bacteria and antibiotics is really widespread," explained study senior author Katerina Guschanski of <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a>.

Fortunately, following Sweden’s ban on the use of antibiotics in agriculture in the 1980s, as well as the implementation of a national program against antibiotic resistance in 1995, things have changed significantly. The oral microbiota of wild bears born after 1995 show much lower levels of antibiotic resistance. Such measures should be urgently implemented on a global scale to protect both humans and wildlife. 

This research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antibiotic resistance discovered in wild brown bears

An international team of scientists reports that the increased use...

The devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/running-dry-water-shortages-in-the-colorado-river/">drought</a> impacting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-mortality-in-colorado-is-a-warning-sign-of-climate-change/">Colorado River</a> system affected over 40 million people, making scientists ask themselves whether it could have been predicted and perhaps avoided. A team of experts from the U.S. Department of Energy <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Berkeley Lab</a> has built the first “bedrock-to-atmosphere” observation system to help scientists predict the future of water availability in the American West.

Scheduled to open on September 1, 2021, the Surface Atmosphere Integrated Field Laboratory (<a href="https://sail.lbl.gov/">SAIL</a>) will use <a href="https://sail.lbl.gov/what-we-measure/">state-of-the-art instruments</a> to collect a vast array of data on precipitation, temperature, humidity, solar and thermal energy, ozone concentrations and more, in order to predict how, why, where, and when rain and snow will fall. 

“SAIL is a timely campaign because of the ongoing drought in the Western United States,” said Sally McFarlane, DOE Program Manager for the Atmospheric Radiation Management (<a href="https://arm.gov/">ARM</a>) user facility. “SAIL is bringing data from ARM and other research programs from within DOE to ultimately help provide insights into the atmospheric processes and land-atmosphere interactions that impact rain and snow in the upper Colorado River watershed.”

This initiative will help scientists understand the physical processes that affect mountain hydrology and discover how phenomena such as droughts, wildfires, dust, or tree mortality influence water availability. It will also help clarify how mountains extract moisture from the atmosphere and process it all the way down to the bedrock beneath the Earth’s surface.

“This is a profound and incredibly unique opportunity and represents a first-of-its-kind experiment in mountainous systems worldwide, bridging the processes from the atmosphere all the way down to bedrock,” said Ken Williams, the lead researcher for SAIL.

Some practical questions that SAIL could help answer include: How are activities and disturbances in the forests affecting water quality and availability? How to plan for a future of low snow, or snowfall transforming to rainfall? Or how to prevent dams from overflowing? 

“Ultimately, this work will help us improve climate models so that they can be used to better understand, predict, and plan for threats to water resources in the arid West and globally,” explained DOE Program Manager Jeff Stehr.

---

By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Predicting the future of water availability in the American West

The devastating drought impacting the Colorado River system affected over...

Many herbivorous insects are pests that can destroy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-genes-identified-to-protect-crops-from-drought/">crops</a> and make the home gardener’s life a misery. Although pesticides may keep these pests at bay for a while, they soon become resistant and continue to wreak havoc. Researchers at Pennsylvania State University have created a new strategy to deter garden pests by using the odor emitted by a predatory insect. This encourages the pests to leave the area without ever coming into direct contact with the predator.

Dr. Sara Hermann and Dr. Jessica Kansman, both scientists in the Department of Entomology, will present the results of their research at a meeting of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>, ACS Fall 2021. The researchers will explain how they plan to bottle the odor of predatory ladybird beetles (commonly known as ladybugs) and release this "smell of fear" to change the behavior of common garden pests such as aphids.

“It is not uncommon to use our senses to avoid risky situations. If a building was on fire, we as humans could use our senses of sight or smell to detect the threat,” said Dr. Hermann, the project’s principal investigator. “There is evidence for such behavioral responses to risk across taxa that suggests prey organisms can detect predation threats, but the mechanisms for detection aren’t very well understood, especially with insects.”

“Insects rely on olfactory cues to find food, mates and places to live, so this is a great opportunity to investigate how to use these smells to manipulate their behavior,” said Dr. Kansman. 

The researchers chose to work on ladybugs because they are already recognized as useful predators for controlling many different types of crop and garden pests. Ladybugs prey on aphids, that are destructive to a variety of crops because of their large numbers and their tendency to transfer pathogens between their plant hosts. 

Research by Dr. Hermann has already shown that odors from ladybugs can make aphid reproduction rate decrease and can also increase the rate of wing growth in aphids, which helps them to move away and avoid the threat of being eaten. 

The experts extracted the volatile odor from live ladybugs in the laboratory and profiled it using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Once they had identified the individual components of the odor, they introduced these, one by one, to live aphids. The team connected the antennae of each aphid to an electroantennogram (EAG) machine to record the specific chemical compounds that the aphid detected.

The study revealed that aphids showed the strongest responses to a group of organic compounds called methoxypyrazines. These included isopropyl methoxypyrazine, isobutyl methoxypyrazine and sec-butyl methoxypyrazine. 

The researchers then made a blend of the most potent odor components to use in an essential oil diffuser to waft the predator’s scent across a field or garden.

Future work will involve the experimental use of the scent diffusers in the field to see whether aphids respond in the same way as they do in the laboratory. In addition, they wish to try the technique with different crop and garden pests and their natural predators, and to market their diffusers for use by farmers and gardeners.

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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Using the "smell of fear" to control garden pests

Many herbivorous insects are pests that can destroy crops and...

In a groundbreaking new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01532-x">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, researchers have established the origin date of the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-early-tetrapods-lived-within-the-antarctic-circle/">tetrapods</a>. The experts found that tetrapods acquired many major adaptive traits that allowed the evolution of their life on land to unfold at an accelerated pace.

The rise of limbed land vertebrates from their aquatic relatives (the ‘fish-to-tetrapod transition’) is one of the major evolutionary events in the history of life on Earth. However, some of the fundamental questions regarding the dynamics of this transition remained a mystery for decades.

By combining new statistical methods with data from fossil footprints and body fossils, Dr. Tiago R. Simões and Professor Stephanie E. Pierce of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> managed to estimate the time and rates of anatomical evolution during the rise of tetrapods with great accuracy.

“We were able to provide a very precise age for the origins of tetrapods at approximately 390 million years ago, 15 million years older than the oldest tetrapod body fossil,” said Dr. Simões.  

The scientists discovered that most of the aquatic relatives of tetrapods had extremely slow rates of anatomical evolution, proving that they were well adapted to their environment. 

“On the other hand, we discovered the evolutionary lineages leading to the first tetrapods broke away from that stable pattern, acquiring several of the major new adaptive traits at incredibly fast rates that were sustained for approximately 30 million years,” explained Dr. Simões. 

Yet, these fast rates of anatomical evolution were not associated with similarly rapid rates of species diversification. This contradicts the classical hypothesis regarding the mechanisms of evolution in new major animal groups, which sees a tight correlation between rates of anatomical change and species diversification. 

“What we've been finding in the last couple of years is that you have lots of anatomical changes during the construction of new animal body plans at short periods of geological time, generating high rates of anatomical evolution, like we're seeing with the first tetrapods," said Dr. Simões.

"But in terms of number of species, they remained constrained and at really low numbers for a really long time, and only after tens of millions of years do they actually diversify and become higher in number of species. There’s definitely a decoupling there."

“It takes time to get a foothold in a new niche in order to take full advantage of it,” added Professor Pierce. “Our study starts at the very beginning of this evolutionary story. There are many, many more chapters to come."

“We want to next dig further in terms of what happened after the origin of tetrapods, when they started to colonize land and diversify into new niches. How does that impact their anatomical rates of evolution compared to their species diversification across the planet? This is just the very beginning. It's the introductory chapter to the book.”

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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breakthrough discoveries about the evolution of life on land

In a groundbreaking new study published in the journal Nature...

A new study led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> found that carnivorous animals lack important genes that are essential for detecting and responding to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-exposure-drastically-worsens-covid-19-infection/">infection</a> by pathogens. This increases the risk for carnivores to become "disease reservoirs" in certain conditions such as farming, where large numbers of animals are kept in close proximity.

Scientists discovered that three genes which are crucial for gut health have lost their function in carnivores. When working properly, these genes produce inflammasomes, protein complexes used to activate inflammatory response in order to ward off pathogens. 

“We’ve found that a whole cohort of inflammatory genes is missing in carnivores- we didn’t expect this at all,” said study lead author Clare Bryant, a professor in the Department of Veterinary Medicine at Cambridge. 

“We think that the lack of these functioning genes contributes to the ability of pathogens to hide undetected in carnivores, to potentially mutate and be transmitted, becoming a human health risk.”

Although the protein-rich carnivorous diet is thought to help compensate for these immune deficiencies due to its antimicrobial properties, it is still insufficient for detecting and fighting a whole range of pathogens, including many zoonotic ones, which are able to jump from animals to humans. Some of the biggest carriers of zoonotic pathogens include carnivores such as mink, dogs, or cats.

Yet, we shouldn’t worry too much about getting infected by our cats or dogs. According to Professor Bryant, it is only when a large number of carnivores are kept together in close proximity that they can become disease reservoirs.

“When you have a large population of farmed carnivorous animals, like mink, they can harbor a pathogen – like SARS-CoV-2 and others – and it can mutate because the immune system of the mink isn’t being activated. This could potentially spread into humans,” explained Professor Bryant. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/home">Cell Reports</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carnivores can become "disease reservoirs" due to genetics

A new study led by researchers from the University of...

The evolutionary history of the rhinoceros is unknown. Most of the 100 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-wiped-out-hundreds-of-bird-species/">species</a> of rhinoceroses that were once geographically widespread became extinct before the Pleistocene epoch. 

The five rhinoceros species that remain in the world today are all threatened with extinction. It has become critical to understand the genetic origins of these remaining populations because breeding programs are now necessary to prevent all five species from disappearing forever.

In a recent study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>,  scientists report on their analysis of genomes from individuals of the five extant species, as well as from three species that became extinct during the last Ice Age. 

The living species are the African black, African white, greater one horned (Indian), Sumatran and Javan rhinos. The extinct species analyzed for the study include the Siberian unicorn, the Merck’s rhino and the woolly rhino. The results of the analysis contribute to an understanding of the rhinoceros family tree.

“We can now show that the main branch in the rhinoceroses’ tree of life is among geographic regions, Africa versus Eurasia, and not between the rhinos that have one versus two horns,” explained co-author Love Dalén of the Centre for Paleogenetics and the Swedish Museum of Natural History. 

“The second important finding is that all rhinoceroses, even the extinct ones, have comparatively low genetic diversity. To some extent, this means that the low genetic diversity we see in present-day rhinos, which are all endangered, is partly a consequence of their biology.”

Since the data used for this study were derived from both modern an ancient DNA, the researchers could not simply put together all the genomic information for analysis. They had to develop new analysis tools to cope with the differences in the types of data. The team used the results to draw up a family tree for the eight species involved.

The results suggest that rhinos as a group diverged from horses and tapirs just over 60 million years ago, and that the Siberian unicorn rhinoceros branched away around 36 million years ago. The Eurasian and African species diverged from one another about 16 million years ago, after the land bridge formed between the Afro-Arabian and Eurasian landmasses. 

In terms of genetic diversity, the authors found that present-day species showed significantly lower levels of genome variation than the extinct species did. This is attributed to the huge population declines that modern species have experienced recently. 

However, when comparing genetic variation in the eight species of rhinos and in other mammalian families, the rhinos showed the second lowest genetic diversity of any group. Only the family Felidae (containing cats) showed lower diversity and this is explained by the fact that felids are predators and they always have small population sizes. 

"We also find that present-day rhinos have lower genetic diversity, and higher levels of inbreeding, compared to our historical and prehistoric rhinoceros genomes," explained Dalen. "This suggests that recent population declines caused by hunting and habitat destruction have had an impact on the genomes. This is not good, since low genetic diversity and high inbreeding may increase the risk of extinction in the present-day species.”

According to the researchers, their findings will be useful in terms of managing current populations and assisting conservation efforts. “Now we know that the low diversity we see in contemporary individuals may not be indicative of an inability to recover, but instead a natural state of rhinoceros," said Mick Westbury of the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. “We can better guide recovery programs to focus on increasing population size rather than individual genetic diversity.”

The genomic information can also be used to determine the ancestry of small remaining populations that have become isolated as their habitat fragments. 

“We hope that this will provide a framework to better understand where translocated populations may have arisen from, direct changes in genetic diversity, and whether any populations may have been lost forever because of humans,” said Westbury.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rhinoceroses have always had low levels of genetic diversity

The evolutionary history of the rhinoceros is unknown. Most of...

A new study presented at the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> suggests that drinking a proper amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/running-dry-water-shortages-in-the-colorado-river/">water</a> could help maintain heart health and prevent the development of heart failure. The author of the research, Dr. Natalia Dmitrieva of the Heart, Lung and Blood institute explains: “Our study suggests that maintaining good hydration can prevent or at least slow down the changes within the heart that lead to heart failure."

'The findings indicate that we need to pay attention to the amount of fluid we consume every day and take action if we find that we drink too little.”

Standard recommendations for daily fluid intake are 1.6 - 2.1 liters for women and 2 - 3 liters for men. Research suggests that worldwide, many people fall short of the lower end of this recommendation. 

Measuring serum sodium is a scientifically accurate way to determine hydration. The higher the concentration of serum sodium, the more dehydrated a person is. With the rise of serum sodium concentrations, the body reacts by trying to conserve water. Some of the water conservation attempts by the body are known to be detrimental to heart health.

“It is natural to think that hydration and serum sodium should change day to day depending on how much we drink on each day," said Dr. Dmitrieva. "However, serum sodium concentration remains within a narrow range over long periods, which is likely related to habitual fluid consumption.”

The study looked closely at the serum sodium concentration levels in middle age and whether it led to heart failure up to 25 years later. The study also looked at thickening of the left ventricle, which is a predictor for future heart failure. Nearly 16,000 study participants were first assessed between the ages of 44 and 66, and were periodically examined up to the age of 90. 

The upshot is that the higher concentrations of serum sodium in middle age led to higher incidence of heart failure later in life. 

“The results suggest that good hydration throughout life may decrease the risk of developing left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure," explained Dr. Dmitrieva.

"In addition, our finding that serum sodium exceeding 142mmol/l increases the risk of adverse effects in the heart may help to identify people who could benefit from an evaluation of their hydration level."

"This sodium level is within the normal range and would not be labeled as abnormal in lab test results but could be used by physicians during regular physical exams to identify people whose usual fluid intake should be assessed.”

The research, which was funded by the Intramural Program of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, was presented at <a href="https://www.escardio.org/Congresses-&amp;-Events/ESC-Congress">ESC Congress 2021</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hydration reduces the risk of heart failure

A new study presented at the European Society of Cardiology...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...