The term "aging" generally conjures up images of graying hair, slowing pace, and the eventual appearance of wrinkles. Yet, beyond these physical markers, aging is a fundamentally cellular and molecular process, even for organisms like bacteria, which also experience age-related changes.



From humble single-celled organisms to complex mammalian systems, all living organisms experience the impact of passing time, according to a recent report from the <a href="https://asm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Society for Microbiology</a>.



As they age, cells accumulate damage that impairs function, leading to numerous age-related disorders in humans. But what about bacteria? Can these single-celled entities feel the passage of time?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-age-and-binary-fission-factor">Bacteria age and binary fission factor</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-use-biological-clocks-to-predict-and-survive-cold-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacteria</a>, being single-celled organisms, propagate differently from humans. Rather than sexual reproduction, they undergo a process known as binary fission. 



In this process, they duplicate their DNA and divide into two, resulting in rapid replication. Interestingly, the fastest-growing bacterium can split in less than 10 minutes.



Historically, it was believed that bacteria, thanks to binary fission's symmetrical nature, did not age. After all, this process results in a parent and offspring identical in age, leading to a concept dubbed "functional immortality."



Aging, it was assumed, required an asymmetric division where the parent is older than the offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-of-bacteria">Aging of bacteria</h2>



Contrary to the longstanding belief, evidence emerged in 2005, suggesting that, like us, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> do age. The researchers found that Escherichia coli (E. coli) exhibit differences between "old" and "new" (parent and offspring) cells.



These distinctions became evident as scientists watched the cells divide under a microscope, noting that older cells' growth rate and offspring production decline over time. 



Moreover, the senior cells died more frequently than their younger counterparts. Clearly, despite similar appearances, cells underwent divisions that left them functionally asymmetric and susceptible to aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asymmetry-to-the-rescue">Asymmetry to the rescue</h2>



So, how does this asymmetry help? It turns out, this type of division is crucial for the population's overall fitness. 



An asymmetric division maintains variance, the variety upon which natural selection acts. More variation typically means a better chance of survival under changing conditions.



One of the key players in this aging process is protein aggregation. This process occurs in bacteria and eukaryotic cells and is associated with age-related diseases in humans, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, where harmful protein clumps can lead to cell death.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-bacteria-will-devour-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, scientists found a smart way of dealing with this problem. As a feature of asymmetric division, older cells accumulate these proteins segregating age-related damage and keeping their offspring looking "younger" at the molecular level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-states-of-stress">Cellular states of stress</h2>



Another culprit contributing to aging, both in humans and bacteria, is stress. E. coli cells activate a stress state inside the cell to survive mutations accumulated over their lifetimes. 



Some of these mutations, while not lethal, can negatively impact the cell's fitness by causing a critical protein to lose its function.



In a study analyzing the effects of over 60 different nonlethal loss-of-function mutations in E. coli, researchers found that these mutants increased their metabolic activity to compensate for lost protein function. 



Still, this adaptation comes at a cost. These cells grow slower and enter a state similar to purgatory faster than non-mutants, especially in nutrient-poor environments.



The findings suggest an "aging cost" associated with maintaining resistance to stress on a population level. Could understanding bacterial aging lead us to new antibiotic targets? Might this ancient mechanism of aging shed light on certain human diseases perpetuated through cellular stress states?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-aging">Complexities of aging</h2>



Time and age certainly doesn't stand still for anyone, humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> included. But perhaps bacteria's susceptibility to aging is a blessing in disguise. 



These hardy organisms make excellent subjects for studying the nuances of aging, given their rapid growth and the ability to observe numerous generations in a single experiment. After all, understanding the complexity of aging is inherent to unlocking the mysteries of life itself.



The discovery that bacteria are not eternal beings, as once thought, but vulnerable to aging like all living organisms, signifies the interconnectedness of life at every level.



The concept of time, aging, and the decline in function straddle across the biological spectrum, making it possible to draw parallels between the simplest life forms and the most complex ones.



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Do bacteria age or are they immortal?

The term "aging" generally conjures up images of graying hair, slowing pace, and the eventual appearance of wrinkles. Yet, beyond these physical markers, aging is a fundamentally cellular and molecular process, even for organisms like bacteria, which also experience age-related changes. From humble single-celled organisms to complex mammalian systems, all living organisms experience the impact of passing time, according to a recent report from the American Society for Microbiology. As they age, cells accumulate damage that impairs function, leading to numerous age-related disorders in humans. But what...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nenergy/">Nature Energy</a> suggests that people of high socioeconomic status could potentially have a significant impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-makes-wood-frogs-more-vulnerable-to-salt-pollution/">climate</a> change. Therefore, these individuals should be motivated to take on a greater responsibility to change their behavior and bring about progress in climate change mitigation.&nbsp;



High socioeconomic status, as defined in the current study, refers to anyyone who earns US $109,000 or more per year. But it also includes people with "social resources," which refers to their social class, occupation and social network. This means that the category encompasses a much broader spectrum of the population than simply the super-rich.&nbsp;



“High socioeconomic status people aren’t just those with more money, but those with stronger social networks. Their connections can enable them to influence behaviors and policies to help mitigate climate change - and we need to find ways to encourage them to do this,” said study first author Dr. Kristian Nielsen, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge.



“By saying it’s only the super-rich that need to change their behaviour, we ignore the power that others have to help tackle climate change though their influence.”



The study identifies five ways in which people of high socioeconomic status have disproportionate impacts on global greenhouse gas emissions. In their roles as consumers, investors, role models, organizational participants, and citizens these people can choose to make decisions that either exacerbate or mitigate climate change. And given their positions of high socioeconomic status, their decisions will carry weight with other members of the population.



Air travel releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and over 50 percent of these flight-related emissions are caused by just one percent of the world’s population – usually those of high socioeconomic status. These people thus have a disproportionately high impact on climate change; a revision of the social norms relating to frequent flying is needed in this instance, according to the study.&nbsp;



“People of higher socioeconomic status could also act as role models, making more climate-friendly choices that influence others – for example driving electric cars or eating a vegan diet. You don’t need a massive income to be a role model, you just need to be well-connected,” said Dr. Nielsen.



People with high socioeconomic status can also make significant contributions as investors by choosing carefully where to invest their money. By making environmentally sensitive investments, those with wealth can bring about changes in the way that consumers view products.



Additionally, owners and employees in businesses and organizations can influence the choice of suppliers and business culture by virtue of being individuals of high socioeconomic status.&nbsp;



Even as citizens, individuals of high socioeconomic status can have the power to bring about changes by supporting social organizations and movements, accessing influential politicians and leaders, and donating finances to help advance social change.&nbsp;



“Our study focused on people of high socioeconomic status because they have generated many of the problems of fossil fuel dependence and associated climate change, which affect the rest of humanity. And they are also well positioned to do something about it,” said Dr. Nielsen.



“When certain people change their behaviour for the good of the climate it can have spill-over effects that go way beyond the effects of the average person, and lead to systemic change.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People of high socioeconomic status are key to tackling climate change

A new study published in the journal Nature Energy suggests...

Nature is not the mechanical clinking of cogs, preordained by certain ecological laws. It is dynamic - animals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">plants</a> form complex and flexible relationships in their individual, contingent contexts. A new study revealing the differing sexual politics in giraffe society illustrates just that. The study shows that male giraffes are more socially connected than females.



“The degree to which an animal is connected to others in its social network influences reproductive success and population ecology, spread of information, and even how diseases move through a population. Information about sociality therefore can provide important guidance for conservation," explained study co-author Derek Lee, an associate research professor of Biology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.



Professor Lee and a team of researchers followed the movement, behavior, and social interaction of a population of Masai giraffes in the Tarangire ecosystem of northern Tanzania. They found that, while female giraffes form closer, more intimate relationships with their peers, male giraffes had a tendency to cast a wider social net.&nbsp;



“We found that male giraffes overall had higher social connectedness than females, which means males interact with greater numbers of other individuals than females,” said Professor Lee. “Older males had the shortest social path length to all the other giraffes in the network. This might reflect the mating strategy of males, who roam widely across the landscape searching for females to mate with and make connections in the process."&nbsp;



"Young males had the most social ties and moved most often among groups, reflecting social exploration as they prepare to disperse away from their mothers.”



The findings feed into the existing body of research that appears to show adult females forming communities among friends and relations. The males maintain these social ties by moving from community to community, establishing what has been termed “super-communities.”&nbsp;



“Among giraffes, adult females have enduring social relationships and form distinct and stable social communities with a relatively large number of other females, while, in their perpetual search for mating opportunities, adult males connect the adult female communities, forming super-communities," said study co-author Monica Bond of the University of Zurich.



"This type of complex society has evolutionary and conservation advantages, because the dynamics of the social system should allow gene flow between groups, which is an important part of maintaining a healthy and robust population.”



While we are accustomed to thinking that elephants, dolphins, and primates (animals that are considering intelligent in terms that we humans understand) form these complex social webs, we don’t often imagine hoofed ungulates such as giraffes maintaining a complex body of relationships. Studies like this illustrate how much we have yet to learn about the ever-evolving world of animal society.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male giraffes have social connections beyond their own community

Nature is not the mechanical clinking of cogs, preordained by...

Deep and meaningful conversations are known to increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-isolation-causes-flies-to-eat-too-much-and-sleep-too-little/">social</a> connectivity and bring satisfaction to people. However, we usually engage in such conversations with persons we know well, and often just stick to small talk with strangers. 



In a new study published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp-pspa0000281.pdf">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>, scientists argue that we do this because we underestimate how much others are interested in our lives and we mistakenly believe that deeper conversations with strangers will be more awkward than they usually are.



“Connecting with others in meaningful ways tends to make people happier, and yet people also seem reluctant to engage in deeper and more meaningful conversation,” said study co-author Nicholas Epley, a professor of Behavioral Science at the <a href="https://www.chicagobooth.edu/">University of Chicago Booth School of Business</a>. “This struck us as an interesting social paradox: If connecting with others in deep and meaningful ways increases well-being, then why aren’t people doing it more often in daily life?”



To answer this question, Epley and colleagues designed a series of experiments with over 1,800 participants. They asked pairs of people (mostly strangers)&nbsp;to talk about either shallow (such as favorite movies or the weather) or deep topics (such as vulnerabilities or future expectations).&nbsp;



Before the conversations, participants were asked to predict how awkward they thought the conversations will be, how connected they thought they would feel with their partner, and how much they would enjoy the talks. After the conversations, they had to rate their experience in terms of awkwardness, connectivity, and enjoyment.&nbsp;



The scientists found that both deep and shallow conversations felt less awkward than expected and led to greater social connectivity and enjoyment. These effects tended to be stronger in the case of deep conversations.&nbsp;



Moreover, participants often initially overestimated the degree of awkwardness they would feel when engaging in deep conversations with strangers. Researchers believe the cause of this might be the fact that people generally believe that others are not interested in their lives.



“People seemed to imagine that revealing something meaningful or important about themselves in conversation would be met with blank stares and silence, only to find this wasn’t true in the actual conversation,” Professor Epley explained.&nbsp;



“Human beings are deeply social and tend to reciprocate in conversation. If you share something meaningful and important, you are likely to get something meaningful and important exchanged in return, leading to a considerably better conversation."



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People enjoy deep conversations with strangers

Deep and meaningful conversations are known to increase social connectivity...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> has investigated the polymers and additives in plastic bags and how these help plastic bags break down in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-sunlight-enhances-libido/">sunlight</a>. The researchers discovered that with the right additives, plastic bags can be made to more easily break down into water soluble chemicals.



When plastic bags are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, they release thousands of soluble chemicals and gases. The problem is that plastic bags are not pure plastic but also have additives for color and other attributes.&nbsp;



"The plastics we use and leak into the environment are widely known to be complex mixtures of polymers and additives, which may influence photochemical behavior. Organic and inorganic additives are common and diverse," wrote the study authors.



"Little is known about the impacts of plastic formulation on its fate and effects, as studies on marine plastics have generally used pure polymers."&nbsp;



"However, several recent studies have shown that additive-containing plastics behave differently than pure polymers: photochemical mineralization to CO2, photo-oxidation pathways, lability of photoproducts to microbes,and leachate toxicity differed between pure and additive-containing polymers."



For their investigation, the researchers compared plastic bags from big box stores with different additives to a pure polymer film as a control. First, different bags and the polymer film were tested for additives. No additives were found in the film but some of the bags contained titanium dioxide and calcium carbonate, while some contained only calcium carbonate.&nbsp;



The various bags with different additives were placed along with the polymer film in containers of water. The containers were placed either in the dark or under UV light to simulate the sun.&nbsp;



The experiment revealed that while only a few chemicals were released in the dark, 5,000 to 15,000 dissolved chemicals were released under simulated sunlight.



When exposed to the UV light, the plastic bags released 1.1 to 50 times the dissolved chemicals compared to bags exposed to dark.&nbsp;



Of roughly 9,000 chemicals released from the polymer, only about ¼ overlapped with the chemicals released from the bags. These results indicate that plastic bags could degrade into water soluble chemicals in sunshine if the right additives are used in bag manufacturing.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sunlight can transform plastic bags into water-soluble compounds

A new study from the American Chemical Society has investigated...

A new study has found that living at a high altitude may reduce the risk of a fatal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diet-lowers-the-overall-risk-of-stroke/">stroke</a>. The research, which was focused on people living in Ecuador, is the first of its kind to investigate the risk of stroke at four different elevations.



The experts analyzed the incidence of stroke-related hospitalization and death based on data from over 17 years and more than 100,000 stroke patients.&nbsp;



The study revealed that people who lived at higher altitudes had a lower risk of stroke and stroke-related death. This protective effect was found to be strongest at an altitude between 2,000 and 3,500 meters.



Some of the most common health factors that contribute to stroke risk include smoking, high blood pressure, and a sedentary lifestyle. Altitude is an often overlooked factor that can also influence stroke risk.&nbsp;



People must adapt to living at higher altitudes, where there is less oxygen available, but exactly how this may affect stroke risk remains unclear. In the Ecuadorian Andes, the wide array of altitudes presented researchers with a unique opportunity to investigate.



“The main motivation of our work was to raise awareness of a problem that is very little explored,” explained study lead author Professor Esteban Ortiz-Prado of the Universidad de las Americas.



“That is, more than 160m people live above 2,500 meters and there is very little information regarding epidemiological differences in terms of stroke at altitude."&nbsp;



"We wanted to contribute to new knowledge in this population that is often considered to be the same as the population living at sea level, and from a physiological point of view we are very different.”



The results of the analysis showed that people who lived at altitudes above 2,500 meters tended to experience stroke at a later age compared with those at lower altitudes. People who lived at higher altitudes were also less likely to be hospitalized or die as a result of a stroke.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the protective effects did not apply to people living at altitudes of over 3,500 meters.



While more research is needed to determine what underlies the relationship between high altitude and low stroke risk, one explanation may be that people who live at high altitudes (and have adapted to the low oxygen conditions) can more readily grow new blood vessels to help overcome stroke-related damage.&nbsp;



The study is published in open-access journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2021.716389/full">Frontiers in Physiology</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Living at a high altitude lowers risk of deadly stroke

A new study has found that living at a high...

Macaronesia is a little known archipelago off northwestern Africa; some of it belongs to Portugal, some to Spain, and the rest to Cape Verde. As is common across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-sea-level-can-trigger-eruptions-on-volcanic-islands/">island</a> chains, Macaronesia contains unique flora and fauna.



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> set out to investigate the impact that human settlement has had on the ecology of the islands of Macaronesia.



"The extinction of iconic species such as the dodo and the deforestation of Easter Island are emblematic of the transformative impact of human colonization of many oceanic islands, especially those in the tropics and subtropics," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Yet, the interaction of prehistoric and colonial-era colonists with the forests and forest resources they encountered can be complex, varies between islands, and remains poorly understood."



The researchers looked at the full impact of humans on the natural ecosystems of Macaronesia.&nbsp;



“Contrasting the long-term history of different ecosystems, such as island forests, helps put in perspective the transformative force that humankind is unleashing all around the world," explained Dr. Sandra Nogué Bosch.



The study revealed that the forests of Macaronesia changed gradually over time, but human arrival caused an increase in fire and erosion on the Canary Islands and Cabo Verde. The erosion was associated with the introduction of non-native pigs as human livestock. In particular, the thermophilous forest, characterized by charismatic species such as the dragon tree, was severely impacted.&nbsp;



The research also showed that the first people to arrive on the islands had limited negative impact on native plants. When Europeans first arrived, however, the impact was much worse.



The researchers hope that comparing past and present ecosystems will help with restoration efforts in the future as well as give us a glimpse into the negative impact humans sometimes have on their surroundings. There are still many research questions to be addressed.&nbsp;



“Other important research questions remain open, for example, what was the role of a changing climate in these processes in the past, and how will global warming affect future ecosystems?" said Dr. Bosch.



"What was the local impact of extreme natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions - like the one currently active in La Palma - and how did island life change the cultures of those people that settled them? We will also keep up the work on other archipelagos to provide a new perspective of the human footprint in these fascinating territories,”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How has human settlement impacted island ecology?

Macaronesia is a little known archipelago off northwestern Africa; some...

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iconic-wildlife-populations-are-declining-on-isle-royale/">wildlife</a>, and is endemic to parts of Africa. Experts are reporting on a rare case of anthrax in which three wild cheetahs in the Namib Desert died within 24 hours after feeding on a zebra that was positive for the disease.&nbsp;



Since 2015, the <a href="https://www.cheetah-research.org/">Leibniz-IZW Cheetah Research Project</a> (CRP) and the Namibian Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) have been conducting surveys to gain insight into cheetah populations and conservation status in Namibia. As part of this important and ongoing research, a group of three male cheetahs was captured and collared with GPS trackers. Flights over the cheetah habitat regularly downloaded data from the collars while passing overhead. During one such flight, the body of a tagged cheetah was discovered.&nbsp;



“The GPS data of the collared cheetah revealed that they died within a time window of six hours a few days before we found them," said CRP scientist Ruben Portas.



"Evaluating their most recent movements, we identified a cluster of GPS locations approximately two kilometers away from the location where they were found dead.”



When visiting the cluster where the cheetahs had spent 20 hours the day before their death, the research team found the remains of a dead zebra infected with anthrax.&nbsp;



The data suggests that the cheetahs fed on the zebra and were subsequently infected with anthrax themselves. Carnivores are usually less susceptible to the disease but can sometimes succumb to it.



"When a high load of bacteria is ingested, for example with meat from a contaminated carcass, their potent constitutive innate immunity might be overloaded," explained CRP project head Bettina Wachter.



"Cheetahs scavenge only rarely, which reduces their exposure to anthrax infected prey. As a result, they do not produce high antibody titres, which would be another line of defence. Thus, cheetahs die quickly when infected, as studies in Etosha National Park in northern Namibia have shown.”



This case may be important for the assessment of the status of cheetahs, especially in the Namib desert, where the disease hadn’t been discovered before.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Anthrax kills three cheetahs in the Namib Desert

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and...

Despite the fact that photosynthesis has been taught in schools for centuries, experts still do not have a precise estimate of when the process first arose on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-polar-ice-is-warping-earths-crust/">Earth</a>. In a new study, scientists at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have pinpointed exactly when cyanobacteria evolved oxygenic photosynthesis.



The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis allowed cyanobacteria to turn light and water into energy, resulting in the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere and oceans and kickstarting the diversification of life on Earth's habitat.



The MIT scientists, based in the Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, developed a new genetic analysis technique that traced the origin of cyanobacteria back to 2.9 billion years ago.



This evolutionary process began when ancestors of cyanobacteria branched off from other bacteria around 3.4 million years ago, with photosynthesis as we know it arising within the next 500,000 years.



“In evolution, things always start small,” explained study lead author Greg Fournier. “Even though there’s evidence for early oxygenic photosynthesis - which is the single most important and really amazing evolutionary innovation on Earth - it still took hundreds of millions of years for it to take off.”



Fournier explained that variation in results between genetic analysis techniques can have great implications on our perception of evolutionary narratives. The new technique suggests that photosynthesis developed over 500,000 years after the rise of cyanobacteria, while past techniques suggested that the roots appeared far later, with rapid development of photosynthesis following shortly after.



“In order for us to understand the history of habitability on Earth, it’s important for us to distinguish between these hypotheses,” Fournier explained.



The new genetic analysis technique combines both molecular clock dating and horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer essentially concerns the tracking of genes developing from other species, as opposed to traditional ‘vertical’ inheritance.



The method allows researchers to pinpoint timeframes that genes originated from more precisely, helping to determine the relative ages between bacterial groups. This can then be incorporated with traditional molecular clock prediction models.



Essentially, the hybrid analysis technique was used to locate horizontal genetic transfer across cyanobacteria, identifying 34 instances that matched one out of six existing molecular clock models.



Using this model to estimate the age of the origins of cyanobacteria, the team found that the "crown" group of cyanobacteria branched off from other bacteria around 3.4 billion years ago. Ultimately, this indicated that photosynthesis had already been happening for half a billion years, tipping the Earth into the GOE and thus life diversification.



“This work shows that molecular clocks incorporating horizontal gene transfers (HGTs) promise to reliably provide the ages of groups across the entire tree of life, even for ancient microbes that have left no fossil record… something that was previously impossible," said Fournier.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists investigate the origin of photosynthesis

Despite the fact that photosynthesis has been taught in schools...

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli. Quantitative information, such as loud noises, require no special <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mind-diet-slows-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> processing to wake us up. However, qualitative or salient information, like subtle smells or auditory cues, requires additional subconscious processing.&nbsp;



By studying sleep patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-isolation-causes-flies-to-eat-too-much-and-sleep-too-little/">fruit flies</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) have managed for the first time to determine which parts of the brain are involved in salient subconscious processing. While tracking such processing in humans is more difficult due to the complexity of our brains, for fruit flies their entire “connectome” (their neuronal maps) has been defined, making it easier to study their neuronal patterns during sleep.&nbsp;



“Sleep puts you in a vulnerable position, such as being at risk of predation. Therefore, animals, including humans, need to be able to respond to potential threats so that they wake up and act. If it’s a sound, like a loud bang, the processing our brains need to do is relatively simple,” explained lead study author Dr. Alice French, a researcher in the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/life-sciences">Department of Life Sciences</a> at ICL.



“However, to actively decode the sounds and smells around us that may or may not be relevant to us, different parts of the brain must remain alert. Now, in fruit flies, who share more in common with us than you might think, we have discovered one region of the sleeping brain stays awake to process smells.”



The research team tested the response to dozens of odors in well-fed and rested fruit flies, by placing them in tubes and monitoring them with an automatic system able to release odors when detecting that the flies were asleep. They discovered that aversive odors woke the flies up more often than attractive ones. By tracking the neurons involved with fluorescent markers, the scientists managed to map the brain regions responsible for salient processing during sleep.



Moreover, they also tested whether the flies’ response to salient information was fixed or “plastic,” that is, whether it would be different under different circumstances. They found that sleep-deprived or drunk flies were less responsive to odors, while starved flies where more responsive to odors specifically related to foods.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to lead researcher Dr. Giorgio Gilestro, a senior lecturer at ICL, although fruit flies have relatively simple brains, even in their case different species have different patterns of sleep and wakefulness. “Investigating how different animals balance their needs can help us determine the ultimate function of sleep,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03954-w">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify brain areas that remain alert during sleep

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli....

Mercury released into atmosphere through industrial processes enters the seas and oceans and accumulates in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-literally-shrinking-in-the-hudson-bay/">fish</a> in the form of highly toxic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-in-bluefin-tuna-reveal-patterns-of-ocean-pollution/">methylmercury</a>. From there, it easily makes its way into the human food chain, impacting brain development in children and causing cardiovascular disease in adults.&nbsp;



Scientists previously assumed that this harmful chemical enters seawater primarily through precipitation. However, a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html">University of Basel</a> has found that, contrary to this belief, mercury enters the seas and oceans through gas exchanges too.&nbsp;



The 2,000 metric tons of gaseous mercury that are released into the atmosphere each year by coal-fired power stations and mining activities circulate between the air, soil, and water in a more complex fashion than initially thought. By analyzing seawater samples through a new technique known as “fingerprinting” (the measuring of small weight differences between mercury isotopes), scientists managed to distinguish whether specific mercury atoms originate from precipitation or via gas exchanges.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that only about half of the mercury found in the water comes from rainfall, the other half entering the seas and oceans through the uptake of gaseous mercury. &nbsp;“At present, the contribution due to precipitation is probably overestimated,” said Martin Jiskra, a biochemist from the <a href="https://duw.unibas.ch/en">Department of Environmental Sciences</a> at the University of Basel.



Due to these findings, scientists now suspect that mercury uptake by plants makes more of the toxic metal to be deposited on land, where it safely enters the soils, and does not pose a significant health risk to humans.&nbsp;



According to Dr. Jiksra, this crucial discovery is important for the timely implementation of the <a href="https://www.mercuryconvention.org/en">Minamata Convention</a> of 2013, in which 133 countries committed to reduce their mercury emissions. “If less mercury enters the sea via rainfall, a reduction in emissions could cause mercury levels in seawater to drop faster than anticipated,” explained Dr. Jiksra.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03859-8">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rainfall is not the primary source of mercury in the ocean

Mercury released into atmosphere through industrial processes enters the seas...

The current model for explaining the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-depend-on-social-interactions-for-language-development/">language</a> is that human ancestors joined call sounds together in order to increase the chances that the signal’s content would carry over a distance to potential recipients. This model was developed by mathematicians who proposed that the linking together of sounds would effectively convey messages across distances, even if individual elements of the calls became degraded or distorted along the way.&nbsp;



Researchers in the Department of Psychology at University of Warwick set out to test this model. They used recordings of orangutan calls from which they selected consonant-like and vowel-like signals. These were individually broadcast over the rainforest habitat and re-recorded at distances of 25, 50, 75 and 100 meters. The re-recorded sounds were then analyzed for quality and content.&nbsp;



“We used our bank of audio data recordings from our studies of orangutan in Indonesia,” explained Dr. Adriano Lameira, an evolutionary psychologist who led the study. “We selected the clear vowel-like and consonant-like signals and played them out and re-recorded them over measured distances in a rainforest setting."



"The purpose of this study was to look at the signals themselves and understand how they behaved as a package of information. This study is neat because it is only across distance that you can hope to assess this error limit theory - it disregards other aspects of communication like gestures, postures, mannerisms and facial expressions.”



The results showed that, although the quality of signals may degrade over distance, the message carried by the vowel-like and consonant-like signals was retained, even though they were not joined together with other sounds. The informational content of the calls actually remained uncompromised until they became inaudible. This is contrary to the prediction of the current model used to explain the origin of human speech development.



“The results show that these signals seem to be impervious to distance when it comes to encoding information,” explained Dr Lameira.



“It calls into question the existing thinking based on the model set out 20 years ago by Harvard scientists.&nbsp; Their work assumes that the signals that our ancestors were using were reaching an error limit – a moment when a signal is received but stops being meaningful. They concluded that our ancestors linked sounds together to increase the chance of content travelling over distance.”&nbsp;



“We know sound degrades the further away from the source you are. We have all experienced this effect when shouting for your relative or your friend. They don’t hear all the words you say – but they recognize you are talking to them and that it is your voice."



"By using actual great ape communication sounds, which are the closest to those used by our hominid ancestors, we have shown that although the sound package is being distorted and pushed apart, the content remains unaltered. It’s a call to the scientific community to start thinking again about how language evolved.”



Orangutan calls were chosen by Dr. Lameira and his team because their sounds are thought to be the closest to the sounds used as precursors to human language. Orangutans were the first species to diverge from the great ape lineage but are the only great ape that uses vowel and consonant sounds in a complex way.&nbsp;



“We still don’t know what they are referring to, but right now what is completely clear is that the building blocks of language are present. Although other animal sounds and signals are complex, they are not using the same building blocks. We are focused here on the building of language – exactly the component the great apes use. It gives us the parallel to human language," explained Dr. Lameira.



“The Harvard model has been the accepted theory for years and if you ask a mathematician if language origins were still a puzzle they’d say no - but evolutionary psychologists are still working on it. But we haven’t solved the puzzle either - if anything we have just gone deeper down the rabbit hole.”



The results of the study are published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Great ape messages retain their meaning over a distance

The current model for explaining the origin of language is...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97870-87e0f25c8-6f71-4fde-b0a3-51ae780d063e">Scientific Reports</a> suggests that bones recently found on the Isle of Wight belong to two new species of spinosaurids, a type of predatory theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-birds-the-only-dinosaurs-that-survived-on-earth/">dinosaurs</a> closely related to the giant Spinosaurus. Scientists believe that these creatures’ huge crocodile-like skulls allowed them to hunt their prey both on land and in the water.



The only spinosaurid skeleton previously discovered in the UK was found in 1983 in Surrey and belongs to the genus Baryonyx. The newly discovered bones belong to different species, previously unknown to science.&nbsp;



“We found the skulls to differ not only from&nbsp;Baryonyx, but also one another, suggesting the UK housed a greater diversity of spinosaurids than previously thought,” reported lead study author Chris Barker, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton.</a>



The first specimen has been named Ceratosuchops inferodios (“horned crocodile-faced hell heron”), and has a series of low horns in its brow region. As in the case of herons, this dinosaur probably had an eclectic hunting style and a flexible diet, feeding on both aquatic and terrestrial prey. The second one was named Riparovenator milnerae (“Milner’s riverbank hunter”) in the honor of late paleontologist Angela Milner, who had previously studied and named Baryonyx.&nbsp;



The discovery of these dinosaurs on the Isle of Wight was something scientists expected. “We've known for a couple of decades now that&nbsp;Baryonyx-like dinosaurs awaited discovered on the Isle of Wight, but finding the remains of two such animals in close succession was a huge surprise,” said study co-author Darren Naish, an expert in British theropod dinosaurs.



“It might sound odd to have two similar and closely related carnivores in an ecosystem, but this is actually very common for both dinosaurs and numerous living ecosystems,” added study co-author David Hone, a senior lecturer in Zoology at the <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a>.



The scientists estimate that both dinosaurs measured around nine meters in length and had one meter-long ferocious skulls, perfectly evolved for catching and devouring a large variety of prey. With their large rivers housing a varied ecosystem, the Early Cretaceous rocks on the Isle of Wight provided dinosaurs with many hunting opportunities.&nbsp;



“This work has brought together universities, Dinosaur Isle museum and the public to reveal these amazing dinosaurs and the incredibly diverse ecology of the south coast of England 125 million years ago,” concluded project supervisor Dr. Neil J. Gostling.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Image Credit: Anthony Hutchings

Two new predatory dinosaurs found on the Isle of Wight

A new study published in the journal Scientific Reports suggests...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...