Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown.



Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-origins-of-the-wheel">Redefining the origins of the wheel</h2>



A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and compelling insights into this fascinating puzzle.



This discovery represents an exciting development that shatters the conventional timeline, moving it far beyond the previously accepted era of 4000 BC in ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesopotamia</a>.



It was during that period when the wheel was first recognized as an essential tool, initially used in pottery-making and preceding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a> innovation of wheeled vehicles by centuries.



This newfound understanding prompts a reevaluation of how early humans harnessed rotational technology and its transformative impact on the trajectory of human civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-rotational-tools">Development of rotational tools</h2>



The spotlight is now shining on an archaeological discovery in Israel that has potentially rewritten this humble invention’s history and shifted our understanding of early human ingenuity.



Over a hundred perforated pebbles - primarily composed of limestone and bearing a circular shape with a central hole - were unearthed at the Nahal-Ein Gev II site, a location that has already provided valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life.



This extraordinary find represents a key milestone in the development of rotational tools, including our beloved wheel, and emphasizes the sophisticated craftsmanship and resourcefulness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early societies</a>.



It reveals not only the ingenuity behind these tools but also hints at the broader implications for the evolution of technology and innovation in human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invention-of-a-wheel-shaped-tool">Invention of a wheel-shaped tool</h2>



What's astonishing is that these ancient stones date back to approximately 12,000 years, far surpassing any previously known examples. 



Scholars from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> suggest that these stones served as spindle whorls - round weighted objects attached to a spindle stick.



This tool was instrumental in gathering fibers such as wool and spinning them into yarn, demonstrating the human use of rotation with a wheel-shaped tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-wheels-in-form-and-function">The first wheels in form and function </h2>



Professor Leore Grosman emphasized the importance of these artifacts, describing them as early examples of wheel-shaped tools connected to a rotating axle.



"These perforated stones are actually the first wheels in form and function - a round object with a hole in the center connected to a rotating axle, used long before the appearance of the wheel for transportation purposes," said Professor Grosman.



This early use eventually paved the way for more advanced wheel-based rotational inventions, including the renowned potter's wheel and, later, the significantly useful cart wheel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-prehistoric-innovation">Fingerprints of prehistoric innovation</h2>



"The most important aspect of the study is how modern technology allows us to delve deep into touching the fingerprints of the prehistoric craftsman, then learn something new about them and their innovativeness, and at the same time, about our modern technology and how we're linked," noted the researchers.



Their study embodies the "wheel and axle" concept, a revolutionary mechanism that triggered technology's transformation from linear to rotary motion.



The paper concludes that the ancient origins tied to the carts' prominence during the Bronze Age now focus on a much-earlier wheel-shaped tool.



So, the next time you marvel at the complexity of modern machinery, remember its connection to these humble stones from 12,000 years ago, and appreciate the role of human innovation throughout the ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ingenuity-and-innovation">Human ingenuity and innovation</h2>



This discovery not only enriches our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> but also illustrates the seamless progression from simple tools to complex mechanisms.



The spindle whorls unearthed at Nahal-Ein Gev II showcase the fundamental principles of rotational technology, a concept that would eventually lead to the wheel's application in pottery, transportation, and machinery.



By examining these early developments, researchers draw parallels between ancient creativity and modern technology, highlighting the continuous thread of human ingenuity through the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0312007&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plos One</a>.



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Who invented the wheel? It all started with stones

Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown. Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools. Redefining the origins of the wheel A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and...

A new study published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/02698811211064720">Journal of Psychopharmacology</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-treatment-rapidly-relieves-symptoms-of-major-depression/">psilocybin</a> – a psychedelic drug isolated from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-enhance-music-appreciation/">magic mushrooms</a> – can be safely administered at doses of either 10mg or 25mg to up to six participants simultaneously. The researchers also confirmed that psilocybin has the potential to treat a range of mental health conditions, including treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD).



A research team led by <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/">King’s College London</a> and <a href="https://compasspathways.com/">COMPASS Pathways</a> enrolled 89 healthy participants with no recent history of psilocybin use, and offered 60 of them either a 10mg or 25mg dose of psilocybin in a controlled environment. The remaining 29 participants received a placebo, and all 89 were provided with one-to-one support from trained psychotherapists.



Participants were closely monitored for six to eight hours and then followed up for 12 weeks in order to be assessed for possible cognitive and behavioral changes in sustained attention, planning, memory, and emotional processing. During the study, no one withdrew due to adverse effects and no consistent trends suggested that either of the two psilocybin doses had any short- or long-term side effects.



“This study was an early part of our clinical development program for COMP360 psilocybin therapy,” explained Professor Guy Goodwin, the Chief Medical Officer at COMPASS Pathways. “It explored the safety and feasibility of simultaneous psilocybin administration, with 1:1 support, in healthy participants, and provided a strong foundation to which we have now added positive results from our phase IIb trial in 233 patients with TRD, and from our open-label study of patients taking SSRI antidepressants alongside psilocybin therapy. We are looking forward to finalizing plans for our phase III program, which we expect to begin in Q3 2022.”



According to lead author Dr. James Rucker, a psychiatrist and researcher at King’s College London, this rigorous study has demonstrated the feasibility and safety of administering doses of 10mg or 25mg of psilocybin to several persons at once, and showed a significant potential of these psychedelic drugs to be used as a treatment for debilitating mental health problems.&nbsp;



“This therapy has promise for people living with serious mental health problems, like treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and PTSD. They can be extremely disabling, distressing and disruptive, but current treatment options for these conditions are ineffective or partially effective for many people,” he concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psilocybin can safely treat mental health disorders

A new study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology has...

Thanks to an unwitting intervention by Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, 60 years ago, Gilbert’s potoroo – the world’s rarest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-unique-island-ecosystem/">marsupial</a> – was brought back from the brink of extinction. This nocturnal, fungi-loving rat-kangaroo living in Australia has been thought extinct in the 1870s due to invasive predators and extensive hunting by Aboriginal people.&nbsp;



However, a small population of potoroos remained undetected at Two Peoples Bay until 1994. This area remained unspoiled thanks to Prince Philip, who had lobbied for its protection in 1962.



The Two Peoples Bay, a pristine area located 22 miles east of the Western Australian city of Albany, had been selected for housing developments at the beginning of the 1960s. During a visit to Perth in 1962, Prince Philip lobbied Western Australian authorities against the destruction of the bushland surrounding Two Peoples Bay, hoping to save the elusive “noisy scrubbird,” a species of bird also thought to be extinct until the discovery of a small population in 1961.



Following the royal intervention, Western Australian authorities luckily capitulated, calling off construction plans and eventually designating Two Peoples Bay a nature reserve (in 1967). However, nearly three more decades passed until evolutionary biologist Elizabeth Sinclair came across a Gilbert’s potoroo in this area.



At first, she could not quite believe what she had found. “I was going, "nah, surely not." This is the most researched nature reserve in Western Australia,” she said. “Surely they hadn't been sitting here under someone's nose for, you know, 120 years!” However, soon after she stumbled upon two more specimens. And up to date, over 100 potoroos had been spotted in this area.



“Prince Philip, in helping to save Two Peoples Bay, enabled Gilbert's Potoroo to survive undetected - and thought extinct - until its rediscovery in 1994,” said conservation biologist Jackie Courtenay of the<a href="https://www.potoroo.org/">&nbsp;Gilbert's Potoroo Action Group</a>.



Dr. Courtenay and her colleagues hope that more areas can be found where the potoroo can live free from the threat of predators such as snakes and foxes, and with enough of the truffle-like fungi that are their primary food source.



“It really is a beautiful animal. And it would be, for that reason alone, just such a loss if that animal can no longer be in the world,” she added.



--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

World’s rarest marsupial was unwittingly saved by Prince Philip

Thanks to an unwitting intervention by Prince Philip, the Duke...

As life evolved on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-spinning-faster-than-half-a-century-ago/">Earth</a> over the last 2.4 billion years, our planet was probably far less hospitable for long periods of time than expected, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>. Based on advanced computer simulations, the researchers found that, at times, the level of ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the Earth’s surface was up to ten times higher than what was previously estimated.&nbsp;



The study authors note that the last 2.4 billion years represents an important chapter in the development of the biosphere. Significant oxygen levels emerged in the atmosphere, and modern day levels were reached about 400 million years ago. This oxygen gave rise to more complex multicellular organisms and animals.



According to study lead author Gregory Cooke, the findings raise new questions about the evolutionary impact of UV radiation as many forms of life are known to be negatively affected by intense doses of UV radiation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We know that UV radiation can have disastrous effects if life is exposed to too much. For example, it can cause skin cancer in humans. Some organisms have effective defence mechanisms, and many can repair some of the damage UV radiation causes," said Cooke.



“Whilst elevated amounts of UV radiation would not prevent life’s emergence or evolution, it could have acted as a selection pressure, with organisms better able to cope with greater amounts of UV radiation receiving an advantage.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Scientists have speculated for decades that the ozone layer was able to shield life from harmful UV radiation when the level of oxygen in the atmosphere reached about one percent relative to the present atmospheric level. The new study, however, does not support this theory. Through advanced computer modeling, the experts found that the level of 



oxygen needed may have been much higher, perhaps 5&nbsp; to 10 percent of present atmospheric levels. This means that there were periods when UV radiation levels at the Earth’s surface were much greater. The scientists believe that this could have been the case for most of the Earth’s history.&nbsp;



“If our modeling is indicative of atmospheric scenarios during Earth’s oxygenated history, then for over a billion years the Earth could have been bathed in UV radiation that was much more intense than previously believed," said Cooke.&nbsp;



“This may have had fascinating consequences for life’s evolution. It is not precisely known when animals emerged, or what conditions they encountered in the oceans or on land. However, depending on oxygen concentrations, animals and plants could have faced much harsher conditions than today’s world. We hope that the full evolutionary impact of our results can be explored in the future.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Radiation made Earth  uninhabitable for much longer than expected

As life evolved on Earth over the last 2.4 billion...

Research has shown that changing the diet of humans, mice and other creatures can alter their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-orangutans-learn-survival-skills-from-their-mom/">gut</a> microbiomes and thus their health. A new study carried out by researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> and Northern Michigan University looks into this effect among wild bears that eat human food.&nbsp;



“We know a ‘western’ diet can reduce microbial diversity in the guts of humans, mice and other species, which can have an adverse effect on their health," said study co-author Professor Erin McKenney.



"We want to know if the same is true for wildlife, particularly given the increasing overlap between where people live and where wildlife lives. One possibility our work here raises is that if wildlife begin consuming human foods, it may affect their ability to derive as much nutrition from their traditional, wild diet if they stop eating human foods.”



The scientists focused the research efforts on bears being hunted in Michigan. It’s legal to bait bears with sugary human foods in the state.&nbsp;



For weeks or even months, hunters will leave out foods for wild bears to get them accustomed to a specific location for a snack. Thus, by the time the bears are killed, they’ve been eating human food for a prolonged period.&nbsp;



The scientists also recruited hunting guides to collect hair and gut samples from slain bears eating a more "wild" diet.&nbsp;



“Essentially, we found that the more human food black bears eat, and the longer they eat it, the less diverse their gut microbiomes,” explained study first author Sierra Gillman.



The scientists worry that once the process of a wild bear eating human food begins that it may have long term consequences on the gut microbiome and health of the animals.&nbsp;



“Sugar is very easy to digest. Lots of bacteria can consume it. In practical terms, that means processed human foods actually have less food available for bacteria that specialize in breaking down fiber or other microaccessible carbohydrates," said Professor McKenney.



"Those bacterial specialists have trouble competing with the other bacteria for sugar, and their niche in the food web isn’t sustainable if bears don’t eat enough of their traditional diet. We think that’s one of the mechanisms for reducing gut microdiversity."



"And if the gut biodiversity suffers when bears begin consuming more human food, that raises the possibility that it would be more difficult for bears to derive as much nutritional value from non-human foods if they return to a ‘wild’ diet. Basically, it’s not clear how quickly microbial species that break down fiber, etc., would return.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild bears that eat human food lack gut diversity

Research has shown that changing the diet of humans, mice...

Ultra-processed foods are those that have been chemically or physically altered during production, usually using industrial processes. However, say the authors of a recent article published in the <a href="https://gh.bmj.com/">BMJ Global Health</a>, these are not really foods and they deserve to be identified with a specific label warning the public of the dangers associated with consumption.



These foods can be recognized on the shelves because they are marketed as ready-to-eat, contain more than five ingredients and have a long shelf-life. Many are also high in salt, added <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-some-greenlanders-eating-sugar-has-health-benefits/">sugar</a>, and saturated fats. They are foods that cannot be made in the home kitchen because they have been transformed during the manufacturing process and by the addition of various flavorants, emulsifiers, colorants and preservatives.&nbsp;



“The industrial processing, as well as the cocktail of additives, flavors, emulsifiers and colors they contain to give flavor and texture, make the final product hyperpalatable or more appealing and potentially addictive, which in turn leads to poor dietary patterns,” explain the study authors from the global health organization, Vital Strategies.



Many consumers are unaware of the dangers of eating ultra-processed foods, which have been associated with negative health consequences, such as a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, depression and death. And with more than half the total calories consumed in high income countries coming from ultra-processed foods, the authors predict a health crisis unless more aggressive advertising and awareness campaigns are instituted by public health authorities.



The experts state that these foods are “among the most aggressively promoted and marketed products in the world,” with rapidly growing sales in low- and middle-income countries as well.&nbsp;This means that billions of people are likely to be at risk of developing serious health issues unless action is taken to educate and inform the public.&nbsp;



Research conducted by the authors in Colombia and Brazil&nbsp;indicates that while people might recognize that these products are harmful, they also associate them with positive outcomes, such as satisfying cravings, being tasty and bringing joy. The authors suggest that this may be the result of “decades of persuasive marketing by the food industry.”&nbsp;



They call for governments and public health organizations to respond with education and advertising programs that directly link these products to serious ill health. Just as labels on the front of tobacco products warn smokers of potential health risks, labels on ultra-processed foods would go a long way in informing consumers of the risks they take by using these products.&nbsp;



“It’s time to invest in establishing the negative brand identity that ultra-processed foods and beverages deserve. We could start by taking lessons learnt from tobacco control to build public awareness and campaigns that reveal the true nature of these products and the looming threat to consumers’ health,” they write.



The success of tobacco control offers a useful lesson in how to tackle this major health threat, they say. It’s a shining example of “huge policy wins and strong public understanding of the consequences of consuming a dangerous product,” they explain.&nbsp;“Much of this success is a result of using tried and tested marketing techniques, coupled with a faithful adherence to the science of tobacco’s harms.”&nbsp;



The authors conclude: “If we are to stave off the devastation to our food system and our health, governments, with the support of the global public health community, need to urgently implement effective strategies that lead to decreasing consumption of these unhealthy products and enable healthier choices.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Action needed to expose the dangers of ultra-processed foods

Ultra-processed foods are those that have been chemically or physically...

A new study from <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a> suggests that changing trends in baby names are driven by a battle between the desire to stand out and the need to fit in. According to the researchers, the study demonstrates that motives to conform and to be unique interact to produce complex and unpredictable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-giraffes-have-social-connections-beyond-their-own-community/">social dynamics</a>.



“I am curious about everything, but I am clueless about popular social trends,” said Russell Golman, associate professor in the Social and Decision Sciences Department at CMU. “My interest was sparked by thinkers in the field of complex systems who study non-equilibrium dynamics in the economy and society.”



The researchers developed a mathematical model to understand why the most popular baby names are always shifting. Professor Golman was curious what factors could be applied to such a model to drive behavior out of what ultimately becomes a steady pattern of change instead of equilibrium.



“I wanted to use math to describe two conflicting motives - wanting to fit in and wanting to stand out at the same time. They push you in opposite directions but you can want both things.”



Professor Golman noted that while the desire to fit in would drive behavior toward the median of the group, the desire to stand out would drive behavior away from the most popular baby names. “Put them together, and they still lead to equilibrium.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



To break away from equilibrium, the researchers factored in social networks. According to Professor Golman, these networks include communities, neighbors, colleagues, clubs, and other social groups, but not necessarily social media.&nbsp;



“It was surprising that social networks could make such a big difference,” said Professor Golman. “We modeled the dynamics with a lot of different networks, and not converging to equilibrium is actually pretty typical.”



To test the new model, PhD student Erin Bugbee used the large database of baby names managed by the Social Security Administration for the last century. The analysis revealed an interesting pattern. When the popularity of one name, such as Emily, peaked - parents tended to move on to a similar one, like Emma.&nbsp;



This strategy allows parents to choose a baby name that is socially acceptable by its similarity to the popular name, but will also stand out in a crowd as being unique.



The study authors concluded that an understanding of both social psychology and social network structure are necessary to explain the emergence of unpredictable cultural trends.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/rev">Psychological Review</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby names: the desire to stand out meets a need to fit in

A new study from Carnegie Mellon University suggests that changing...

The critical importance of protecting and restoring tropical ecosystems was a major focus of the recent UN Climate Change Conference (COP26). In order to makes positive strides in the right direction, however, scientists must first gain a better understanding of how much carbon dioxide is actually released during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">deforestation</a>, and how much is absorbed as forests recover.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) is shedding new light on this complex subject. The research was based on measurements of forest carbon storage in Panama.



Ultimately, the results of the study will reduce the uncertainty of mathematical models that are used to predict the extent of carbon dioxide emissions associated with deforestation. According to the researchers, their work also highlights the amazing capacity of young, regenerating or secondary forests to pull CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"In 2014, the government of Panama created the “Alianza por el Millón” (Alliance for a Million), a government partnership bringing together business, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions and other organizations to reforest one million hectares," wrote the study authors.



"These efforts are advancing in recognition that vast areas of the world could be reforested, thereby making significant inroads to combating climate change."



The study analyzed the outcomes of various deforestation scenarios based on: recent deforestation trends, rates of deforestation calculated in the decades prior to 2000, and more optimistic scenarios in which deforestation is completely stopped or where forests regenerate on all available land.



“Panama has been making strides to calculate both the carbon sequestration potential in its forests and emissions due to forest loss,” said study lead author and STRI staff scientist Jefferson Hall. “Scenarios can help decision makers better anticipate the potential consequences of alternative sets of land-use decisions, which have a significant impact on Panama’s climate mitigation strategy.”



The experts calculated deforestation rates based on maps of existing forest cover in Panama that were created by study co-author Kendra Walker.&nbsp;



The research team, which included scientists from the Harvard Forest, also used a Panama-wide carbon density map that was produced using the airborne laser technology LiDAR.



The study showed that at the current rate of deforestation, central Panama could still store about 15 percent of the national carbon goals by 2050. In a scenario where deforestation was completely stopped in central Panama and the forest could naturally regenerate, the country could achieve up to 56 percent of its goal.



By contrast, an accelerated rate of deforestation would cause Panama to lose almost half of its forests and up to 25 percent of its carbon baseline by the middle of the century.



According to the experts, meeting Panama’s carbon sequestration goals will require a combination of active reforestation and allowing passive natural processes of forest succession to take place.&nbsp;



“Our estimates of potential carbon storage demonstrate the important contribution of secondary forests to land-based carbon storage in central Panama,” said Hall. “Protecting these forests will contribute significantly to meeting Panama’s climate change mitigation goals and enhancing water security.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10980">Landscape Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical forests are critical for reaching climate goals

The critical importance of protecting and restoring tropical ecosystems was...

Venus is sometimes referred to as Earth’s sister <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-free-floating-planets-found-in-the-milky-way/">planet</a> because of its similar mass and size, and scientists have speculated for decades about the potential presence of life on the planet. Local and remote observations of the physical and chemical attributes of the planet over the past 50 years have led to greater knowledge but have also identified anomalies that perplex scientists to this day.&nbsp;



Unlike many planets, Venus has an atmosphere. However, this is composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and the greenhouse effect of this gas leads to extremely high temperatures on the planet. The surface of Venus is approximately 700 K, which is way too hot to allow any life to exist there.&nbsp;



Instead, scientists speculate that life may be able to exist at the Earth-like temperatures and pressures found in the clouds at altitudes of 48–60 km above the surface. Although these temperatures and pressures sound habitable for life forms, the prevailing consensus is that the clouds of Venus are made from droplets of concentrated sulfuric acid, which would make them totally inhospitable.&nbsp;



However, in a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a> proposes that the clouds at these altitudes around Venus are not made entirely of sulfuric acid. Instead, their model suggests that the cloud droplets contain ammonium salts which may be the result of the biological production of ammonia gas (NH3).



Scientists have long been puzzled by the presence of NH3 in the atmosphere of Venus; this is a gas that was tentatively detected in the 1970s and that by all accounts should not be produced through any chemical process known on Venus. The scientists were guided by the in-situ observations of NH3 in the Venus cloud layers, both from Venera 8 chemical assay and from the Pioneer Venus probe mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



The new model suggests that, if NH3 is present and forms ammonia salts within cloud droplets, it would have the effect of reducing the acidity of these droplets from a pH of -11 to a pH of between -1 and 1. This would be in the range that is tolerable to acidophile bacteria in certain environments on Earth. Furthermore, there are lifeforms on Earth that produce ammonia in order to neutralize and make livable otherwise highly acidic environments.



“We know that life can grow in acid environments on Earth, but nothing as acid as the clouds of Venus were believed to be. But if something is making ammonia in the clouds, then that will neutralize some of the droplets, making them potentially more habitable,” said study co-author Dr. William Bains from Cardiff University’s School of Physics and Astronomy.



This suggestion also helps to explain several long-standing mysterious features of the Venusian atmosphere, which have not been well explained by previous atmospheric chemistry models. For example, there is a uniform distribution of water vapor through the cloud layers, while the concentration of sulfur dioxide decreases as altitude increases. Unidentified large particles or unknown origin are present in the lower cloud layers. Another mystery is the presence of oxygen (O2) in the clouds – there is no known process for O2 formation in the cloud layers.



The scientists modeled the series of chemical processes that could take place in the clouds if NH3 gas were present and found that O2 would be produced naturally as a consequence of these reactions. Furthermore, once present in the clouds, NH3 would dissolve in the sulfuric acid in the cloud droplets, effectively neutralizing the acid and making them more habitable to living organisms.&nbsp;



The introduction of ammonia into the droplets would transform their formerly round, liquid shape into more of a non-spherical, salt-like slurry. Once ammonia dissolved in sulfuric acid, the reaction would trigger any surrounding sulfur dioxide to dissolve as well, which may explain the change in concentration gradient of sulfur dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere.



The new model involving the presence of ammonia gas would thus explain most of the major anomalies seen in Venus’ clouds.&nbsp;



But what is the origin of this ammonia gas? The researchers show that sources such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, and even a meteorite strike could not produce the amount of ammonia required to explain the anomalies. They therefore conclude that it might be produced by living organisms that are present in the outer clouds and that make the cloud droplets more habitable for themselves by producing ammonia.



“Ammonia shouldn’t be on Venus,” said study co-author Professor Sara Seager, from MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS). “It has hydrogen attached to it, and there’s very little hydrogen around. Any gas that doesn’t belong in the context of its environment is automatically suspicious for being made by life.”



“There are many other challenges for life to overcome if it is to live in the clouds of Venus,” said Dr. Bains. “There is almost no water there for a start, and all life that we know of needs water. But if life is there, then neutralizing the acid will make the clouds just a bit more habitable than we thought.”



Scientists may have a chance to check for the presence of ammonia, and signs of life, in the next several years with the Venus Life Finder Missions. These privately funded missions, of which Seager is principal investigator, <a href="https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2F74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me%2FL0%2Fhttps%3A%252F%252Fnews.mit.edu%252F2021%252Fnewer-nimbler-faster-mission-venus-search-signs-life-clouds-sulfuric-acid-1210%2F1%2F0102017dd80c76b9-f937d43a-d6ae-46b3-9efb-532d338e5b6a-000000%2FiLRK45R4zkCwsT4ILlixp-T5etM%3D249&amp;data=04%7C01%7Cbishopm1%40cardiff.ac.uk%7Cf1bd5d5378b647a28d8b08d9c3bd5f80%7Cbdb74b3095684856bdbf06759778fcbc%7C1%7C0%7C637756041190252802%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C2000&amp;sdata=nIRaMsMSOwZKEmDw2DLNWrI%2BblbgLtfLVs9yxSPJJbs%3D&amp;reserved=0">plan to send spacecraft to Venus</a>&nbsp;to measure its clouds for ammonia and other signatures of life.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Living organisms may be transforming the clouds around Venus

Venus is sometimes referred to as Earth’s sister planet because...

In a recent study from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a>, researchers found that domestic cats are driving the spread of a potentially deadly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/debilitating-human-parasite-is-spread-to-dogs-through-fish/">parasite</a> to wildlife in urban areas.&nbsp;



The Toxoplasma gondii parasite is found worldwide. The disease caused by the parasite, toxoplasmosis, has been linked to cancer, nervous system disorders, and other debilitating conditions.



The parasite infects basically all warm-blooded animals, but domestic cats and other felids are the only hosts that can facilitate sexual reproduction.



The UBC study is the first to investigate the spread of Toxoplasma among many wildlife species on a global scale. According to the researchers, their results demonstrate how healthy ecosystems can protect against these types of pathogens.



Led by Dr. Amy Wilson, the team investigated 45,079 cases of toxoplasmosis in wild mammals using data from 202 global studies. The analysis revealed that wildlife living near dense urban areas were more likely to be infected.



"As increasing human densities are associated with increased densities of domestic cats, our study suggests that free-roaming domestic cats - whether pets or feral cats - are the most likely cause of these infections," said Dr. Wilson.



"This finding is significant because by simply limiting free roaming of cats, we can reduce the impact of Toxoplasma on wildlife."



The experts report that one infected cat can excrete as many as 500 million Toxoplasma eggs in just two weeks. These eggs can persist for years in water and soil, maintaining the ability to infect humans and other mammals.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While the parasite usually remains dormant and harmless, it can cause serious illness and even death in an animal with a compromised immune system.



Dr. Wilson said the study highlights the way healthy forests, streams and other ecosystems can filter out dangerous pathogens like Toxoplasma.



"We know that when wetlands are destroyed or streams are restricted, we are more likely to experience runoff that carries more pathogens into the waters where wild animals drink or live,"said Dr. Wilson. And when their habitats are healthy, wildlife thrives and tends to be more disease-resistant."



"There is a growing recognition among forest science professionals and other groups that protecting biodiversity and the ecosystems it supports is an efficient and economical approach to reducing disease transfer between wildlife, domestic animals and humans. Conservation is really preventative medicine in action."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cats are spreading the Toxoplasma parasite in urban areas

In a recent study from the University of British Columbia,...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41588-021-00971-3">Nature Genetics</a> has found that lychees have been grown in China since ancient times, with records of their cultivation dating back to 2,000 years ago. In fact, this radiant and flavorful fruit seemed to have been so highly esteemed by ancient Chinese that it was domesticated twice, in two different regions of the country.



Lychee is a tropical agricultural crop in the&nbsp;Sapindaceae family (including also maples and horse chestnuts). It is one of the most widespread fruit crops in Eastern Asia, and is becoming increasingly famous even in the United States, where it is often found as a flavorful ingredient in bubble gum, cocktails, or ice creams.



In this recent study, scientists used genomic analysis to peer deeper into the lychee’s history. “By sequencing and analyzing wild and cultivated lychee varieties, we were able to trace the origin and domestication history of lychee. We demonstrated that extremely early- and late-maturing cultivars were derived from independent human domestication events in Yunnan and Hainan, respectively,” explained study senior author Jianguo Li, a professor at the <a href="https://english.scau.edu.cn/">South China Agricultural University</a>.



The results suggest that wild lychees originated in the Yunnan province of southwestern China, spread east and south to Hainan Island, and then were domesticated independently in each of these two regions. According to the scientists, the evolutionary split between lychee populations in Yunnan and Hainan probably occurred around 18,000 years ago.



Besides shedding new light on the history of lychee plants, the study also provides an in-depth look at flowering time, a crucial trait in agriculture. “Early-maturing lychees versus late-maturing lychees came from different places and were domesticated independently,” said senior co-author Victor Albert, an evolutionary biologist at the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo</a>. “This, by itself, is an interesting story, but we also wanted to know what causes these differences: Why do these varieties fruit and flower at different times?”



By comparing the DNA of several lychee varieties, Professor Albert and his colleagues have discovered a genetic variant (a chunk of missing DNA) that can now be used to create a simple test for identifying early- versus late-blooming lychee plants. Yunnan varieties that bloom early appear to have this genetic deletion, while Hainan varieties that mature late do not have it at all.&nbsp;



“This is very useful for breeders. Because the lychee is perishable, flowering times have been important to extending the season for which the lychee is available in markets,” Albert concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic testing sheds new light on lychee plants

A new study published in the journal Nature Genetics has...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04241-4">Nature</a> has described kinship practices from the Early Neolithic Britain, as revealed through the analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> found in one of the best-preserved Neolithic tombs in Britain, located at the Hazleton North long cairn in the Cotswolds-Severn region. This is the first study to explore in such detail how prehistoric families were structured and to provide insight into kinship and burial practices in Neolithic times.



By analyzing DNA extracted from the bones and teeth of 35 individuals entombed at the Hazleton North cairn, scientists found that 27 of them were close biological relatives. The group lived approximately 5,700 years ago, about 100 years after farming practices were introduced in Britain. Most of those buried there were descended from four women who all had children with the same male.&nbsp;



"The excellent DNA preservation at the tomb and the use of the latest technologies in ancient DNA recovery and analysis allowed us to uncover the oldest family tree ever reconstructed and analyze it to understand something profound about the social structure of these ancient groups," said study lead geneticist Iñigo Olalde of the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en">University of the Basque Country</a>.



The researchers discovered that men were generally buried together with their father and brothers, indicating that descent was patrilinear. The complete absence of adult daughters from the tomb suggests that they may have been placed in the tombs of male partners with whom they had children.&nbsp;



However, the choice of whether individuals were buried in the northern or southern room of the two-chambered tomb seemed to have initially depended on the first-generation woman from whom they were descended, suggesting that such women were highly significant in the collective memory of this community.



There are also indications that “stepsons” (males whose mother but not biological father was buried in the tomb) were adopted into the lineage. Moreover, since there was no evidence that eight individuals were biological relatives of those in the family tree, biological relativeness may not have been the only criterion for inclusion.



&nbsp;"It was difficult to imagine just a few years ago that we would ever know about Neolithic kinship structures,” said study co-author Ron Pinhasi, an expert in Biological Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>. “But this is just the beginning and no doubt there is a lot more to be discovered from other sites in Britain, Atlantic France, and other regions."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neolithic tomb reveals ancient burial practices

A new study published in the journal Nature has described...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca">McGill University</a> and the <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/neuro/fr">Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital</a> (The Neuro), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/year-three-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-the-pandemic/">pandemic</a>-related worries have a negative impact on cognitive abilities and can significantly alter risk perception, at a time when making the right health choices is critically important.



Researchers surveyed over 1,500 Americans online from April to June, 2020 and asked them to rate their level of worry about the COVID-19 pandemic and, afterwards, to complete a set of psychological tests to measure their basic cognitive abilities, such as processing and remembering information. The results were compared with similar data collected before the pandemic.



The scientists found that participants who experienced more pandemic-related worry had reduced information processing speed and capacity to retain information needed in order to perform specific tasks, as well as lower ability to maintain goals in mind. Overall, they performed more poorly on simple cognitive tasks than participants from the pre-pandemic group.



Furthermore, the study results suggest that pandemic-related worries increased people’s tendency to distort described risk levels, such as underweighting likely probabilities and overweighting unlikely probabilities. Thus, worries can significantly affect people’s decision-making capacity, often causing them to take wrong decisions (such as not to get vaccinated, for instance).



“The basic cognitive abilities measured here are crucial for healthy daily living and decision-making,” explained study lead author Kevin da Silva Castanheira, a graduate student in Psychology at McGill. 



“The impairments associated with worry observed here suggest that under periods of high stress, like a pandemic, our ability to think, plan, an evaluate risks is altered. Understanding these changes are critical as managing stressful situations often relies on these abilities.”&nbsp;



“The impact of stress and of worry on cognitive function are well known, but are typically studied in laboratory settings,” added study co-author Dr. Madeleine Sharp, a researcher and neurologist at The Neuro. 



“Here, we were able to extend these findings by studying the effects of a real-world stressor in a large sample. An important future direction will be to examine why some people are more sensitive than others to stress and to identify coping strategies that help to protect from the effects of stress.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0260061">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic-related worries diminish cognitive skills

According to a new study led by McGill University and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...