Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

The short-tailed albatross is a rare seabird that travels across the open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a>. It is a vulnerable species that nearly became extinct in the 1880’s from hunting. Conservation efforts resulted in exponential population growth in recent decades.



A new study has uncovered more than 4,000 years’ worth of foraging behavior among&nbsp;short-tailed albatrosses. For the investigation, the researchers analyzed archived isotopes and samples of the bird dating as far back as 2300 BCE.



The findings show long-term patterns in foraging behavior and demonstrate how individual birds foraged the same localized sites for thousands of years, despite the vast foraging range across the Pacific coastline and open ocean.



This behavior is a demonstration of long-term individual foraging site fidelity (LT-IFSF), which is considered a risk in areas that are impacted by human activity. The study focused on two locations close to Yuquot, Canada, and compared findings to sites in the USA, Russia and Japan.&nbsp;



“Understanding migratory behavior is critical for global biodiversity restoration because it helps identify vulnerable regions for environmental protection," said study co-author Dr. Eric Guiry of the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a>.



“Although evidence for the extent and depth of LT-IFSF across other species is still emerging, the extreme distances and time scale of the behaviour seen here indicates that this foraging strategy may be a fundamental, density-driven adaptation that could become widespread again as recovering animal populations reach pre-industrial levels.”



The researchers examined stable carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions in samples of bone collagen, which can demonstrate the foods consumed over the last few years of an individual’s life. This allowed the experts to identify trends in diet and migration patterns among albatrosses.



By mapping these biological markers linked to factors such as sea surface temperature and CO2, the researchers began to piece together the migratory and foraging behavior of the short-tailed albatross over hundreds of generations.



This behavior is no longer observed among these birds. The hyper-specialized foraging in specific locations disappeared after the birds were hunted to near extinction in the 1880s.



“We think this behavior could be driven by competition among birds, meaning that, as the population recovers, we could see it re-emerge," said Dr. Guiry. "This kind information is important because it provides advanced warning that monitoring for this remarkable behaviour, which can make the birds more vulnerable to human impacts, may need close attention.



One interesting take away from the study was a positive one. The research team found that Indigenious communities of Yuquot were harvesting these birds for thousands of years, with little impact on their population.



“Not only does this tell us something about the long-term sustainability of Indigenous marine resource use at Yuquot, it provides a clear example of how people and the short-tailed albatross can co-exist.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study uncovers 4,000 years of foraging behavior among albatrosses

The short-tailed albatross is a rare seabird that travels across...

Starting April 17, 2022, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Jupiter will appear diagonally aligned in the pre-dawn sky, offering viewers a rare celestial spectacle. While in the northern hemisphere, the planets will be most visible in the south-east on the early morning of April 20, close to the rising sun, in the southern hemisphere they will be visible further east and at a steeper angle. Previously, these four planets aligned in 2005, 2016, and 2020.&nbsp;



“Sunrise will creep ever earlier as the days progress, so it is best to view this alignment sooner rather than later,” advised Jake Forster, an astronomy education officer at the Royal Museums Greenwich. “The tricky part will be catching the planets in the relatively short space of time between when they rise above the horizon and when the Sun follows after them. This allows us a window of time between 5 and 6am BST most mornings from April 20 onwards to view the planets in a neat line across the sky.”&nbsp;



The planets will be easy to spot with the naked eye, and can be distinguished by variations in color and brightness. “Venus will be noticeably the brightest of all four planets, shining a bright white light. Jupiter will be the second brightest, also shining white in color. Saturn will be clearly fainter than the other three, due to its much further distance from the Sun. Mars will have the most distinctive difference from the others because of its coloration, appearing as a bright orange point of light to the naked eye,” explained Forster.



Although the planets will appear to be close to one another when observed from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-emerged-on-earth-earlier-than-previously-thought/">Earth</a>, they are in fact millions of miles apart during an alignment. Moreover, according to Christopher S. Baird, an assistant professor of Physics at <a href="https://www.wtamu.edu/">West Texas A&amp;M University</a>, planetary alignment strongly depends on our viewpoint, and is thus not something fundamental about the planets themselves. In fact, planets never line up perfectly in a straight line.



“If you look at a two-dimensional plot of the planets and their orbits on a piece of paper you may be led to believe that all the planets will circle around to the same line eventually. In reality, the planets do not all orbit perfectly in the same plane. Instead, they swing about on different orbits in three-dimensional space. For this reason, they will never be perfectly aligned,” explained Professor Baird.



Nonetheless, until the end of April, people from all over the world can enjoy&nbsp;this rare and beautiful astronomical event, in preparation for an even more spectacular alignment that will occur on June 24, when all the other planets in our solar system (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) will align in the same region of the pre-dawn sky.&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

April’s night sky is set for a spectacular planetary alignment

Starting April 17, 2022, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Jupiter will...

The seafloor seems to be getting sluggish, according to a new study published by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> (AGU). The researchers analyzed the last 19 million years of seafloor spreading rates and discovered a slowing trend.



In a process that is driven by plate tectonics, new oceanic crust continuously develops along rifts that are thousands of miles long on the seafloor.&nbsp;



As subduction destroys the old crust, new rifts open up and draw hot crust toward the surface. Once here, the crust cools and gets pushed away from the rift as it is replaced by hotter crust.



This continuous cycle, which is known as seafloor spreading, influences major planetary processes such as the carbon cycle and sea level rise. Higher rates of seafloor spreading are associated with more volcanic activity, including the release of greenhouse gases. It is important to understand this rate in order to predict how it may impact Earth's atmosphere.



"The question of whether the speeds of tectonic plates vary over time is controversial but has big-picture implications for our understanding of the forces inside the Earth that drive the plates, the role of volcanoes in controlling climate change over millions of years, and the rise and fall of sea level," explained the researchers.



According to the study, spreading rates today top out at around 140 millimeters per year, but peaked at around 200 millimeters per year just 15 million years ago in some places.



The researchers say it is a complex problem to solve, made more difficult by the seafloor’s slow and steady self-destruction.



“We know more about the surfaces of some other planets than we do our own seafloor,” said Colleen Dalton, a geophysicist at Brown University who led the new study. “One of the challenges is the lack of perfect preservation. The seafloor is destroyed, so we’re left with an incomplete record.”



Dalton and her colleagues analyzed magnetic records for 18 of the world’s largest spreading ridges to calculate how much ocean crust each ridge has produced over the last 19 million years. Some of the ridges had lengthened, some had shrunk, but almost all of them had slowed down.&nbsp;



Overall, the average rate of seafloor spreading was found to be reduced by up to 40 percent. The researchers say that the slower rates may be driven by subduction zones rather than spreading ridges.



“Think of it as increased friction between the two colliding tectonic plates,” said Dalton. “A slowdown in convergence there could ultimately cause a slowdown in spreading at nearby ridges.”  



However, Dalton pointed out, this added friction could not be the only driver of the slowdown, because she found slowing rates globally and mountain growth is regional. This means that larger-scale processes may also be playing a role. In all likelihood, she said, it’s a combination of both.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seafloor spreading has slowed down worldwide

The seafloor seems to be getting sluggish, according to a...

Scientists now have a more accurate method to measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate change</a> thanks to a group of researchers who have discovered a way to include additional information about tropical deforestation in climate models.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Using computer simulations is a popular way for climate researchers to estimate what the planet will look like as our Earth warms. However, to get the most accurate predictions, scientists must be able to include numerous factors.&nbsp;



Some of these factors include the extent that sunlight will warm the planet and how the forests will respond to hotter, drier conditions. The more details they can include, the more reliable a climate model becomes.&nbsp;



One factor that has been difficult to incorporate is how deforestation in tropical rainforests, including the Amazon and the Congo, will affect climate change.



Led by scientists from the University of California, Irvine, the research team was able to calculate the current impact of tropical rainforest deforestation by using models already in place. Then, they looked at satellite images of forest biomass to gauge how nearby forest communities responded to deforestation. The results may not surprise you.&nbsp;



“This paper shows that avoiding deforestation yields carbon benefits in nearby regions as a consequence of climate feedbacks," explained Jim Randerson, UCI professor of Earth System Science.



According to the researchers, when a single patch of the Amazon rainforest is cleared, there is an additional 5.1 percent loss of biomass in the entire Amazon basin. In the Congo, the additional loss is 3.8 percent.&nbsp;



Study co-author Professor Paulo Brando explained why this happens: “Deforestation has ramifications to forests growing elsewhere, because its consequences to the region’s air temperature and precipitation.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now that researchers have uncovered the wide-ranging negative ramifications of tropical deforestation, climate scientists hope that policymakers will be able to make stronger arguments for why it’s best to avoid deforestation. At the very least, climate scientists now have another tool to help them create more effective solutions to fight global climate change.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation causes biomass loss beyond directly affected areas

Scientists now have a more accurate method to measure climate...

Genetic changes – known as somatic mutations - occur in all cells throughout the lifespan of an organism. While most of these mutations are harmless, some of them can impair normal cell functioning or even start a cell on the path to cancer. Since the 1950s, scientists have speculated that these mutations may also play a role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speaking-multiple-languages-slows-down-brain-aging/">aging</a> processes. However, due to technological limitations, they could not properly test this hypothesis.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> has analyzed the genomes of 16 mammal species - ranging from mice, rats, and rabbits to horses, tigers, and giraffes - in order to shed more light on the role of these genetic changes in ageing. They found that, despite huge variations in lifespan and size, different animal species tend to end their natural life with surprisingly similar numbers of somatic mutations. However, the results suggest that the longer the lifespan of a species, the slower the rate at which the mutations occur, thus lending support to the hypothesis that somatic mutations may play a crucial role in ageing.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“To find a similar pattern of genetic changes in animals as different from one another as a mouse and a tiger was surprising. But the most exciting aspect of the study has to be finding that lifespan is inversely proportional to the somatic mutation rate,” said study lead author Alex Cagan, a postdoctoral researcher on somatic evolution at the Wellcome Institute.



“This suggests that somatic mutations may play a role in ageing, although alternative explanations may be possible. Over the next few years, it will be fascinating to extend these studies into even more diverse species, such as insects or plants.”



“Animals often live much longer in zoos than they do in the wild, so our vets’ time is often spent dealing with conditions related to old age. The genetic changes identified in this study suggest that diseases of old age will be similar across a wide range of mammals, whether old age begins at seven months or 70 years, and will help us keep these animals happy and healthy in their later years,” added study co-author Simon Spiro, a wildlife veterinary pathologist at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a>.



Nevertheless, understanding the exact causes of ageing remains an unsolved question. Although somatic mutations appear to play a fundamental role in ageing, other processes such as protein aggregation and epigenetic changes are also likely to contribute to the molecular damage in our cells and tissues that is a well-known marker of old age. Further research is needed to compare the rates of all of these processes across species with different lifespans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04618-z">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mutations in animals shed new light on the process of aging

Genetic changes – known as somatic mutations - occur in...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a> in Australia and the <a href="https://www.iea.org/">International Energy Agency</a> in France, there is only a 10 percent chance of limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels (the aim initially set at the Paris Agreement in 2015). However, the pledges made at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> climate summit from 2021 to keep warming below 2°C may still be feasible, “if all conditional and unconditional pledges are implemented in full and on time,” as the experts who conducted the study put it.



The scientists analyzed inventory data and climate targets of 196 countries from the time of the Paris Agreement to the COP26 summit, and used computer modelling to predict various climate change scenarios. They found that, although it will be nearly impossible to reach the climate change mitigation targets set at the Paris Agreement, global warming could still be kept at a reasonable value (between 1.9°C and 2°C) if nations stick to the promises that they made last year in Glasgow.



“Our results provide a reason to be optimistic: warming could be limited to 2°C or just below, if the pledges on the table are implemented in full and on time,” wrote the study authors. “Peaking of global greenhouse gas emissions could be achieved this decade. But our results also provide a sobering assessment of how far current pledges are from limiting warming to 1.5°C. Commitments made so far, especially for this decade, fall far short of what is required to limit temperature rise to 1.5°C.”&nbsp;



The researchers argued that countries with net-zero targets should attempt to bring their net-zero dates forward or even aim for net-negative targets.&nbsp;Any delays in reversing the upward trend of greenhouse emissions, phasing out the widespread use of fossil fuels, and developing sustainable options could lead to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ipcc-report-can-we-save-the-planet-from-climate-catastrophe/">climate catastrophe</a> in the near future.



As environmental scientists Zeke Hausfather and Frances Moore concluded in an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00874-1">accompanying commentary</a>, “long-term targets should be treated with skepticism if they are not supported by short-term commitments to put countries on a pathway in the next decade to meet those targets.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04553-z">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Limiting global warming to 1.5°C is out of reach

According to a new study led by the University of...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has found that <a href="https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/21939">Pantoea stewartii</a> - a species of bacteria that infect corn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-grass-could-protect-crops-against-deadly-pathogens/">crops</a> and cause a disease prevalent in the central and northeastern United States called Stewart’s wilt - can compel their host to produce a large amount of nutrients that keeps the bacteria alive long before they infect and start killing the plants’ cells. Moreover, the study revealed that these pathogens not only generate food in the crops they infect, but also force plants to produce life-sustaining water that will further release nutrients and help the bacteria thrive.



“No one has shown before that a dynamic flow of nutrients from plant to bacteria supports proliferation of the bacteria during the initial stages of infection. Our findings reveal a bacterial feeding frenzy,”&nbsp;said study lead author David Mackey, a professor of Horticulture and Crop Science at OSU.



According to Professor Mackey and his colleagues, P.stewartii contains a bacterial virulence factor (a protein called WtsE) that initiates the mobilization of food and water into spaces where the bacteria resides. In the fields, corn flee beetles carry and deposit these bacteria in wound sites that the beetles create while feeding on crop stems and leaves. After infecting the plants, the bacteria initially parasitize the host cells and multiply dramatically, before starting to kill the plant cells (a process called “biotrophy”).



“There have been no targeted efforts to control nutrient availability as a means to control&nbsp;Pantoea stewartii, or other plant pathogenic bacteria that rely on proteins similar to WtsE for their virulence,” said Professor Mackey. “This opens up an opportunity for us to look at the mechanism of how WtsE accomplishes this. How is it manipulating the plant cells?”



By infiltrating maize seedlings with a massive dose of the infectious bacteria, the researchers found that the WtsE proteins are transported from the bacteria to plant cells, suppressing the plant’s immunity and promoting availability of water and nutrients in the plant’s apoplast (a relatively dry compartment from the interior of plant tissue). The proteins cause water to accumulate in the apoplast and create nutrients that function as sources of nitrogen and carbon for the bacteria, helping it thrive and multiply.



“It’s not like the bacteria arrived and ate what was already available. Plants are relinquishing sources of carbon and nitrogen into the apoplast, where they are assimilated by the bacteria. Additionally, the plant metabolic networks respond to the depletion by making more of those compounds. It’s a really dynamic process and the WtsE effector drives that process,” concluded Professor Mackey.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2022.03.017">Cell Host &amp; Microbe</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria force the plants they infect to feed them

A recent study led by the Ohio State University (OSU)...

The black rhinoceros is already critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-shark-species-secretly-added-to-pet-food/">endangered</a>, largely as a result of hunting by those collecting horns for nonsensical traditional "medicine." Now, new research shows that the threat to the survival of black rhinos as a species may be even greater than we realized.&nbsp;



The study, carried out by researchers from Kenya as well as the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a>, looks at reproductive variability in black rhinos and suggests that poaching poses a greater threat than previously understood.



“Preventing population declines is a crucial step for stopping biodiversity loss. In this study, we identified how losing key rhinos can make small populations very vulnerable, which can help us design more effective conservation actions," said study co-author Professor Susanne Shultz.



The basics of the study revolves around the fact that among rhinos and most animals, some individuals create more offspring than average. This means that if a super reproductive female rhino is killed, it’s significantly more detrimental than the death of a less reproductive animal.&nbsp;



The study shows that this reproductive variance, along with poaching, increases the threat of extinction by as much as 70 percent. The findings highlight the urgent need for greater action to protect the black rhinoceros before it’s too late.&nbsp;



“This study shows that poaching has effects on rhinos beyond the death of targeted individuals. The deaths of healthy females that would have gone on to produce lots of calves can make whole populations more vulnerable to extinction," said study lead author Dr. Nick Harvey Sky.



The research was carried out using meticulous data on black rhinos collected by Kenyan scientists and wildlife managers that carefully monitor the animals for their conservation. This study shows the importance not only of populations but also of individuals for conservation.&nbsp;



“For me, our study really highlights a deadly combination of small populations, individual differences, and poaching for vulnerable populations," said study co-author Dr. John Jackson. "When working in combination, these factors can completely reshape the fate of an endangered species.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Black rhinos are in greater danger than previously thought

The black rhinoceros is already critically endangered, largely as a...

A team of researchers and doctors have tested whether participating in an online kindness training program affected preschoolers' social behavior and parents' resilience during the coronavirus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-got-a-major-boost-from-the-covid-19-pandemic/">pandemic</a>.&nbsp;



Experts from the <a href="https://brainhealth.utdallas.edu/">Center for Brain Health</a> at the University of Texas at Dallas analyzed 38 mothers and their 3- to 5-year-old children. The subjects participated in a program entitled "Kind Minds with Moozie," which describes different activities parents can do with their children to teach them kindness.&nbsp;



The researchers had parents survey their own resilience and their kids' empathy before and after the training. The scientists discovered that the parents were more resilient, and the preschoolers were more empathetic after the training. Since cognitive abilities are needed for these traits, they determined that kindness can improve cognitive function, affecting overall brain health.&nbsp;



“We aim to encourage parents to engage in practical, brain-healthy interactions with their children that aid in a better understanding of one another, especially during times of stress,” said BrainHealth researcher Maria Johnson. “Research shows that kindness is a strong potentiator of vibrant social engagement, which in turn is a critical component of overall brain health."



Interestingly, the experts also found that despite the kindness training, childrens' empathy levels were still below average. They believe this is due to the isolation the children suffered due to COVID-19 restrictions.&nbsp;



Still yet, the study suggests that kindness is good for parents and children. Fellow BrainHealth researcher Julie Fratantoni explains,



"In times of stress, taking a moment to practice kindness for yourself and model it for your children can boost your own resilience and improve your child's prosocial behaviors," said Johnson. "Do not underestimate the power of kindness, because it can ultimately change and shape brain health."



Johnson believes this benefit can move beyond the nuclear family, "Kindness can be a powerful brain health booster that raises resilience, not only for parents and families, but for society as a whole."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Practicing kindness can improve your brain health

A team of researchers and doctors have tested whether participating...

Modern, industrial agriculture is dependent upon fertilizers - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-in-plastic-packaging-contribute-to-weight-gain/">chemicals</a> often sprayed on fields with abandon. As important as fertilizers are to our way of life, you may not suspect that phosphorus, the main ingredient, is running out; yet it is.&nbsp;



Phosphorus for fertilizer is mined from rocks. It is applied as part of fertilizers to fields then washes out, eventually being buried deep in the ocean. Once fertilizer is washed away, it is not recovered and the finite resource is being used up.&nbsp;



In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of the Total Environment</a>, wildlife is raised as a possible solution to dwindling levels of phosphorus. The study authors include Dr. Andrew Abraham, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://nau.edu/">Northern Arizona University</a>, and Chris Doughty, associate professor of Ecoinformatics.



“In the past, animals such as whales, sea birds, fish and bears played a key role in returning phosphorus from ocean depths back onto land," said Dr. Abraham.



"In doing so, they collectively retained this nutrient in the biosphere, supporting a more fertile planet. Today, however, species extinctions, diminished population abundances and the erection of fences and dams have reduced this nutrient transport service by more than 90 percent.”



With wildlife populations shredded and animal mobility diminished by human structures, the main movement of phosphorus is by humans. We tend to be incredibly inefficient with our use of this nutrient, losing much of it to the ocean.&nbsp;



“Through our research, we were able to show that historically, wild animals transported a large amount of phosphorus that is on par with other important flows such as dust deposition and wildfires," said Dr. Abraham.



"Importantly though, wildlife can return phosphorus back to the land. By restoring interconnected animal communities, ancient pathways of natural fertilization can be revitalized, helping to conserve an irreplaceable element.”



Animals naturally move phosphorus through their urine, dung and even their own bodies. This is important not only for agriculture but crucially for the health of natural ecosystems as well.&nbsp;



To maintain this ecological service, the scientists suggest a trading scheme similar to the carbon market. This way local communities could benefit either from mined phosphorus or natural sources like phosphorus from bird dung. Scientists hope that this approach could help restore wildlife populations and maintain the healthy function of the Earth.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildlife may be the answer to dwindling fertilizer ingredient

Modern, industrial agriculture is dependent upon fertilizers - chemicals often...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has found that microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/">life</a> most probably existed on Earth at least 3.75 billion years ago – about 300 million years earlier than scientists previously estimated that biological organisms first emerged on our planet.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed a fist-sized rock found in Quebec, Canada, dating between 3.75 and 4.28 billion years ago. This is one of the oldest sedimentary rocks known on Earth, and was originally laid down near a system of hydrothermal vents, where cracks in the seafloor let through waters heated by magma that contained large quantities of iron. In a previous <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21377">study</a>, the researchers found tiny filaments, knobs, and tubes in this rock that seemed to have been made by bacteria. However, many scientists have argued that these structures may not necessarily be of biological origin, or signs of early life on Earth.&nbsp;



Now, after extensive further analysis of the rock, the researchers have discovered a larger and more complex structure consisting of a one-centimeter-long stem with parallel branches on one side, as well as hundreds of ellipsoids alongside the tubes and filaments. According to the scientists, while some of these structures could have been created by random chemical reactions, the tree-like stem with parallel branches is most likely to be biological in origin. 



Moreover, traces of mineralized chemical by-products also found in the rock appear to be consistent with the hypothesis that ancient microbes lived off iron, sulphur, and possibly carbon dioxide and light through a form of photosynthesis not involving oxygen.



The structure and composition of this rock resembles modern-day equivalents discovered close to the Loihi undersea volcano near Hawaii and other hydrothermal vent systems in the Arctic and Indian Oceans. The fact that the wavy and twisted filaments of the ancient rock contained organic carbon is another sign that biological forms similar to contemporary iron-eating microbes have probably resided there almost four billion years ago.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Using many different lines of evidence, our study strongly suggests a number of different types of bacteria existed on Earth between 3.75 and 4.28 billion years ago,” said study lead author Dominic Papineau, an expert in Precambrian Biogeochemistry at UCL.



“This means life could have begun as little as 300 million years after Earth formed.&nbsp;In geological terms, this is quick – about one spin of the Sun around the galaxy. These findings&nbsp;have&nbsp;implications for the possibility of&nbsp;extraterrestrial&nbsp;life.&nbsp;If life is relatively quick to emerge, given the right conditions, this increases the chance that&nbsp;life&nbsp;exists on other planets,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm2296">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Life emerged on Earth earlier than previously thought

A new study led by the University College London (UCL)...

A new study led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> (UPenn) in the US, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sbri.fr/">Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute</a>&nbsp;at Inserm in France has examined the connection between social interactions and brain structure in rhesus macaque <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">monkeys</a>. The experts discovered that the number of grooming partners an individual animal had predicted the size of brain areas responsible for empathy and social decision-making, such as the mid–superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the ventral-dysgranular insula.



The scientists recorded the detailed interactions of a social group of 68 rhesus macaques on Cayo Santiago, an island off the coast of Puerto Rico, focusing on five factors: social status, number of grooming partners, physical distance with other monkeys, connectedness to the most popular monkeys in the group, and “betweenness,” or the ability to act as a bridge between largely disconnected areas of a social network. Moreover, the research team also performed brain scans for every monkey in the group, including 35 juveniles and infants.



The brain scans revealed that the more grooming partners monkeys had, the larger their mid-STS and ventral-dysgranular insula were. Other factors, such as social status, did not seem to influence these brain structures. “For the first time, we’re able to relate the complexity of social lives of a group of living primates with brain structure,” said study lead author Camille Testard, a doctoral student in Neuroscience and Primatology at UPenn.



&nbsp;“It was very interesting to find these regions, as their importance is known for social cognition in humans,” added study co-author Jérôme Sallet, a neurobiologist at Inserm. “We also identified the mid-STS region in another study showing that activity in this region is modulated by the predictability of others’ behaviors.”



Interestingly, the study results suggest that infants are not born with these differences in brain structure, but rather form them through the patterns of social interactions that they engage in.



“There’s something about the skills it takes to make and maintain a lot of friendships that you get from parents. You’d think it would be written into your brain when you’re born, but it seems more likely to emerge from the patterns and interactions that you have. The modulation [in brain structures] we observe is strongly driven by our social environments, maybe more than by our innate predisposition,” explained study senior author Michael Platt, a professor of Neuroscience at UPenn.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to Professor Platt and his team, although these findings relate specifically to free-ranging rhesus macaques, they may have future applications to the study of human cognition and behavior, particularly in the understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl5794">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain structure of rhesus macaques is shaped by social interactions

A new study led by the&nbsp;University of Pennsylvania (UPenn) in...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...