Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en">Utrecht University</a>, scientists have investigated the mental well-being of shelter dogs by examining stress hormones.&nbsp;



"Dogs can suffer from chronic stress in environments that are sub-optimal to their needs, such as in many kennel environments," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Chronic stress may exceed the animals’ adaptive capacity and thus, threaten its welfare state. Chronic stress may even elicit medical and behavioral problems in the long term. Therefore, to improve canine welfare, reliable and feasible non-invasive indicators of long-term stress levels need to be evaluated."



It comes as no surprise that shelter dogs are stressed. They are exposed to lots of other dogs, strange humans and are more isolated from the outside world.



"We know that a shelter is not a stress-free environment for dogs, even though staff members do their best to achieve the highest possible welfare," said lead researcher Janneke Van der Laan. "Even if you organize a shelter in the best possible way, there are still stress factors, such as crowds of other dogs and not being able to go outside as often as usual. And most important: the dog is gone from their old, familiar environment.”



The scientists carried out the research by measuring levels of cortisol, a stress hormone that is found in humans as well as dogs. The cortisol levels can be measured from hair samples, so the research team collected hair from dogs at the beginning of their stay at a shelter, throughout the course of their stay, and after they were adopted out.  



"In addition to the cortisol measurements in hair, we also measured cortisol values in the dogs’ urine. This gives a short-term picture while the hair measurements show the long term," explained van der Laan.



"We took daily measurements in the shelter for over a year. After adoption, the new owners - after clear instructions - cut the dogs hair and sent it to us. They were helpful and enthusiastic, and were very interested in what their dog had experienced before adoption.”



The dogs' cortisol levels started at the same levels of other domestic dogs but rose during their time at the shelter, peaking after six weeks. Fortunately, these stress levels fell at about the same rate when dogs found new homes and ultimately returned to normal. One surprising (and so far unexplained) result was that smaller dogs exhibited higher cortisol levels than their larger counterparts.&nbsp;



The study shows that even a shelter like the one used, which does its best to improve welfare for animals, is a stressful place for dogs. The research highlights the need to get dogs adopted as soon as possible to good homes.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shelter dogs have high levels of stress

In a new study from Utrecht University, scientists have investigated...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> in UK and Stellenbosch University in South Africa has recorded sounds made by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">humpback whales</a> at the Vema Seamount in the Atlantic Ocean, a few hundreds of miles west of the South African coast. The recordings revealed a variety of calls, including an “impulsive sound” – dubbed “gunshot” by the scientists – that has never been recorded before.



The researchers used moored hydrophones deployed during the Southern Hemisphere spring of 2019 to record the whales’ calls. These calls were detected during a period of 11 days, and were categorized into continuous “song” and shorter “non-song” calls. 



Among the over 600 non-song calls recorded, the most common one was a low “whup,” which is known to be used between mothers and calves to help them locate each other. Occasionally though, whales also “whup” while feeding. Other sounds included “grumble” calls – which are also emitted by whales while feeding – as well as a more mysterious “gunshot” call, whose significance is still unknown.



“We still don’t fully understand what the “gunshot” call means, and it is fantastic to record it in humpback whales for the first time,” said&nbsp;study co-author Dr. Kirsten Thompson, a population biologist at the University of Exeter. “It really shows how much we still have to learn about these incredible animals.”



According to Dr. Thompson, the “whup” and “grumble” calls confirm that the whales passing through&nbsp;the Vema Seamount during their long migration to the polar regions are feeding. “Seamounts can provide rich habitat for all sorts of migratory species and we urgently need widespread protection of the global oceans to ensure these habitats can persist.”



Although the area around the Vema Seamount was heavily overfished after its discovery in 1959, it is now closed for fishing and recognized as a vulnerable marine ecosystem in need of protection due to its unique biodiversity. However, no legally binding international agreement exists to protect the network of seamounts in the high seas.



“50 years ago, governments came together to turn around the fate of humpback whales. Now they have a chance to secure the progress already made and protect the high-seas habitats that whales rely on. While such large areas of our oceans remain unprotected, these ecosystems are highly vulnerable. A coherent and connected network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) across our oceans is urgently needed to ensure seamounts like Vema are protected,” concluded Dr. Thompson.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humpback whale calls reveal mysterious gunshot sound

A team of researchers from the University of Exeter in...

According to a new report released by the <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/">Copernicus Climate Change Service</a> (C3S) on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-earth-day-lets-make-our-planets-heartbeat-louder/">Earth Day</a> 2022, Europe experienced its warmest summer on record in 2021, with over 1.0°C above the 1991-2020 average. Severe and long-lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-reduce-the-oceans-ability-to-absorb-carbon/">heatwaves</a> contributed to wildfires in Greece, Italy, and Turkey, and were compounded by heavy rainfall causing massive floods in Western Europe. Moreover, in large areas of the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas, annual sea surface temperatures spiked substantially and were the highest since at least 1993.&nbsp;



“2021 was a year of extremes including the hottest summer in Europe, heatwaves in the Mediterranean, flooding, and wind droughts in Western Europe, showing that the understanding of weather and climate extremes is becoming increasingly relevant for key societal sectors,” said Carlo Buontempo, the director of C3S.



Although spring in Europe was cooler than average last year, summer temperatures rose well beyond their expected values, reaching an all-time record of 48.8 degrees in Sicily, and causing devastating wildfires in several European countries (the total area burnt during July and August in the Mediterranean region exceeded 800,000 hectares). According to Freja Vamborg, a senior scientist at C3S, the main reason for these European (as well as global) temperature spikes and extreme weather events is the increased atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases.



“It is the same key message on greenhouse gases that is forever repeated. We see large increases in carbon dioxide in 2021, and it is the main driver behind a general global rise in average temperature between 1.1 and 1.2 degrees Celsius (1.98 and 2.16 degrees Fahrenheit) since the pre-industrial age,” Vamborg said.



The report revealed that global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased by 2.3 parts per million and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/">methane</a> by 16.5 parts per million. “The rise has been steady for both greenhouse gases with no sign of reduction over the last 10 years. However, we saw a larger than usual increase of methane in both 2020 and 2021,” said Vincent-Henry Peuch, the director of the <a href="https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/">Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service</a>.



&nbsp;“An increase of methane concentrations could be linked not only to emissions but also to a possible change in the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. More research is required to get a robust understanding. Still, some recent work points towards changes in tropical areas and emissions from natural sources like wetlands and from human sources such as rice culture and cattle.”



If urgent measures are not taken by governments, policy makers, as well as each and every individual to significantly curb these emissions, last year’s summer will undoubtedly be followed by even more severe ones, significantly threatening life on Earth as we know it.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Europe experienced its warmest summer on record last year

According to a new report released by the Copernicus Climate...

In Steven Spielberg’s iconic film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), the lead character – played by Harrison Ford – warns of the dangers of small scorpions, claiming that “when it comes to scorpions, the bigger the better.” Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.nuigalway.ie">National University of Ireland, Galway</a> (NUI Galway) has confirmed Indiana Jones’ insights. By analyzing 36 species of scorpion, the scientists found that smaller species with smaller pincers have more potent venom compared to larger species with robust claws.



“When we look at the most potent, and dangerous, scorpion venoms we find they tend to be associated with species such as the deathstalker which are relatively small. In contrast, the biggest species such as rock scorpions have venoms that are likely to only cause slight pain,” said study senior author Kevin Healy, a lecturer of Zoology at NUI Galway. “Outside of entertaining movie trivia there are good evolutionary reason to expect the results and important medical implications for such patterns.”&nbsp;



Dr. Healy and his colleagues argued that, although scorpions use both their venomous sting and their pincers to capture prey and defend themselves, there is an evolutionary trade-off between these weapons. Energy used to make and maintain larger pincers means less energy is available for the scorpion’s chemical arsenal. Thus, larger scorpions that can use their physical size are less reliant on venom, while smaller ones have evolved more potent, deadly venoms.



“Not only did we find that bigger is better - when it comes to people being stung - we also found that bigger pincers are better when it comes to assessing the danger level of a scorpion. While species such as large-clawed scorpion might be small to medium in size, they mainly rely on their large pincers instead of their relatively weak venom,” explained study lead author Alannah Forde, a graduate student in Zoology at NUI Galway.



Since scorpion stings are a global health problem with over one million cases and thousands of deaths each year, identifying the attacking species is vital for treatment.&nbsp;



“As scientists, our job is also to put popular wisdom to the test. Most victims hospitalized with severe symptoms following scorpion stings are children below the age of 15. Identifying the species responsible is essential to administer the correct treatment, and a simple rule such as ‘bigger is better’ is a first small step toward saving lives,” concluded another senior author, Dr Michel Dugon, Head of the <a href="https://www.nuigalway.ie/zoology/research/venom/">Venom System Lab</a> at NUI Galway.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/14/3/219">Toxins</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indiana Jones was right, small scorpions are more deadly

In Steven Spielberg’s iconic film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom...

On Thursday, April 21, 2002, the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) issued a <a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/2022/han00462.asp">nationwide health alert</a> concerning an unusual cluster of serious hepatitis cases with unknown origin in young children in the United States. These U.S. cases were identified soon after the United Kingdom and several European countries such as Spain, Denmark, and the Netherlands have also reported mysterious cases of hepatitis of unknown etiology.



The first known case in the United Kingdom occurred in January in Scotland, followed by over 100 other cases across, most of them in England. These cases presented clinically with severe acute hepatitis, exhibiting increased levels of liver enzymes, jaundice, as well as – in some cases – gastrointestinal symptoms, such as abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and vomiting. Eight children in the U.K. underwent liver transplants, but no deaths have yet been reported. In the U.S. nine cases of hepatitis in children aged 1-6 have been identified in Alabama and two in North Carolina, between October 2021 and February 2022. The experts did not manage to identify any epidemiological link connected these cases.



Hepatitis can be triggered by many factors, including toxic chemicals, autoimmune disorders, or viruses, such as those causing chickenpox or common cold. However, the most common cause of viral hepatitis are the hepatitis A, B, and C viruses. According to health experts though, all these common causes have been ruled out in both the U.S. and the U.K.



Officials are now investigating a possible association between these mysterious cases of pediatric hepatitis and adenoviruses – a family of widespread viruses that cause various infections, most commonly respiratory illnesses. Although such viruses rarely cause hepatitis, all nine children in Alabama were infected with adenoviruses, with five of the nine cases testing positive for a specific type of adenovirus (adenovirus 41) which often causes cases of pediatric acute gastroenteritis. In the U.K. several – but not all - children tested positive for adenovirus too. While some of the U.K. children were also found to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, no such infections were yet detected in the U.S.



“At this time, adenovirus may be the cause for these, but investigators are still learning more, including ruling out other possible causes and identifying other possible contributing factors,” reported the CDC.



According to Amy Edwards, a pediatric infectious disease expert at the <a href="https://www.uhhospitals.org/rainbow">University Hospitals Rainbow Babies &amp; Children’s Hospital</a> in Cleveland, with the lifting of mask mandates and social distancing measures, it is normal for children to be more susceptible to a wide range of infections.



“Now that COVID is down, viral interference has been released and I think we are going to see a lot of old pathogens coming back and maybe some new ones, which worries me too,” confirmed Monica Gandhi, a professor of Medicine at the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a>.



CDC urges clinicians who may encounter pediatric patients with hepatitis of unknown origin to consider adenovirus testing and to immediately report such cases to state public health authorities.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious cases of hepatitis detected in children

On Thursday, April 21, 2002, the Centers for Disease Control...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.nist.gov/">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> (NIST) has found that disposable coffee cups coated with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) can release trillions of plastic nanoparticles when exposed to boiling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-the-timing-of-water-that-matters-to-plants/">water</a>. Although the effect of these particles on living organisms are not yet clear, these findings are quite alarming for many scientists, who worry that repeated exposure to such pollutants could have long-term health effects.



While there are different types of plastic materials, they are all made of polymers – natural or human-made substances consisting of large molecules linked together. Scientists have already found myriad microscopic particles from these plastics in the world’s oceans and many other places, including even the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-human-blood-for-the-first-time/">human blood</a>. These tiny particles are categorized into two groups: microplastics (smaller than five millimeters but visible to the naked eye), and nanoparticles (smaller than one micrometer and invisible to the human eye).



“The main takeaway here is that there are plastic particles wherever we look. There are a lot of them. Trillions per liter. We don’t know if those have bad health effects on people or animals. We just have a high confidence that they’re there,” said study lead author Christopher Zangmeister, a chemist at NIST.



Dr. Zangmeister and his colleagues have analyzed two types of commercial plastic products – single-use hot beverage cups, such as coffee cups coated with LDPE, and food-grade nylon bags, such as baking liners.&nbsp;After exposing the LDPE-lined coffee cups to boiling water for 20 minutes, they sprayed the water out into a fine mist and dried the mist and all that was left within a solution in order to isolate the plastic nanoparticles.&nbsp;



By running a powerful computer program that could count the particles, together with state-of-the art procedures such as scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, the scientists managed not only to count the nanoparticles, but also to measure their size. They found that the average size of the particles was between 30 and 80 nanometers, and that the concentration of nanoparticles released into boiling water by food-grade nylon was seven times higher compared to that released from coffee cups.



“In the last decade scientists have found plastics wherever we looked in the environment. People have looked at snow in Antarctica, the bottom of glacial lakes, and found microplastics bigger than about 100 nanometers, meaning they were likely not small enough to enter a cell and cause physical problems,” said Dr. Zangmeister.&nbsp;“Our study is different because these nanoparticles are really small and a big deal because they could get inside of a cell, possibly disrupting its function.”



These findings could open new avenues of research for scientists working on the problem of plastic pollution and its effects on human and animal health, while also informing the larger public about the risks involved in using various types of plastic materials. “Most of the studies on this topic are written toward educating fellow scientists. This paper will do both: educate scientists and perform public outreach,” concluded Dr. Zangmeister.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c06768">Environmental Sciences &amp; Technology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disposable coffee cups release trillions of plastic particles

A new study led by the National Institute of Standards...

Colorful tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">coral reefs</a> are teeming with an amazing diversity of marine organisms, including over 8,000 species of fish. However, climate change and various human activities are causing these reefs to disappear at an alarming rate, making scientists largely unable to properly quantify how many species of reef fish there are and where they are distributed.&nbsp;



Besides the rapid pace of change that coral reefs are facing worldwide, there are several other reasons why scientists have difficulties in mapping marine ecosystems from specific areas. Most of these fishes lead rather secretive, hidden lives, are highly similar to one another, or live in the open sea and are thus difficult to detect.



In order to circumvent such difficulties, a research team from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> has applied a new method that is currently advancing the field of ecology - environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis. The idea behind this new approach is that organisms leave their genetic material or parts of it in the environment.&nbsp;



By using this method, the scientists only need to take water samples at one location, isolate the DNA fragments they contain, sequence them, and compare these sequences with reference DNA sequences coming from reliably identified specimens in order to determine whether a particular species occurs at the location in question.



“Thanks to the eDNA method, we can detect many fish species and families much faster than with observations alone,” said study senior author Loïc Pellissier, a professor of Ecosystems and Landscape Evolution at ETH Zurich.



In 2017 and 2019, Professor Pellissier and his team collected 226 water samples at 26 sites in five tropical marine regions. The eDNA analysis of these samples revealed a 16 percent higher diversity of reef fishes than what conventional survey methods such as visual observations during dives have previous managed to detect.&nbsp;



With the eDNA method, the scientists discovered more pelagic (swimming in open water), reef-bound, and cryptobenthic (inhabiting caves and crevices in reefs) species than divers are generally able to see or identify. The discovery of these species is highly important because they are actively involved in the function of the coral reefs through their pelagic larval stages or their nocturnal migrations to the reefs.



The findings suggest that the composition of species varies significantly among marine bioregions. Fish diversity was found to be exceptionally high in the “Coral Triangle” between Borneo, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines (five times higher than in the Caribbean, for instance).&nbsp;



According to Professor Pellissier, this has to do with the fact that, historically, the Coral Triangle was very tectonically active, producing a wide range of habitats. Moreover, the more stable surface temperatures of this area during the ice ages allowed the fishes to diversify considerably.



Although this new method is extremely efficient for mapping reef biodiversity, it has its limitations. Since some species – such as wrasses (Labridae) or blennies (Blenniidae) - are poorly detected through eDNA analysis, direct visual observations remain important. In addition, these more traditional methods can help gather supplementary information, such as fish sizes or biomass, which cannot yet be recovered through eDNA analysis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.0162">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts use eDNA to measure reef fish diversity

Colorful tropical coral reefs are teeming with an amazing diversity...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal) has found that living in a tree-filled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biden-administration-restores-a-key-environmental-law/">environment</a> is linked to better early child development than living in areas where vegetation takes the form of grass cover. However, both varieties of green spaces were associated with better developmental outcomes than places dominated by paved surfaces.



Many previous studies have argued that exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-green-space-reduces-oxidative-stress-in-children/">green spaces</a> is associated with better memory and attention in early childhood, higher academic achievements, and fewer behavioral and emotional problems. However, this is the first study to explore whether the type of vegetation makes a difference in these positive associations.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The investigation was carried out in the Vancouver Metropolitan Area in Canada and was based on a large cohort of 27,539 children, who were followed from birth to five years of age (between 2000 and 2005). In the fifth year, in order to compute each child’s developmental score, the researchers asked children’s kindergarten teachers to rate their pupils’ physical health, mental well-being, social competence, emotional maturity, communication skills, language development, and general knowledge.&nbsp;



Afterwards, by using a high-spatial-resolution land cover map, the scientists determined how much exposure to vegetation each child had, and whether the vegetated land consisted of grass or trees. The average percentage of total vegetation exposure was found to be 36 percent, while exposure to predominantly paved surfaces was 32.2 percent.&nbsp;



While children with the greatest exposure to vegetation (either trees or grass) had the highest developmental scores, those exposed predominantly to paved surfaces had the lowest ones. However, the study revealed that living close to tree-filled areas in early childhood led to better developmental scores than being exposed to grass-covered environments. According to the scientists, this may be due to the fact that tree-filled areas are better in mitigating air pollution, noise and heat than more open green spaces, while also contributing to a higher degree to support restoration from mental fatigue and the capacity for focused attention. On the other hand, grassy spaces may encourage group activities and thus foster social well-being.



“Because we assessed different types of vegetation, our findings contribute to an&nbsp;improved understanding&nbsp;of associations between exposure to green spaces and early childhood development,” said study lead author Ingrid Jarvis, a landscape ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a>.



“Taken together, our findings suggest that&nbsp;converting paved surfaces to green spaces&nbsp;and, in particular, increasing the amount of trees in neighborhoods may have positive effects on early childhood health and development,” concluded study senior author Matilda van den Bosch, an expert in landscape planning and public health at ISGlobal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022001222?via%3Dihub">Environment International</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tree-filled spaces boost child development

A recent study led by the Barcelona Institute for Global...

In celebration of Earth Day today, <a href="https://nature.disney.com/">Disneynature</a> will be releasing an all-new documentary film, “Polar Bear,” which will be available to view on the Disney+ streaming service as part of an Earth Day celebration. The feature, filmed over three years in and around Svalbard, gives a glimpse into the life of a mother polar bear as she navigates the challenges of life for her young family. The story follows the mother bear’s memories of her youth and how these prepare her to face the changes occurring in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brown-carbon-released-from-wildfires-is-warming-the-arctic/">Arctic</a> world due to global warming.&nbsp;



The filmmakers had to overcome enormous challenges in order to film this documentary. Svalbad, a Norwegian archipelago between Norway and the North Pole, is a place of glaciers, frozen tundra, mountains and fjords. Some filming had to take place during the icy winter and early spring when the seas are frozen over and the polar bears begin to hunt. At times, the filmmakers had to work in bitterly cold conditions and total darkness. Add to this the fact that the iconic stars of the show are white against a white background and wander around at will, and the amazing feat of the filmmakers becomes even more impressive.&nbsp;



The directors, Alastair Fothergill and Jeff Wilson, admit that they would not have been able to make this film ten years ago, but advances in technology – including drones – allowed them and members of their team to get closer than ever to the bears. Apart from using drones to film at a distance, the use of long lenses allowed the filmmakers to witness but not to disturb the natural behavior of the polar bears.



The result is a remarkable and awe-inspiring portrait of polar bears and the habitat in which they live. The visual feast is provided by the polar bears themselves, when they exhibit playful, resilient and tender behavior. The film’s musical score, composed by Harry Gregson-Williams, sensitively conveys these varied emotions using specific themes for each storyline. The narrator, two-time Academy Award nominee Catherine Keener, uses spare narration and measured intonations to characterize the mother bear as “thoughtful, courageous, and resilient.”&nbsp;



Film sequences of the Arctic habitat are more sobering, however. They show the deteriorating state of the polar ice and relate this state of affairs to the bears’ decreased chances of survival. As the ice melts, they have to make more dangerous journeys and travel further to find the food they need. In this way, the documentary highlights the plight of this remarkable species in a world beset by climate change.&nbsp;



In keeping with the Disney philosophy to care for wildlife and their habitats, the Disney Conservation Fund has committed to providing support to Polar Bears International to help their efforts to protect polar bears and their sea ice habitat.



“Polar Bears International is an exceptional organization doing exceptional work for both the polar bears and the environment in which they live,” said Roy Conli, who is a producer of “Polar Bear.” “They bring essential awareness to the general populace of what’s going on in the Arctic, the realities polar bears face today, and hope for how we can all take action to positively change the future for this species. I’m so proud that we’re working with their incredible team.”&nbsp;



“The reason we wanted to make the film is people talk a lot about climate change but it's hard to show it. In this film, through the eyes of our female bear, you certainly see it," said film director Alastair Fothergill. "And I think Earth Day is a very good time to question. You should question your own footprint on the planet, your own use of energy, as individuals we can do an enormous amount.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disney documents the plight of polar bears in remarkable film

In celebration of Earth Day today, Disneynature will be releasing...

Dirty fossil fuels, burned to create electricity or just to transport us across town, get a lot of headlines. But there are other sources of destructive greenhouse gases, such as animal agriculture. Not only that, but animal agriculture contributes to habitat destruction, competition with wild animals, and cruelty to domestic animals.&nbsp;



Animal agriculture is also a major contributing factor to climate change. In fact, <a href="https://assets.ciwf.org/media/7447656/breaking-the-taboo-why-diets-must-change-to-tackle-climate-emergency.pdf?_gl=1*1ykctxr*_ga*MTIwNDU0MDAxNi4xNjMyMjM5MzYw*_ga_QHTMX95D1M*MTYzODIyMTUzNi42NC4wLjE2MzgyMjE1NDMuMA..">a study</a> by <a href="https://www.ciwf.org/">Compassion in World Farming </a>shows that meeting the Paris 1.5 °C target is impossible without tackling the issue. The food industry contributes somewhere between a quarter and a third of greenhouse gases. The livestock industry is responsible for 75 percent of agriculture’s greenhouse gas emissions, or 14.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions as a whole.&nbsp;



Animal agriculture contributes to deforestation, including the destruction of the Amazon Rainforest in South America. Not only is land cleared for the animals raised for food, but more land is cleared to grow food for those animals in a parody of inefficiency. Besides ruining the beauty of forests and other habitats and killing wildlife, habitat destruction also releases carbon stores, contributing even more to climate change. Soils and water are polluted with excess animal waste directly from livestock as well as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer for animal feed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Furthermore, livestock contribute to greenhouse gases and pollution, and animal agriculture is decidedly bad for wildlife as well. Cattlemen’s associations in the US have been all too willing to promote<a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2012/wolves-01-31-2012.html"> killing wolves</a> and other predators as well as <a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/appeals-court-upholds-habitat-protections-for-new-mexico-meadow-jumping-mouse-2022-04-18/">challenge habitat protections</a> for <a href="http://www.oklahomafarmreport.com/wire/news/2021/09/02794_CattleGroupsChallengeESAListing_LPC09032021_162343.php#.YmLjjy1OKhA">endangered species</a>. There are a finite amount of resources on the planet and when they’re all used to feed livestock, there’s less for other animals to survive on.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The good news is that it’s within your power to contribute to a solution. By cutting out or cutting down on animal products - meat (including fish), dairy and eggs - you can help. You can also help by supporting government programs aimed at reducing meat consumption. Today, fees for grazing on public lands are at their <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/54.5/north-bureau-of-land-management-cows-coal-and-climate-change-a-q-a-with-the-new-blm-director">lowest legal limit</a> and much of it is <a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/north-bureau-of-land-management-there-are-millions-of-acres-of-failing-rangelands-data-shows">overgrazed</a>.&nbsp;



“Reducing meat, egg, and dairy consumption is one of the easiest and strongest levers we can use to combat climate change, pollution, and animal abuse," said Ben Williamson, the US Executive Director of Compassion in World Farming.



If you care about the climate, wildlife, public lands, basically anything Earth Day stands for, now is the time to think hard about what’s on your plate, because dinner could be the change we need.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eat for a healthy planet - reduce the demand for animal agriculture

Dirty fossil fuels, burned to create electricity or just to...

President Biden will sign an executive order in Seattle today that will ultimately save some of America's largest and oldest trees. The goal is to help mitigate climate change by preserving old-growth forests, which are valuable carbon stores. The order also aims to restore national forests that have been devastated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-global-forest-loss-has-been-caused-by-wildfires/">wildfires</a> and drought, including forests in California that recently lost thousands of giant sequoias to fire.&nbsp;



The executive order requires the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">Forest Service</a>, the Bureau of Land Management, and the National Park Service to take inventory of the country's old-growth forests within a year.&nbsp;



The agencies have been directed to identify threats to older trees and to develop policies to help protect them, along with the establishment of a reforestation goal by 2030. The experts will address some of the biggest challenges of tree planting efforts in the West, such as expanding the capacity for seed collection and seedling production.&nbsp;



According to a report from the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Washington Post</a>, the executive order is also aimed at curbing deforestation overseas, promoting economic development in regions with major timber industries and calculating the economic value of other natural resources such as wetlands.



Collin O’Mara is the president and chief executive of the National Wildlife Federation. He said the order may be an incredibly smart fire resilience strategy.



“We know old growth forests are less prone to megafires, especially when they’re managed well,” O’Mara told the Washington Post. “And apart from the benefits for wildlife and water quality and carbon sequestration, this also could be something that mitigates a lot of the fire risk if we do it right.”



A team of 135 scientists, including Former Forest Service Chief Mike Dombeck, called on President Biden to protect mature and old-growth forests as a critical climate solution.



“Older forests provide the most above-ground carbon storage potential on Earth, with mature forests and larger trees driving most accumulation of forest carbon in the critical next few decades. Left vulnerable to logging, though, they cannot fulfill these vital functions,” the scientists wrote on Thursday.



The experts said that protecting mature forests would set an important, highly visible example for other major forest-holding nations to follow as they address climate change threats.



President Biden will speak today in Seattle about his administration’s plans for action on climate change and other environmental threats. The event is scheduled to begin at 1:30 p.m. ET, and the live feed can be accessed <a href="https://youtu.be/Iu7x4j847_8">here</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

President Biden moves to strengthen forests, boost wildfire resilience

President Biden will sign an executive order in Seattle today...

For Earth Day, Chantecaille is partnering with <a href="https://www.theelephantproject.com/">The Elephant Project</a> to sell plush toys to promote elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-groups-challenge-mining-that-threatens-an-ecuadorian-toad/">conservation</a>. Chantecaille is a cruelty free, botanical-based cosmetic company.



Together, the organizations have created two limited edition plush elephants wearing floral outfits designed by Chantecaille co-founder and Creative Director Olivia Chantecaille. The proceeds of the plush sales will be given to <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/Tracker?data=Cg9LJ_lg4-Mq3oLHVSYYkq9axFv2cEoHSH6VvC4207BZfWmspyQcn0AAz6sCqb3uRiNGml41NnJH6bfBCXYxLdijTKpfgLew9oem3qp6obe-qFe64gqLqSrfW8BX9TZk">Sheldrick Wildlife Trust</a>.&nbsp;



“It is no secret how much my family and I love elephants. At Chantecaille, we are wild about nature - inspired by it, motivated by it, and do all we can to preserve it," said Chantecaille.



"I was thrilled to design two darling elephant dolls that help share that message with our younger generation. I would like to share, especially with children, that every little thing you do to help, can make a difference for today and especially for our future.”



Sheldrick Wildlife Trust is one of Africa’s oldest conservation organizations. Sheldrick is best known for operating one of the most successful orphan elephant rescue and rehabilitation programs in the world. This is necessitated when poaching destroys elephant families, leaving the young alone without milk or guidance.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The organization also rescues giraffes and rhinos. Veterinarians are dispatched to help threatened wildlife and help wild animals escape from snares.&nbsp;



Sheldrick is active in fighting poaching with aerial surveillance, deploying twenty two on the ground anti poaching units as well as canine units. The organization also engages in community outreach to promote understanding and care for wildlife and border maintenance to minimize wildlife-human conflict. If a plush toy isn’t your thing, you can still support <a href="https://www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/get-involved-us">Sheldrick directly</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For everyone else, it’s hoped that not only will the profits from the elephant plush toys rescue elephants but that the toys will inspire the children that receive them to care about animal conservation.



“I am extremely passionate about making a difference for elephants globally and grateful for this amazing platform to help raise funds and awareness for them," said Kristina McKean, founder of The Elephant Project.



"I believe that we need to teach our children that one person can make a difference and we all have a responsibility to be the voice for the voiceless.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Elephant Project inspires us to be the voice for the voiceless

For Earth Day, Chantecaille is partnering with The Elephant Project...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...