An asteroid impact on Mars 11 million years ago sent fragments of the red planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth, making its way to Purdue University and becoming known as the Lafayette Meteorite.&nbsp;



This rare find has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemical Perspective Letters</a> that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-mars-watery-past">Tracing Mars’ watery past</h2>



Scientists have long known that the Lafayette Meteorite interacted with liquid water on Mars, but the exact timing of this event was uncertain.&nbsp;



Dr. Marissa Tremblay, an assistant professor at Purdue University’s <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences</a> (EAPS), led an international research team to determine the age of the water-altered minerals in the meteorite, pinpointing it to 742 million years ago.



“Dating these minerals can therefore tell us when there was liquid water at or near the surface of Mars in the planet's geologic past,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that while liquid water wasn’t abundant on the surface at this time, it likely came from melting subsurface ice, or permafrost, caused by intermittent volcanic activity - a phenomenon still observed on Mars today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-a-moment-in-mars-geological-timeline">Preserving a moment in Mars’ geological timeline</h2>



The study not only identified when water interacted with the meteorite but also established that the dating was unaffected by events after the meteorite left Mars.&nbsp;



“The age could have been affected by the impact that ejected the Lafayette Meteorite from Mars, the heating it experienced during the 11 million years it was floating in space, or the heating when it fell to Earth,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



However, the team confirmed that none of these factors altered the age, validating the timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> interaction.



Study co-author and Purdue EAPS researcher Ryan Ickert applied heavy isotope analysis to further verify that previous data on the meteorite’s water-rock interaction had likely been skewed by other geological processes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This meteorite uniquely has evidence that it has reacted with water. The exact date of this was controversial, and our publication dates when water was present,” said Ickert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-journey-of-the-meteorite">Mysterious journey of the meteorite </h2>



The Lafayette Meteorite’s journey to Purdue is something of a mystery. It was found in a university drawer in 1931, though how it got there remains unknown.&nbsp;



In previous research, Tremblay and her team used crop disease markers from organic contaminants found on the meteorite to narrow down when it might have fallen to Earth.



Once the meteorite was ejected from Mars, it endured constant cosmic ray bombardment in space, which produced certain isotopes, offering clues to its time of impact on Earth.&nbsp;



“Many meteoroids are produced by impacts on Mars and other planetary bodies, but only a handful will eventually fall to Earth,” Tremblay said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-time-capsules">Planetary time capsules</h2>



Meteorites like Lafayette serve as planetary time capsules, offering invaluable data on the geological and environmental history of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">home worlds</a>. With their dense structure, metallic content, and magnetic properties, meteorites are often distinguishable from Earth rocks.&nbsp;



“We can identify meteorites by studying what minerals are present in them, their mineral relationships, and by checking for a fusion crust formed during entry into Earth’s atmosphere,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



By analyzing these traits and their chemical signatures, scientists can often determine a meteorite’s planetary origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-history-of-meteorites">Complex history of meteorites</h2>



This research marks a significant milestone for the team, which included scientists from institutions across the globe, such as the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Center (SUERC), the University of St. Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Bristol, and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



“Before moving to Purdue, Ryan and I were both based at SUERC, where the argon-argon isotopic analyses of the alteration minerals in Lafayette took place,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



Their partners at SUERC and the Natural History Museum have long contributed to studying Lafayette’s complex history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-minerals-in-meteorites">Dating minerals in meteorites</h2>



Dating the water-altered minerals in Lafayette, and others in its class of Martian meteorites called nakhlites, has been a central focus in planetary science, as they uniquely capture moments when liquid water was present on Mars.&nbsp;



Due to complex alterations over time, previous attempts to date these minerals were plagued with uncertainties.&nbsp;



However, the team has now developed a robust dating method that could be applied to other meteorites, enhancing our understanding of when water might have been present on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-planetary-science">The future of planetary science</h2>



Thanks to the Stahura Undergraduate Meteorite Fund, Tremblay and Ickert’s research on the Lafayette Meteorite will continue, with the involvement of undergraduate students in Purdue EAPS.&nbsp;



This opportunity allows students to engage in real-world planetary science, helping to reveal the intricate histories of meteoritic samples.



Tremblay and her team’s work on the Lafayette Meteorite highlights its scientific significance, revealing a complex history that ties it to Mars’ geological past.&nbsp;



Their findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also set a precedent for future studies that might unveil even more about the red planet’s climate history, water activity, and potential for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



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Meteorite that struck Mars reveals when the planet had liquid water

An asteroid impact on Mars 11 million years ago sent fragments of the red planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth, making its way to Purdue University and becoming known as the Lafayette Meteorite.&nbsp; This rare find has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of Mars’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal Geochemical Perspective Letters that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity. Tracing Mars’ watery past Scientists have long known that the Lafayette...

A paper published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17596831">Journal of Systematics and Evolution</a> describes two&nbsp; new species of fossil birds discovered near the Great Wall of China in a place called Changma. Over a period of twenty years, paleontologists excavated more than 100 individual birds that lived more than 120 million years ago. Many of the fossils were crushed or incomplete, making them impossible to identify. Six of the specimens, however, were useful enough to identify two new species.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It was a long, painstaking process teasing out what these things were,” said study lead author Jingmai O’Connor, the associate curator of vertebrate paleontology at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>. “But these new specimens include two new species that increase our knowledge of Cretaceous bird faunas, and we found combinations of dental features that we’ve never seen in any other dinosaurs.”



O’Connor’s work focuses on birds and explores why some went extinct with the other dinosaurs, while others survived and gave rise to the species we have today.&nbsp;



“These fossils come from a site in China that has produced fossils of birds that are pretty darned close to modern birds, but all the bird fossils described thus far haven’t had skulls preserved with the bodies,” said co-author Jerry Harris of Utah Tech University. “These new skull specimens help fill in that gap in our knowledge of the birds from this site and of bird evolution as a whole.”



The new genera and species were named Meemannavis ductrix and Brevidentavis zhangi. Meemannavis is named for Meemann Chang, a pioneering female Chinese paleontologist. The birds were similar to modern birds, with Brevidentavis having the small difference of being toothed and having a unique jaw.



“Brevidentavis is an ornithuromorph bird with teeth, and in ornithuromorphs with teeth, there’s a little bone at the front of the jaw called the predentary, where its chin would be if birds had chins,” explained O’Connor. “In this earlier study, we were able to tell that the predentary was capable of being moved, and that it would have been innervated – Brevidentavis wouldn’t just have been able to move its predentary, it would have been able to feel through it,”



It’s possible that Brevidentavis used its strange moveable jaw to catch insect prey, although we’ll probably never know for sure. Either way, it seems paleontologists have found a treasure trove of bird fossils in Changma.



“These discoveries strengthen the hypothesis that the Changma locality is unusual in that it is dominated by ornithuromorph birds, which is uncommon in the Cretaceous,” said O’Connor. “Learning about these relatives of modern birds can ultimately help us understand why today’s birds made it when the others didn’t.”



Image Credit: Illustration by Cindy Joli, Julio Francisco Garza Lorenzo, and René Dávila Rodríguez



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fascinating fossil birds discovered in China

A paper published in the Journal of Systematics and Evolution...

Two thirds of the world’s food crops depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">pollination</a> by at least one of over 100,000 species of pollinators, including 20,000 species of bees. Unfortunately, many of these species, particularly bees, face risks of extinction. 



One of the causes for this decline in pollinator populations could be the increased spraying of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-discovered-in-wild-brown-bears/">antibiotics</a> on crops to battle spikes in bacterial infections. A new laboratory study led by <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a> and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has found that exposure to streptomycin, an antibiotic sprayed on orchard crops, slows the cognition of bumblebees and reduces their foraging efficiency.



The researchers conducted laboratory experiments with managed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-enhances-memory-in-bees/">bumblebees</a> (Bombus impatiens) to assess the effects of upper-limit dietary exposure to streptomycin. For two days, half of the bees were fed on sucrose or sugar water (to stimulate nectar), while the other half received sucrose dosed with streptomycin.&nbsp;



Afterwards, the bees were presented with different-colored cardboard strips, one saturated with sucrose and the other one with plain water, and scientists measured the number of trials it took for a bee to show a preference for the color strips containing sucrose. 



The experts found that the bees fed streptomycin often required three times as many trials to make the association compared to the other bees, and they were more likely to display avoidance behavior towards both stimuli.&nbsp;



The bees that passed a training threshold were given a short-term memory test five minutes later. Each of them was presented with both cardboard strips simultaneously and allowed to select one. The bees treated with streptomycin selected the sucrose reward at a rate of around 55 percent, compared to the nearly 87 percent success rate of the untreated bees.



To assess bees’ foraging ability, the scientists conducted trials in a foraging chamber containing an array of artificial flowers dispensing sucrose or plain water, and found that the bees previously exposed to antibiotics visited far fewer sucrose-rewarding flowers relative to the control group.



“I was surprised at how strong an effect we found of streptomycin on bumblebees in the laboratory experiments,” said study senior author Berry Brosi, an associate professor of Biology at the University of Washington. “That makes it imperative to learn if we see similar effects in an agricultural setting.”



“Production of our food, farmer livelihoods, and the health of pollinators are all tied together. It’s critically important to find ways to maintain agricultural production while also conserving the ecosystem services - including pollination - that a biodiverse ecosystem provides,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2514">Proceeding of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Antibiotics used on food crops may be starving bees

Two thirds of the world’s food crops depend on pollination...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/">Scripps Research Institute</a> has investigated how the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) - a species of carnivorous plant native to subtropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-can-become-too-salty-for-some-resident-plants/">wetlands</a> on the East Coast of the United States - snaps shut at the approach of prey. 



According to the researchers, a protein mechanosensitive channel aptly named Flycatcher1 is the biological structure that enables these plants to catch their prey. Understanding the structure and functions of Flycatcher1 sheds more light on similar proteins in other organisms including plants, bacteria, or even humans.



“Despite how different Venus flytraps are from humans, studying the structure and function of these mechanosensitive channels gives us a broader framework for understanding the ways that cells and organisms respond to touch and pressure,” said study co-senior author Andrew Ward, a professor of Integrative Structural Biology at the Scripps Institute.



Cells’ ability to sense pressure and movement is highly important for people’s sense of touch and hearing, as well as for many internal processes, such as the ability of the bladder to feel when it is full or the capacity of lungs to sense how much air is being breathed.&nbsp;



“Every new mechanosensitive channel that we study helps us make progress in understanding how these proteins can sense force and translate that to action and ultimately reveal more about human biology and health,” added co-senior author&nbsp;Ardem Patapoutian, a professor of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience at Scripps who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his research on the mechanosensitive channels allowing the human body to sense temperature and touch.



By using cryo-electron microscopy – a new technique which reveals the location of atoms within a frozen protein sample – the scientists analyzed the precise arrangement of molecules which form the Flycatcher1 protein channel in Venus flytrap plants and discovered that it is similar to a family of mechanosensitive channels found in bacteria (MscS).&nbsp;



However, while both Flycatcher1 and MscS channels exhibited seven groups of identical helices surrounding a central channel, Flycatcher1 had an unusual linker region extending outward from each group of helices. Like a switch, each linker could be flipped up or down, and appeared to be fundamental for the plant’s ability to close upon removal of pressure.



Further research is needed to determine whether Flycatcher1 is solely responsible for the snapping shut of Venus flytrap leaves, or whether other channels play complementary role. Moreover, the ways in which these protein channels relate to the mechanosensitive ion channels found in humans needs to be further investigated.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28511-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal how Venus flytraps catch their prey

A new study led by the Scripps Research Institute has...

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> has found that exercise can help older adults retain their episodic memory. This refers to the capacity to recollect personal experiences which contain detailed information about what happened, when, and where.



When asked to describe the nature of episodic memory, “I usually like to talk about the first time you got behind the wheel of a car,” said study lead author Sarah Aghjayan, a doctoral student at the University of Pittsburgh. “So you might remember where you were, how old you were, who was in the passenger seat explaining things to you, that feeling of excitement.”



While experiments in mice have already shown that exercise improves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-strong-correlation-between-heart-and-brain-health/">brain health</a> and memory, studies investigating this link in humans had mixed results. In order to seek more clarity, Aghjayan and her colleagues pored over 1,279 studies, eventually narrowing them down to 36 which met specific criteria. By using specialized software to analyze the data, the researchers shown that a comparison of the 36 studies suggests that, for older adults, exercise has clear benefits for episodic memory.



Although the studies in themselves could not find clear correlations between exercise and improvements in memory, examining the whole body of research and comparing individual studies brought this pattern into focus. “When we combine and merge all this data, it allows us to examine almost 3,000 participants,” Aghjayan said. “Each individual study is very important: They all contribute to science in a meaningful way.”



The scientists found that there were greater improvements in episodic memory among participants who were 55 to 68 years old, compared to those with ages between 69 and 85. Moreover, the greatest effects of exercise were found in those who hadn’t yet experienced any cognitive decline and exercised about three times a week for at least four months.



Although further research is needed to clarify how the intensity of exercise affects the memory benefits, this study’s implications for public health are clear: exercise is an accessible way for older adults to mitigate cognitive decline, benefiting not only themselves but also their caretakers and the healthcare system in general.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7">Communications Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise helps you hold on to cherished memories

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a...

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides that are difficult to acquire and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-can-be-recycled-into-construction-materials/">recycle</a>. They are widely used in the manufacturing of various electronic devices. A group of researchers at <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> recently made a groundbreaking discovery that could revolutionize rare mineral extraction.



Professor James Tour reported that his team has recovered valuable rare earth elements (REE) from garbage at yields high enough to help manufacturers address problems while increasing profitability.



The lab's flash Joule heating process, which was first used to produce graphene from any solid carbon source several years ago, is now being used to retrieve rare metals that have magnetic and electronic properties from three sources: coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic waste. These metals are critical to modern electronics and green technologies.



The researchers claim that this method is better for the environment because it uses significantly less energy and reduces the amount of acid necessary to recover the elements to a trickle.



Rare earth elements are not all that uncommon. Cerium, for example, is more plentiful than copper, and they all outnumber gold. However, together with yttrium and scandium, these 15 lanthanide elements are widely scattered and tough to extract from mined minerals.



“The U.S. used to mine rare earth elements, but you get a lot of radioactive elements as well. You’re not allowed to reinject the water, and it has to be disposed of, which is expensive and problematic. On the day the U.S. did away with all rare earth mining, the foreign sources raised their price tenfold.” explained Professor Tour.



There's plenty of incentive to recycle what's previously been mined, said Tour. Much of it is heaped up or buried in fly ash, a coal-fired power plant waste. Bauxite residue, sometimes known as red mud, is a harmful byproduct of aluminium manufacture, whereas electronic waste comes from old computers and phones.



“We have mountains of it. The residue of burning coal is silicon, aluminium, iron and calcium oxides that form glass around the trace elements, making them very hard to extract," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



The Rice lab heats fly ash and other materials (combined with carbon black to enhance conductivity) to about 3,000 degrees Celsius (5,432 degrees Fahrenheit) in a second, whereas industrial extraction from these wastes typically involves leaching with strong acid, a time-consuming and non-green process. The waste is converted into highly soluble "activated REE species" during the process.



"Breaking the glass that encases these elements and converting REE phosphates to metal oxides that dissolve much more easily," Tour said of treating fly ash with flash Joule heating. To extract the components, industrial techniques utilize a 15-molar concentration of nitric acid. The Rice method uses a much softer 0.1-molar concentration of hydrochloric acid, which nonetheless provides more output.



The researchers discovered that flash Joule heating coal fly ash (CFA) more than doubled the production of most rare earth elements when compared to leaching untreated CFA in strong acids in studies headed by postdoctoral researcher and primary author Bing Deng.



"The method is general for various wastes.By using the same activation procedure, we were able to enhance REE recovery yields from coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic wastes," said Bing.



The process's generality makes it particularly promising, according to Bing, because millions of tons of bauxite residue and electronic trash are created each year.



“The Department of Energy has determined this is a critical need that has to be resolved. Our process tells the country that we’re no longer dependent on environmentally detrimental mining or foreign sources for rare earth elements," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



In 2020, Tour's lab pioneered flash Joule heating to convert coal, petroleum coke, and waste into graphene, a single-atom-thick form of carbon that is now commercialized. Since then, the group has improved the procedure to recover precious metals from electronic waste and turn plastic waste into graphene.



The research was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Department of Energy. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare earth elements are waiting to be discovered in waste

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides...

Hunting and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-are-highly-effective-for-wildlife-conservation/">wildlife</a> regulations can help stabilize animal populations, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. The experts report that even low to moderate harvesting can help the remaining animals survive extreme weather and climate change.



“Harvesting or other means of regulating an animal population can sometimes have a positive effect by reducing the competition for food,” said study lead author Bart Peeters.



The researchers used statistical models and simulations to analyze the impacts of regulated hunting on animal populations. One of the models was developed specifically for Svalbard reindeer.



"Poor winter grazing conditions, such as thick snow cover or ice on the tundra, increase the competition for food. This has little impact when the population is small and few animals are competing for food. But in larger populations, a lot of animals will starve to death when bad weather conditions reduce available resources," said Peeters.



Under extreme weather conditions, such as during frigid winter months, dense populations can collapse when food availability is scarce.



“Regulated hunting can have a positive effect since it reduces the number of animals before winter, so fewer animals need to compete for food then,” explained Peeters.



Professor Brage Bremset Hansen is the project manager from NTNU's Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics and the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), one of several project partners.&nbsp;



“By harvesting a number of animals through fall hunting, we reduce the population density and can avoid the amplified effect of poor winter grazing conditions. Hunting results in better conditions for the animals that survive the hunt. More animals will survive the winter, and a greater number will produce calves the next summer,” said Professor Bremset Hansen.



The experts say their findings can be applied to other species with limited food resources that are strongly impacted by weather conditions, such as other deer species affected by heavy snowfall.&nbsp;



“We show that bad weather conditions can severely reduce a population with a high density of animals. But harvesting as little as 5 to 10 percent of a population can reduce the mortality that would otherwise result from these bad weather conditions,” said Peeters.



In Svalbard, milder winters are now covering the tundra with ice, which can prevent reindeer from accessing their plant food.



“If the population density is high or the tundra is overgrazed, the competition for food will be even greater in tough snow conditions. This is especially true when winter rain leads to a thick ice cover on the ground,” said Peeters.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hunting can help stabilize wildlife populations

Hunting and other wildlife regulations can help stabilize animal populations,...

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as an image of self is considered a hallmark of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disorders-cognition-problems/">cognition</a> in animals. And the classic way of testing this self-awareness involves passing the ‘mark’ test. This test, also known as the mirror self-recognition (MSR) test, involves marking an individual animal in a place on the body that is only visible when the individual sees it in a mirror reflection. If the animal then investigates or touches the mark, it is considered to have demonstrated that it recognizes the image in the mirror as belonging to itself.&nbsp;



Very few species have passed the mark test. These include chimpanzees and other great apes, a single Asian elephant, some rays, dolphins, orcas and Eurasian magpies. A 2019 research paper that claimed cleaner wrasses&nbsp;(Labroides dimidiatus) also passed the mark test was criticized by some members of the scientific community, including the test's inventor, American psychologist&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_G._Gallup">Gordon G. Gallup</a>. In response, the authors of the 2019 paper have undertaken new and more extensive experiments with cleaner wrasses to determine the validity of the criticisms.



The new research, published today in the journal PLOS Biology, was led by Professor Masanori Kohda from the Graduate School of Science, <a href="https://www.osaka-cu.ac.jp/en">Osaka City University</a>. It tackled the methodological criticisms levelled at the initial experiments and has provided further evidence to suggest the fish do have the capacity for MSR.



One of the criticisms related to the small sample of cleaner wrasses used in the mark test. “Previously, using a brown marking on the throat area of&nbsp;L. dimidiatus, we had shown three out of four cleaner fish to scrape their throats several times after swimming in front of a mirror, a number on par with similar studies done on other animals like elephants, dolphins, and magpies," explained Professor Kohda.



However, in response to the issue of small sample size, the researchers managed to increase the number of fish in the study to 18. They teamed up with scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany, and the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland, and observed that 17 of the 18 cleaner fish (94 percent) demonstrated the same scraping behavior that was recorded for fish that had been marked in the 2019 study.



The critics of the initial study had also questioned the researchers’ use of a brown mark on the throat of the cleaner wrasses, when the classic mark test employs a bright red spot or sticker.&nbsp;



“After looking at similar studies done on monkeys, pigs, dogs, cats, etc. that clearly tested negative, we wondered if the reason these animals didn’t attend to the mark was because it didn’t represent something in their natural environment that they would be concerned about,” said Professor Kohda. “In our previous study, we used a brown mark as it may look like a small parasite that is a main food source for&nbsp;L. dimidiatus.”&nbsp;



At the time, critics had asserted that the physical sensation of the mark, together with seeing the brown mark in the mirror, may possibly have triggered behavior that didn’t conclusively suggest MSR. To address this, the team now tested how the fish would respond to a physical stimulus in their throat by injecting the brown mark 3 mm deep (as opposed to 1mm). At such a depth the mark was hardly visible, yet they found that fish with the deeper insertion scraped their throat at similar rates, whether a mirror was absent or present.&nbsp;



To further support their choice of a brown mark that was ecologically relevant to the cleaner fish, the team tested fish with green or blue marks and found that no fish injected with green or blue marks demonstrated the scraping behavior.



A further criticism of the initial research was that the experiments had not proven that L. dimidiatus&nbsp;recognized the mirror image as itself and not another fish. When training a fish to look at the image of itself in a mirror, three steps are involved. Initially, when faced with a mirror image, a fish will express aggressive behavior, probably because it perceives the image as another fish. Then, after some time, fish presented with the image in the mirror show some unnatural behavior but are not aggressive as they realize that there is no other fish associated with the mirror. And lastly the fish repeatedly looks at itself in the mirror, with no aggression. At this stage, MSR is possible as the fish can look intently at the image and can potentially see the mark and then respond by going to scrape it off.



“Our previous study demonstrated MSR in&nbsp;L. dimidiatus,” said Professor Kohda, “however studies with other animals have shown that simply moving a mirror reignites aggressive behavior, suggesting the animal has only learned a spatial contingency, not MSR.” To address this, the team transferred mirror-trained cleaner fish to a tank with a mirror on one side of the tank and then, three days later, to a different tank with a mirror on the other side. They found that the fish showed no aggression towards their mirror image in either of the tanks.



To further support the conclusion that the L. dimidiatus&nbsp;are actually capable of recognizing themselves during the mark test, the researchers placed mirror-trained fish in adjacent tanks that were separated by transparent glass. After two to three days, when fish largely reduced their aggressive behavior towards each other, they were all marked with a brown mark the following night. When they were exposed to the fish in the adjacent tank for 120 minutes the following morning, none of them scraped their throat.&nbsp;



“This result suggests that a visual ecologically relevant stimulus on another fish is not enough to induce throat scraping on marked subjects,” said Professor Kohda. The evidence arising from these new experiments supports the conclusion of the 2019 study that found cleaner wrasses show behavioral responses that can be interpreted as passing the mark (or mirror) test and could therefore be attributed with a sense of self-awareness.&nbsp;



“We still have much work to be done, especially quantitatively, to show that fish, as well as other animals have the capacity for MSR, however as a result of this study we reiterate the conclusion of our previous study that either self-awareness in animals or the validity of the mirror test needs to be revised,” concluded Professor Kohda.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study confirms that fish can recognize themselves in a mirror

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as...

The Congo Basin is home to the world's second-largest contiguous tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-hits-new-record-high/">forest</a> region. Despite its vast size and significance in the global climate system, very limited data is available on how the gases generated within the forest interact with the atmosphere. Research into the greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide and methane, in particular, is still in the early stages.



Several tropical forests have been identified as a substantial source of nitrous oxide and a methane sink. However, because comparable data for the Congo is unavailable, research into how these greenhouse gases react in that region has thus far been confined to modeling. Since the data for these models came from the Amazon, Indonesia, and the tropical region of Australia, scientists assumed the Congo Basin behaved similarly to these other tropical forests.



Now, this knowledge gap has been partially filled by an international research team led by <a href="https://ethz.ch/">ETH Zurich</a> Professor Johan Six. The scientists measured how much methane and nitrous oxide the Congo Basin tropical forest absorbs or releases after an extensive and laborious measurement campaign that lasted several years.&nbsp;



The researchers measured gas fluxes at several sites in three different forest types in the Congo Basin between 2016 and 2020. Montane forest, lowland tropical forest, and occasionally flooded marsh forest are among the forest types studied.&nbsp;



This is the first time that the gas fluxes of the Congo Basin's tropical forests are distinguished from those of other tropical locations throughout the world. Nitrous oxide emissions from the forest, for example, are quite minimal.



“This was unexpected. Our measurements from both the first short measurement campaigns and subsequent long-​term studies didn’t confirm the model assumptions,” said study lead author Matti Barthel.



For methane, the situation is different. The Congo Basin should be a methane sink, according to the models. For the montane and lowland tropical forests, the ETH researchers were able to confirm that this is the case. However, the Congolese tropical forest as a whole appears to be a source of methane since the much smaller swamp forests of the Congo Basin periodically exhale vast amounts of this greenhouse gas. Swamp forests generate up to 1,500 times more methane during the rainy season than during the dry season, negating the sink capacity of the other two forest types.



The researchers "looked into the soil" to understand why the Congo Basin forest behaves differently in response to certain climate gases, as Six explains it. They looked at microorganisms and their functions in one study and the isotopic composition of nitrogen in nitrous oxide in another. The experts found that soil bacteria convert the majority of nitrous oxide to gaseous nitrogen (N2) to create energy for their metabolism. As a result, this powerful greenhouse gas is removed from the atmosphere. N2 is a non-toxic gas that comprises about 80 percent of the atmosphere.



“Africa is underrepresented in such climate gas measurements, and the Congo Basin is particularly poorly researched,” said Barthel. He is aware of only one such study, which dates back to 1963 and was conducted by Belgian academics. Research in Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo, virtually collapsed after Mobutu assumed power. Furthermore, the vast tropical country remains inaccessible and its infrastructure is in a deplorable state.



Professor Six began the basic research for this paper in 2008, participating in two Congo River missions. He invited Barthel to investigate the movement of gas from this tropical forest, a missing piece in the global carbon cycle puzzle, based on the findings of these two missions. In 2016, as part of a two-month reconnaissance excursion, Barthel took the first measurements. This journey took him to the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of Congo's eastern region. The data analysis revealed that the montane forest emits very little nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.



In the following years, Barthel and local scientists established two permanent monitoring stations, one in the Kisangani region and the other in the eastern Congo's Kahuzi-Béga National Park. During many 7- to 14-day measurement campaigns throughout the year, gas exchange between the atmosphere and the ground was measured.



The researchers established an additional measurement station in the western portion of the country, in the swamp forests of the Cuvette Centrale, from 2019 to 2020. These swamp forests make up just approximately seven percent of the Congo Basin's total tropical forest area, but they produce so much methane that it more than compensates for the rest of the forest's negative emissions, according to the study.



“Methane emissions there were exorbitant at times. During the first scouting expedition, we quickly realized that we wouldn’t be able to use high-​tech measuring equipment. So we worked with devices that are as easy to use, reliable and robust as possible, and that can run on batteries,” said Barthel, adding that the whole supply situation is too bad and there was no way to get spare components if something goes wrong. In addition, the power supply is unreliable.



The measuring stations were supervised by researchers from local universities. The volunteers also collected gas samples, placed them in bottles, and shipped them to Zurich for analysis. During the transfer of the over 6,500 samples, not a single one was broken or lost.



“That’s almost a miracle, because often the cardboard boxes in which the tubes were sent on their journey definitely looked the worse for wear," said Barthel.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Congo forest does not behave like other rainforests

The Congo Basin is home to the world's second-largest contiguous...

Close,Up,Blue,Columbine,Wildflower,Blooms,In,Mountain,Aspen,Forest

Charles Darwin’s view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supertramp-birds-provide-insight-into-how-evolution-works/">evolution</a> by natural selection envisioned one species changing gradually into another by means of many, small genetic mutations over a very long time. As Darwin wrote in his seminal work, On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection, “We see nothing of these slow changes in progress, until the hand of time has marked the long lapse of ages.”



Not all evolutionary biologists agree with this view of genetic change, however. Although it may explain the way in which species adapt to changing conditions over time, there are many instances where sudden, large morphological alterations occur within relatively short geologic timespans. Such changes are thought to be due to instances of significant genetic mutation, rather than to micro-mutations that accumulate over time. In this case, biologists would view evolution as involving sudden punctuations, or steps, during which genetic changes give rise to radical new morphologies.&nbsp;



Professor Scott Hodges in the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, along with doctoral student Zachary Cabin and their colleagues, have just identified an example of a sudden evolutionary change. They have found a population of mutant Colorado blue columbine plants (Aquilegia coerulea) that produce flowers with no petals. Columbine flowers usually have small, white petals, each with an elongated spur that contains nectar and attracts pollinating insects. The mutants have lost their petals and nectar-filled spurs entirely, and these have been replaced by an extra set of sepals.



It seems that this type of mutation in A. coerulea has been seen before; in 1897, a mutant where the petals were replaced by sepals was described in the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences.&nbsp; And a 100 years later, mutant plants were found to be abundant in an area about 24 km south of the original locality in central Colorado. This implies that the mutation involving petal loss was not a disadvantage to the plants – they have continued to survive and reproduce without being able to attract pollinators to their nectar-filled spurs.



The plants are usually pollinated bumblebees and hawkmoths, that would normally be attracted to the petals with spurs because of the nectar reward they contain. It is highly unusual to find that a mutation persists in a population when this makes the plant less attractive to its pollinating agents.



This is why Hodges and the team decided to investigate this population (in Reynolds Park Open Space) more closely. Over the span of three flowering seasons (between 2014 and 2016), they mapped the position of every flowering plant in one portion of Reynolds Park and recorded the morphology, number of flowers produced, signs of herbivory on the flowers, and whether the fruits matured. They also made extensive video recordings of the insect pollinators that visited flowers, and collected tissue samples for genetic analysis.



The researchers found that at least 25 percent of the plants in the area were of the mutant variety and had no petals or spurs. When they searched the DNA for the source of this unexpected change in morphology, they found the culprit to be a mutation in a single gene, APETALA3-3, which is known to affect spur development. This type of gene is a homeotic gene because it controls the development of an entire organ. It codes for a transcription factor that influences many other genes involved in building the whole organ.&nbsp;



“The gene is either on or off, so it’s about as simple of a change you can get,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eemb.ucsb.edu/people/students/cabin">Zachary Cabin</a>. “But that simple difference causes a radical change in morphology.” The finding adds weight to the idea that adaptation can occur in large jumps, rather than by merely plodding along over extended timespans.



Geneticists who have managed to introduce experimental mutations in the homeotic genes of fruit flies, have produced flies with entire organs in the wrong place in the body. For example, antennae grow out of the abdomen of the fly, or legs grow where there should be wings. These extreme changes are likely to affect survival in most instances.



“Most of the mutations of this nature are going to be like that, just awful,” Hodges said. “The animal won’t have any chance of surviving.”



But every once in a very long while, a macromutation can be neutral, or even confer an advantage to an individual in a particular environment. This individual could, according to Richard Goldschmidt – a prominent US geneticist – be seen as a ‘hopeful monster’. Such an individual would be the product of a fortuitous radical genetic mutation that would enable it to adopt a new mode of life.&nbsp;



Hopeful monsters are not usually found in the fossil record because changes take place rapidly, but if biologists could spot a hopeful monster in the early stages of its evolution, it would show that evolution can indeed proceed in single, large jumps.



Could it be that this recent research study on columbines, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>, has unearthed a hopeful monster?



“We did not have a good example of a hopeful monster due to a single genetic change,” said Hodges, “until now.” Researchers have to catch these abrupt changes as they’re happening, otherwise they disappear into an organism’s genome. The fact that it is actively happening in the Colorado blue columbine enabled the team to confirm this plant’s status as a hopeful monster.



“There’s definitely some luck involved with us being around at the right time to capture this,” Cabin said.



The team discovered five versions, or alleles, of&nbsp;APETALA3-3, only one of which codes for a petal with a functional nectar spur. The other four were ‘broken’, as Hodges put it. They also determined that spurlessness is a recessive trait. The flower will develop normally as long as the plant has one copy of the functional allele. But any two of the mutant alleles together will prevent this.&nbsp;



Since about a quarter of Colorado blue columbines in the study area displayed the recessive trait of spurlessness, it appeared that this mutation was advantageous to the plants in some way.&nbsp;



“To get that many of this mutant type really suggests that there’s selection favoring it somehow,” Hodges said, which proved perplexing as the spurs produce nectar that attracts the plant’s pollinators. “So, how the heck can you lose your spurs and still be favored?” he asked.



Analyzing the data that they had collected in the field, the researchers&nbsp;identified that flowers with spurs attracted more herbivores in the form of aphids and deer. These animals seemed to prefer eating the flowers with the nectar-filled spurs, and it was this pressure that was likely driving the selection for flowers with no spurs.



“The first time we really realized the pattern was at the airport on the way home,” Cabin recalled. He was reading off data as Hodges entered it into the computer. “Scott could see the pattern developing, because he had all the data in front of him, and was getting more and more excited.”



Shifts in floral morphology are usually driven by pollinators, but spurlessness seems to be driven by herbivory. “Natural selection can come from very surprising sources,” Hodges said. “It’s not always what you’d expect it to be.”



The researchers now want to track how spurlessness is spreading through the columbine population. They also suspect that, thanks to this genetic mutation, the Colorado blue columbine may be diverging into separate species. “That splitting process would be slow,” Cabin said, “but there is evidence that it could be on its way.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Colorado blue columbines show punctuated evolution in action

Charles Darwin’s view of evolution by natural selection envisioned one...

In a new report from the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a>, experts warn that whales are facing a growing number of dangers along their migration routes. Based on satellite tracking data from 845 animals over the past 30 years, a team of marine scientists has created the first map of ocean "superhighways" used by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/">whales</a>.



The researchers investigated the conditions along the migration routes of humpbacks, fin whales, and blue whales from their breeding grounds to their feeding grounds. The study revealed that these critical habitats, along with the routes used to reach them, are increasingly threatened by human activity.



According to the report, the most significant threat to whale and dolphin populations is entanglement in fishing gear and ghost nets (which are discarded or abandoned by fishermen). These dangers are linked to the deaths of an estimated 300,000 whales a year.



The experts also outlined additional threats to whales along their migration routes, including ship traffic, noise and chemical pollution, overfishing, and offshore drilling.&nbsp;



Chris Johnson, who leads the WWF protecting whales and dolphins initiative, said the cumulative impacts from these types of human activities are creating a "hazardous and sometimes fatal obstacle course."



WWF is calling for the international community to work together to deliver comprehensive marine protected areas (MPAs) that overlap national and international whale migration routes, also referred to as "blue corridors."



World Wildlife Fund says delivering protected blue corridors will benefit more than just the whales, who store significant amounts of carbon over their lifetime and whose waste fertilizes the ocean, helping maintain populations of other species including commercial fish.



“Gentle giants like fin and humpback whales can be frequent visitors to UK seas, but - as is the case right around the world - our waters are fraught with risk, from fishing gear entanglement to ship strikes to impacts from noise pollution," said Dr. Simon Walmsley, chief marine adviser at WWF UK.



“As a newly independent coastal state and a shipping superpower, the UK can show international leadership and support ocean recovery by expanding and strengthening marine protected areas in UK seas.”



The WWF says the international community can help protect the world’s blue corridors by supporting the UN’s High Seas Treaty, which is set for final negotiations in March.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Whales face increasing dangers along their migration routes

In a new report from the World Wildlife Fund, experts...

A new species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flesh-eating-theropods-were-extremely-fast/">dinosaur</a>, named Guemesia ochoai, has recently been discovered in the Los Blanquitos Formation near Amblayo, in the north of Argentina. It is a species of abelisaurid theropods, a clade of carnivorous dinosaurs that lived 70 million years ago and roamed what is now South America, Africa, and India. As most abelisaurids, this dinosaur had very short front limbs, a feature which probably made it rely on its extremely powerful head and jaws to capture and devour prey.



Abelisaurids were a group of top predatory dinosaurs that may have fed on larger dinosaurs such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-titanosaur-discovered-in-the-pyrenees/">titanosaurs</a>. While they resembled in general appearance more famous species such as Tyrannosaurus rex, they had even shorter front limbs than T. rex, as well as unusually short, deep skulls that often bore crests, bumps, and horns.



Argentina is well known for its abelisaurid fossils, with 35 species already discovered on its territory. However, most of the fossils have been found in Patagonia, in the south of the country. Guemesia ochoai - named after General Martin Miguel de Güemes, a hero of the Argentine War of Independence, and Javier Ochoa, a museum technician who discovered the fossils –&nbsp;shows marked differences from other species of abelisaurids discovered in Argentina, adding new evidence that north-western Argentina had a unique set of prehistoric creatures, unlike those found in other parts of the world in the Late Cretaceous.



“This new dinosaur is quite unusual for its kind. It has several key characteristics that suggest that is a new species, providing important new information about an area of the world which we don't know a lot about,” said study senior author Anjali Goswami, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> in London.&nbsp;



“It shows that the dinosaurs that live in this region were quite different from those in other parts of Argentina, supporting the idea of distinct provinces in the Cretaceous of South America. It also shows us that there is lot more to be discovered in these areas that get less attention than some of the more famous fossil sites.”



One unique feature of this specimen are the rows of small holes in the front of its skull called “foramina,” which scientists believe that may have played an important role in allowing the animal to cool down, with blood being pumped into the thin skin from the front of the skull to release heat. Moreover, its cranium is about 70 percent smaller than any of its relatives, and, unlike most other abelisaurid skulls, it lacks horns. These differences suggest that this new species is near the bottom of the family tree of abelisaurids or closely related to ancestors of this group.



A detailed description of G.ochoai is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2021.2002348?journalCode=ujvp20">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur discovered in Argentina was armless but fierce

A new species of dinosaur, named Guemesia ochoai, has recently...

A new report from the <a href="https://www.unep.org/">UN Environmental Program</a> (UNEP) has named three major environmental threats. First is the increasing threat of wildfires, which are becoming more frequent and severe as a result of climate change. Next, the report describes the growing threat of noise pollution and the problems that come with it. Lastly, the experts highlight the issue of phenological mismatches, or the disruption of timing in natural systems and life cycles.



“The Frontiers Report identifies and offers solutions to three environmental issues that merit attention and action from governments and the public at large,” said Inger Andersen, Executive Director of UNEP. “Urban noise pollution, wildfires and phenological shifts – the three topics of this Frontiers report – are issues that highlight the urgent need to address the triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss.”



Fires burned up an average of 423 million hectares of land between 2002 and 2016. Approximately 67 percent of the area consumed by all types of fires was in Africa. Wildfires, despite being natural, are on the rise due to climate change. Smoke from fires causes health problems for humans and other animals. Fires also release carbon, making them a contributor to climate change in a sort of positive feedback loop.&nbsp;



"The report calls for greater investment in reducing the risks of wildfires; development of prevention and response management approaches that include vulnerable, rural, traditional and indigenous communities; and further refinements in remote sensing capabilities, such as satellites, radar and lightning detection," said UNEP.



Noise pollution is often overlooked as an environmental threat. Prolonged noise can harm human health and well-being and disrupt other animals as well. Unwanted human noises can disrupt communications between insects, amphibians, birds and other animals. It is estimated that noise pollution already leads to 12,000 premature human deaths every year in the EU alone. Natural sounds have a positive impact on human health, however, and it is recommended that urban planners focus on prioritizing natural sounds over unwanted human disturbances.&nbsp;



Climate change is also disrupting the natural life cycle changes in animals and plants. Critical processes such as reproduction, migration, and hibernation are all impacted by climate change. The problem arises when there is a mismatch in the timing among plant and animal species that are dependent on each other.&nbsp;



"Phenology is the timing of recurring life cycle stages, driven by environmental forces, and how, within an ecosystem, interacting species respond to the changing conditions," wrote the experts.&nbsp;



"Phenological shifts occur when species shift the timing of life cycle stages in response to changing environmental conditions altered by climate change. The concern is that interacting species in an ecosystem do not always shift the timing in the same direction or at the same rate.



These phenological shifts are increasingly disturbed by climate change, pushing plants and animals out of sync with their natural rhythms and leading to mismatches, such as when plants shift life cycle stages faster than herbivores."



"Long-distance migrants are particularly vulnerable to phenological change. Local climatic cues that normally trigger migration may no longer accurately predict conditions at their destination and resting sites along the route."



According to the experts, the full impacts of these looming environmental threats require further research. With proper planning, it is possible that we can get a handle on many aspects of these issues before it is too late.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The latest edition of the <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/deadly-wildfires-noise-pollution-and-disruptive-timing-life-cycles">Frontiers Report</a> has been released days before the resumed fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA).



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

UNEP report identifies the biggest emerging environmental threats

A new report from the UN Environmental Program (UNEP) has...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...