A recent scientific breakthrough reveals the profound influence of human breast milk on the health of an infant. In a nutshell, our body's most natural nourishment for newborns, breast milk, is found to have a protective effect against asthma by shaping the baby's microbiome during the first year of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-s-milk-natural-pacemaker-for-infants">Mother's milk: Natural pacemaker for infants</h2>



You might wonder why breast milk is a big deal. Well, the answer lies in our body's complex community of microorganisms, known as the microbiome. 



A recent study led by NYU Langone Health and the <a href="https://umanitoba.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manitoba</a> shows that breastfeeding for more than three months supports the gradual maturation of the microbiome in the infant's digestive system and nasal cavity. 



Stopping breastfeeding before this period disrupts this development process, leading to a higher risk of preschool asthma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-and-the-microbiome">Breast milk and the microbiome</h2>



Human breast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-gmo-plants-make-baby-formula-healthy-as-breast-milk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> isn't just about nutrition. It is also about promoting the right microbes in the infant's gut and nasal cavity. 



Some components in breast milk, like complex sugars called human milk oligosaccharides, can only be broken down with the help of certain microbes. 



This gives a leg-up to these microbes over others, creating a specialized microbiome environment within the infant.



Early weaning from breast milk, on the other hand, leads to a different set of microbes thriving, ones that help digest formula components.



These microbes eventually colonize all babies, but their early arrival is linked to an increased risk of asthma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-for-asthma-prevention">Breast milk for asthma prevention</h2>



Study co-senior investigator Dr. Liat Shenhav is an assistant professor at <a href="https://med.nyu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Grossman School of Medicine</a> in the Institute for Systems Genetics and the Department of Microbiology.



“Just as a pacemaker regulates the rhythm of the heart, breastfeeding and human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thc-from-cannabis-use-lingers-breast-milk-new-mothers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> set the pace and sequence for microbial colonization in the infant’s gut and nasal cavity, ensuring that this process occurs in an orderly and timely manner,” said Dr. Shenhav. 



“Healthy microbiome development is not only about having the right microbes. They also need to arrive in the right order at the right time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiome-asthma-and-breast-milk">Microbiome, asthma, and breast milk</h2>



This is the part where science gets interesting. Breastfed children had a later appearance of a bacterial species called Ruminococcus gnavus in their guts compared to formula-fed babies. 



This bacterium is related to the production of molecules called short-chain fatty acids, and the formation and breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan.



Both of these processes have ties to immune system regulation and disruption, including an increased asthma risk.



Through tracking the changes in the infants' microbiomes and their mothers' breastfeeding habits, the researchers were able to identify breastfeeding duration as a crucial determinant of the child's microbial makeup. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-insights-through-machine-learning">Valuable insights through machine learning</h2>



The team also created a machine-learning model that predicted asthma years in advance based on these microbial patterns and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-triggers-the-release-of-breast-milk-in-mothers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk components</a>. The primary way breastfeeding reduces asthma risk, they found, is through shaping the infant's microbiome.



“The algorithms we developed provide valuable insights into microbial dynamics during an infant’s first year of life and how these microbes interacted with the infant,” said Dr. Shenhav.



These insights allowed the team to move beyond identifying associations, enhancing their ability to make predictions and explore causal relationships.



“Our research highlights the profound impact of breastfeeding on the infant microbiome and breastfeeding’s essential role in supporting respiratory health,” Shenhav explained.



By uncovering the mechanisms behind the protective effects of breast milk, as demonstrated in this study, scientists aim to inform national guidelines on breastfeeding and weaning from breast milk in a data-driven manner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestone-in-infant-health-research">Milestone in infant health research</h2>



The research has been supported through a variety of grants and programs, including the National Institutes of Health and the <a href="https://www.chairs-chaires.gc.ca/home-accueil-eng.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canada Research Chair Program</a>.



The study was a part of the CHILD Cohort Study, which has been studying the same 3,500 Canadian children at different life stages, starting from the womb and stretching into adolescence.



The tireless efforts of a large, dedicated group of investigators from various institutions have made this research possible. 



The experts have provided valuable insights into the complex dynamics of the microbiome in an infant's first year of life, showing us how important mother's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutrition-for-neurons-the-role-of-breast-milk-in-shaping-our-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> are for respiratory health and asthma prevention.



This is a reminder that sometimes, the most natural solutions are the most effective ones.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(24)00782-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Breast milk is crucial for microbiome development in babies

A recent scientific breakthrough reveals the profound influence of human breast milk on the health of an infant. In a nutshell, our body's most natural nourishment for newborns, breast milk, is found to have a protective effect against asthma by shaping the baby's microbiome during the first year of life. Mother's milk: Natural pacemaker for infants You might wonder why breast milk is a big deal. Well, the answer lies in our body's complex community of microorganisms, known as the microbiome. A recent study led by NYU...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

New research from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has found that face mask litter has increased by 9,000 percent from March to October 2020. By identifying direct links between national legislations and the occurrence of discarded waste, including face masks and other protective equipment, this study highlights the environmental impact of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">COVID-19</a> pandemic and urges governments to put in place policies and legislation for the disposal of littered masks when making the wearing of them mandatory.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“The negative impacts of COVID-19 on our daily lives are well known. In April 2020, it was beginning to appear that there were some small positives in the decrease in human activity caused by lockdown, with improvements in air quality and water quality. Reduced human activity also saw reports of animals coming back to towns and cities,” said study lead author Dr. Keiron Roberts, a lecturer in Sustainability and the Built Environment at the University of Portsmouth.



“At the same time, reports of masks and gloves appearing on beaches and streets, where they hadn’t been before, started to emerge. As COVID-19 spread, so did the news reports of this new type of litter. National lockdowns made it incredibly difficult to go out and visit these places to gather evidence of what were anecdotal accounts.”



Using information from online databases such as the&nbsp; <a href="https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/research/research-projects/covid-19-government-response-tracker">COVID-19 Government Response Tracker</a> and a litter collection app called <a href="https://litterati.org/">Litterati</a>, Dr. Roberts and his colleagues have found that over two million pieces of COVID-related litter were collected across 11 countries during the first six months of the pandemic.



“Overall the study shows the impact that legislating the use of items such as masks can have on their occurrence as litter. We found that littered masks had an exponential increase from March 2020, resulting in an 84-fold increase by October 2020. There is a clear need to ensure that requiring the use of these items is accompanied with education campaigns to limit their release into the environment,” said Dr. Roberts.



According to the researchers, mask littering has short, medium, and long-term impacts. While in the short term, they can act as potential viral vectors, and cause blockages if they enter sewers, and in the medium-term they can affect animals that might eat them, in the long-term, littered items can eventually become <a href="https://www.newsbreak.com/news/2412700467748/microplastics-discovered-in-the-blood-of-livestock">microplastics</a> and potentially enter the food chain.



“As nations use masks to support social interactions, they need to support the safe disposal of this litter, and while they are at it, all other litter too,” Dr. Roberts concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00824-1">Nature Sustainability</a>. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Face mask litter jumped by 9,000% from March to October 2020

New research from the University of Portsmouth has found that...

Complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-develop-larger-sex-organs-when-co2-levels-are-high/">organs</a> in our own bodies are composed of numerous different types of cells and tissues, all working together cooperatively to achieve a particular function. For example, a heart contains muscle tissue, valves, ligaments and nerves, all of which act to pump blood efficiently. The question is, how did these different types of tissues originally come together to work as an organ?



This question has puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Now it seems that new research on a species of rove beetle may be able to cast some light on the issue. Published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, the research shows how two different types of cells form a specialized gland in the beetle’s abdomen, with the function of making and secreting noxious chemicals for defense.&nbsp;



Rove beetles live in the leaf litter and soil of ecosystems all over the world and use cocktails of unpleasant chemical substances to keep would-be predators at bay. The beetles smear themselves and other, threatening insects, with the secreted compounds, which have the effect of triggering pain receptors in the recipient. In this way, some species of rove beetles are even able to live inside ant colonies without suffering any negative consequences.



“These beetles are fantastic models for understanding how new kinds of ecological relationships emerge during evolution, through changes at the molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels,” says senior author Joseph Parker of the California Institute of Technology.&nbsp;



“As part of this question, we’re very interested in how rove beetles have pieced together these glandular structures in their abdomens, which are made of different cell types that work together. These structures are the embodiment of a major conundrum: how complex organs evolve that are often composed of many different cell types that appear to seamlessly cooperate with each other. How this cooperativity emerges during evolution is challenging to explain.”



Parker and his colleagues focused their research on Dalotia coriaria, a species of rove beetle that synthesizes and releases a defensive chemical from tergal glands in its abdomen. The substance is composed of two different types of compounds: benzoquinones, which are highly toxic solids, and solvents that consist of a blend of an alkane and esters. The solvents, on their own, are harmless, but when they dissolve the benzoquinones, they turn the resultant cocktail into a serious weapon.



Each tergal gland contains two types of cells engaged in synthesizing the different compounds to be used in defense. “One cell type makes the benzoquinones and the other makes the solvents,” Parker explains. “Both are needed to create a functional secretion that confers adaptive value.”



In the study, the investigators used single-cell transcriptomics to uncover novel enzyme pathways that are used in the creation of these substances in each cell type. They then used these findings to dig deeper, exploring how each cell type’s pathway was constructed from pre-existing components that functioned in other, more ancient cell types, elsewhere in the beetle.&nbsp;



“We were able to discover the biosynthetic pathways in each cell type and could then ask how these pathways were stitched together during evolution,” noted Parker.&nbsp;



Interestingly, one of the cell types – the solvent cells that make the alkane and esters – was found to be a hybrid of cuticle cells and other ancient metabolic cells used originally to make pheromones and to produce and store fats. The solvent cells now carry out their function using a mixture of enzymes from each of the ancient parental cell types.&nbsp;



“The beetle has recruited a major gene expression program from these ancient metabolic cell types and installed it into a patch of cuticle, creating a gland,” said Parker.



Further experimental work with the beetles showed that, when the metabolic pathway for the production of either the solvent or the benzoquinones was rendered non-functional (by genetic knockdown), the beetles lost their defensive capabilities.&nbsp;



Since both pathways are needed for the beetles’ chemical defense system, they would both have been under the influence of natural selection during the beetles’ evolutionary history. Thus, the researchers propose that the evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types.&nbsp;



“The solvent cells created a niche for a second cell type to produce the solid benzoquinones, which could dissolve in the alkane and esters. A highly toxic secretion emerged that massively raised the gland’s adaptive value, locking the two cell types into a unit where they cooperate. In essence, a new organ emerged,” said Parker.



According to the researchers, their findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors. This new understanding has implications for mapping out the evolution of more sophisticated organs found across the animal kingdom, including in humans.



“Across the animal tree of life, you see complex multicellular organs that are composed of many different cell types functioning collectively,” said Parker. “Think of something like the mammalian eye, which has about 70 different cell types all functioning together to enable our visual system. The scenario we find playing out in the tergal gland – an organ made of only two cell types – you can imagine could go through further rounds as cell types create niches for new ones to be added, eventually generating really elaborate, multicellular complexity.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beetle glands help explain how complex organs evolved

Complex organs in our own bodies are composed of numerous...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-1393-2021">Earth System Dynamics</a> has explored projected future changes in climate and ecosystem variability. The scientists found that, besides causing changes in mean temperatures and precipitation levels, global warming will also trigger the occurrence of more pronounced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-can-predict-extreme-weather-events/">extreme weather events</a> during the 21st century, ranging from powerful storms to scorching wildfires.



A research team led by the <a href="https://ibsclimate.org/">IBS Center for Climate Physics</a> (ICCP) at Pusan National University in South Korea and the <a href="https://www.cesm.ucar.edu/">Community Earth System Model</a> (CESM) project at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in the United States conducted a set of 100 global Earth system model simulations to assess the impact of anthropogenic climate change during the period from 1850 to 2100.



The computed simulations were given different initial conditions and ran on the IBS supercomputer Aleph, one of the strongest computers in the world. In order to run these simulations, over 80 million hours of supercomputer time were used, and five Petabytes of disk space (the equivalent of about 5,000 normal hard disks) were required to store the output model.



The results suggested that the impact of climate change is apparent in almost all aspects of climate variability, ranging from precipitation and temperatures extremes to increased numbers of wildfires and changes in bloom amplitude for North Atlantic Ocean’s phytoplankton. According to the scientists, extreme events are expected to become more frequent in many regions, across a broad range of climate and ecosystem variables.



“In addition to large-scale changes in extreme events, our study also identified large-scale changes in the structure of the seasonal cycle over the 21st&nbsp;century, showing an enhanced growing season length over the continental regions north of 50°N,” said study first author Dr. Keith Rodgers, a senior research fellow at ICCP. Due to mean state warming and changes in the timing of the advance and retreat of winter snow cover, by the end of this century growing season length is predicted to increase by three weeks.



This broad study has already motivated more specialized investigations using the enormous volume of data gathered from the simulations, on topics such as hydrological changes affecting water supply or the impact of climate change on marine ecosystems. According to study co-author Dr. Gokhan Danabasoglu, “an important step moving forward will be to identify more fully the potential societal impacts and to communicate the implications for adaptation strategies.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate variability will increase during the 21st century

A new study published in the journal Earth System Dynamics...

<a href="https://medicago.com/en/">Medicago</a>, a Canadian biotech company, has recently reported positive results from a large, late-stage clinical trial study of its new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-increases-heart-inflammation-risk-in-young-athletes/">COVID-19</a> vaccine, which they developed in collaboration with the pharmaceutical company <a href="https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/home/">GlaxoSmithKline</a> (GSK). 



The phase three clinical trials showed a 75.3 percent efficacy against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/delta-variants-could-further-prolong-the-covid-pandemic/">Delta</a> variant, with the vaccine’s overall efficacy rate against all variants (besides <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a>) being approximately 71 percent. What makes this vaccine unusual is that its key ingredient is grown in plants.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"These are encouraging results given data were obtained in an environment with no ancestral virus circulating. The global COVID-19 pandemic is continuing to show new facets with the current dominance of the Delta variant, upcoming Omicron, and other variants likely to follow," said GSK Chief Global Health Officer Thomas Breuer.



Medicago has already developed an experimental flu vaccine grown&nbsp;in&nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18616398/">Nicotiana benthamian</a>,&nbsp;a plant related to tobacco. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck, they decided to use similar technology to produce a vaccine against the coronavirus. The vaccine uses virus-like particles to mimic the structure of the coronavirus, without actually containing genetic material from the real virus.



In March 2021, the company started the late-stage clinical trials, with over 24,000 participants aged 18 or above from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentine. The results were highly promising. "We had about 74%-78% efficacy to prevent moderate and severe disease," reported Medicago medical officer&nbsp;Brian Ward. When taking into account milder cases too, the vaccine had a slightly lower efficacy, close to 70 percent.



In terms of side effects, Ward said, “pretty much everybody gets a sore arm.” This is probably due to the fact that the vaccine uses an adjuvant produced by GSK in order to rev up the immune response. However, less cases of fever and other side effects were reported than for other types of vaccines. Moreover, another advantage of the new vaccine is that it does not require special freezers to store it, such as Pfizer’s or Moderna’s vaccines.



Medicago plans to ask Canadian regulators to authorize their vaccine as soon as possible. If this application will be successful, they will immediately start distributing the 76 million doses promised to the Canadian government.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based COVID vaccine is safe and effective

Medicago, a Canadian biotech company, has recently reported positive results...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada has found that dogs are able to understand 89 words and phrases on average, with some canines being able to comprehend up to 215. These words include their names, as well as various commands such as “sit,” “come,” “wait,” or “lie down.”&nbsp;



As early as 1928, scientists attempted to assess dogs’ ability to understand what humans tell them, when psychologists C.J. Warden and L.H. Warner documented the ability of Fellow, a male German Shepherd, to respond to his owner’s spoken commands. According to the psychologists, Fellow was able to respond appropriately to 68 words or phrases.



In the new study, researchers surveyed 165 dog owners of various breeds and ages, by using a questionnaire modeled after parent word checklists used to assess infants’ language. The participants had to identify words to which they believed their dogs were responding. According to the owners, dogs responded to between 15 and 215 words, with a mean of 89, most of the words being commands.



“Due to their evolutionary history and close association with humans, domestic dogs have learned to respond to human verbal and nonverbal cues at a level unmatched by other species. Their ability to respond to communicative cues is critical for the numerous professional and family roles they play in our lives,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Based on owner reports, dogs seem to vary greatly not only in the number but also in the kinds of words to which they purportedly respond. The current study is consistent with existing research suggesting that dogs may be particularly adept at responding to commands rather than object words.”



Moreover, the researchers found that certain dog breeds, such as herding dogs (Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Cardigan Welsh Corgi, German Shepherd, Miniature American Shepherd, and Shetland Sheepdog), and toy-companion dogs (Bichon Frise, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Chihuahua, and multiple poodles) responded to more words than other breeds.



“There may be breed-related differences in the number of words to which dogs may learn to respond, although additional research is necessary to determine if such differences exist between breeds themselves or between owners of different breeds,” the authors wrote.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105513">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs can understand up to 215 words

A new study led by Dalhousie University in Canada has...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> shows that ingesting high levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-for-microplastics-in-the-remote-weddell-sea/">microplastics</a> is harmful to human cells. Study lead author Evangelos Danopoulos said that this is the first-time scientists have attempted to quantify the effects of microplastics on human cells using a statistical analysis of the available published studies.



"What we have found is that in toxicology tests, we are seeing reactions including cell death and allergic reactions as potential effects of ingesting or inhaling high levels of microplastics," said Danopoulos.



The researchers compared levels of microplastic consumption affecting cell viability to levels of cell viability humans are exposed to by ingesting contaminated food. They did this by looking at three previous studies.&nbsp;



The studies investigated the presence of microplastics in drinking water, seafood,&nbsp; and table salt, revealing high levels of contamination. The scientists compared these levels of plastic contamination to the levels required to cause negative impacts on human cells in toxicology studies.&nbsp;



“Our research shows that we are ingesting microplastics at the levels consistent with harmful effects on cells, which are in many cases the initiating event for health effects," said Danopoulos. "However, the biggest uncertainty at the present time is how ingested microplastics are excreted from the body. This is a crucial point to understand the true level of risk.”



The research looked at five ways in which microplastics can cause cell damage: cell death; immune responses (and allergic reaction); how microplastics may harm cell membranes or cross into them; oxidative stress, which can lead to cell and tissue damage; and genotoxicity, or damage to genetic information. The first four of these seem to be affected by certain levels of microplastics. The researchers also found that not all microplastics pose the same threat.&nbsp;



“Our analysis of the data showed that cell viability depends on the shape of the microplastics. Irregularly shaped microplastics, which are the majority found in the environment, are more hazardous than spherical," explained Danopoulos.



"So far, most toxicology studies have been testing spherical microplastics. There needs to be a shift to testing irregularly shaped ones.”



The researchers said that little is known about what happens after microplastics enter the body, despite their research showing the impact of microplastics on cells. The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-hazardous-materials">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics harm human cells, but many questions remain

A new study from the University of York shows that...

In an effort to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-not-keeping-pace-with-climate-change/">climate</a> change, President Joe Biden signed an executive order today that aims to cut the federal government’s carbon emissions by 65 percent over the remainder of this decade. The ultimate goal is for federal operations to become carbon neutral by 2050.



The government’s new climate goals align with the global target of reaching net-zero carbon emissions by mid-century. According to scientists, achieving this target is necessary to give the world a fighting chance at preventing the catastrophic impacts of unabated global warming.



According to a report from <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/">CNBC</a>, the White House will spend its annual allowance of $650 billion to upgrade efficiency at 300,000 government buildings and replace its fleet of 600,000 cars and trucks with electric vehicles.



The executive order also introduced a "buy clean" initiative that directs the government to promote the use of products that are associated with lower greenhouse gas emissions. This is meant to expand the market for American-made sustainable goods with a low carbon footprint.



"By transforming how the federal government builds, buys, and manages its assets and operations, the federal government will support the growth of America's clean energy and clean technology industries," the White House said.&nbsp;



To help reach its goal of becoming carbon neutral, the government has pledged to stop purchasing gas-powered passenger vehicles in the next five years, and plans to purchase only zero-emission vehicles by 2035. The executive order establishes that all buildings owned or leased by the federal government will produce zero carbon emissions by 2045.



According to the Washington Post, the administration’s push for carbon neutrality could have a ripple effect across the country. Duke University Professor Sarah Bloom Raskin said the government is a significant driver of demand that could “send a signal” without even adopting new regulations or passing legislation.



“It doesn’t tell the private sector entities what to do, but to some extent it will demand a certain kind of good and service so companies can shift what’s being made,” said Professor Raskin.



The White House said the executive order will reduce emissions across federal operations, invest in American clean energy industries and manufacturing, and create clean, healthy, and resilient communities.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

U.S. government pledges to be carbon neutral by mid-century

In an effort to address climate change, President Joe Biden...

Based on previous research, scientists have predicted that plants will be able to adapt to rising global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-harming-bumblebee-diet/">temperatures</a> by changing their seasonal responses. Changing the timing of seasonal processes, such as new leaf growth in spring, flower formation and seed set, was expected to help plants keep pace with climate change. However, a new, global-scale analysis has revealed that changes in these phenological (seasonal) processes are lagging behind the temperature increases, especially in human-dominated landscapes.



“We would commonly expect phenology to adapt very quickly to climate change, but with these findings, we see that there’s probably a limit to how much adaptation we can see, and this limit is affected by human activities,” said study lead author Yiluan Song. “These findings open up a lot of questions to explore in terms of our expected response of plants to climate change.”&nbsp;



Under the guidance of Professor of Kai Zhu, researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> analyzed satellite remote-sensing data in the Northern Hemisphere at mid- to high-latitudes. This data identified the warm-season growth patterns of plants on the ground. They hypothesized that growing seasons in the Northern Hemisphere would start earlier and last longer in response to increases in temperature. But this is not what they found.&nbsp;



Between 1981 and 2014, the length of the growing season changed more slowly than the average annual near-surface temperatures across a majority of the Northern Hemisphere. In some areas, this mismatch was even more extreme, with growing seasons getting shorter instead of longer.&nbsp;



In addition, the phenological mismatch corresponded with human population density and was particularly pronounced in the most human-dominated landscapes, especially croplands.&nbsp;This finding was supported with additional data from on-the-ground observations by citizen scientists which showed that the mismatch between temperature-related environmental conditions and the timing of initial growth of spring leaves increased with human population density.&nbsp;



While growing seasons in these human-impacted landscapes did not match temperature changes, phenological shifts were actually ahead of temperature changes in wildland areas. Researchers have yet to understand the reasons for these findings



One possibility is that the rate of temperature change may simply be too great for plant phenology to adequately keep up. Prior research shows that plants may be limited by their need to respond to other environmental variables too – like the length of the day and levels of precipitation – and that the species types and compositions of plant communities across parts of the Northern Hemisphere may also shape phenological response.&nbsp;



The findings have significant implications for areas where crops are farmed. In agricultural settings, warming temperatures can accelerate crop development, leading to an early harvest, but adaptive management practices could better match plant phenology with climate conditions to take advantage of longer growing seasons. Additional research will be needed to understand how human activities – like irrigation, selective planting, or land disturbance – might affect climate-phenology coupling and what the long-term impacts of this effect could be.&nbsp;



“While plant phenology has been well-researched, conventional approaches focus on natural systems, looking at forests or grasslands and intentionally excluding the areas with human dominance,” explained study senior author Kai Zhu. “But we are in the Anthropocene. When you look at the land across the earth, a large chunk of it has been modified by humans, and I think this study shows that it would be a mistake to not account for that.”



In addition, changes in the plant growth have potential impacts on environmental processes. “We particularly want to know more about the implications of these new findings on the carbon cycle,” said Zhu. “Plants are currently doing us a great service in taking up a lot of the carbon emissions we put into the atmosphere, but the length of the growing season is an important factor that determines how much carbon they can sequester.”



The researchers hope their findings might help to inform new approaches in the study of plant phenology.&nbsp;They argue that maintaining a stable relationship between climate and plant phenology is crucial for maintaining both biological diversity and ecosystem productivity in the future.&nbsp;



“We anticipate that the degree of mismatch may ultimately depend on how humans intervene,” said Zhu. “If we are smart enough, I think we could probably be adaptive to climate change through better management of plants. We are still learning in that process.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/2576604x">AGU Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants are not keeping pace with climate change

Based on previous research, scientists have predicted that plants will...

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that the marine birds need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-chimpanzees-need-protection-from-human-development/">protection</a>. The research, published in the September issue of <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>, comes as the UN is negotiating a treaty on the sustainable use of international areas in the high seas.&nbsp;



“In the marine environment, coastal states typically retain management of waters up to 200 nautical miles from their shorelines, but beyond that, the high seas, which represent 64 percent of the ocean’s surface and 95 percent of its volume, are considered global commons," explained study first author Jean-Baptiste Thiebot, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nipr.ac.jp/english/">National Institute of Polar Research</a>.



"Penguins are, largely, ocean wanderers: they venture well offshore during some - or all - of their life stages. Hence, while the public may not think of penguins as traveler animals, we show that penguins are indeed extremely mobile. This mobility also widens the range of threats that they may face at sea, and, in particular, human activities that are intensifying in the high seas.”



According to Thiebot, much of this penguin movement is wide ranging and involves international migration.&nbsp;



“Transboundary movements, notably to areas beyond national jurisdiction, are remarkably prevalent among penguin species - there are at least 120 cases of penguins, representing 13 species, using such areas. We highlight that in 16 of the 18 species examined, the birds may undertake spectacular migrations, seasonally or through life-cycle stages.”



Due to their mobility, as well as to the wide range of threats posed to them by pollution, fishing, and climate change, Thiebot suggests there is a need for flexible conservation.



“We show that the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguin species varies throughout the year, a dynamic pattern supporting the pertinence of developing innovative protection tools, such as mobile marine protected areas,” said Thiebot.



Although the research focused on penguins, it can be seen as part of a greater call for more care of the high seas.



“The current paper is part of a large effort by scientists worldwide to explain the stakes of protecting this biodiversity in the high seas. In the present paper, we examined to what extent penguins are known to use the high seas, and to what extent the conservation of penguins may depend on these legally binding developments.”



The scientists see this paper as just the first step with more research needed in the near future.&nbsp;



“Building on our first-step general approach, further analyses will be required to identify exactly which sites in areas beyond national jurisdiction are a priority for conservation," said Thiebot.



"In the meantime, the ongoing expansion of tracking studies will be key to provide a more complete perspective on the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguins across species, sites and seasons.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Penguins are more mobile, and more threatened, than expected

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that...

Humor is a universal human feature that relies on a cognitive process allowing us to perceive things as funny, and then to laugh about them. According to one of the most common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-sleep-reduces-the-risk-of-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> theories, humor requires first the introduction and comprehension of something that goes against expectations, and then the resolution of this incongruity, which is associated with amusement. Different brain regions are involved in the processing of these aspects of humor.



Having a sense of humor is crucial for the social development of children. From humorous encounters they learn playfulness and gain an understanding of the emotional attitudes, expectations and intentions of others. Although many studies have investigated the neural regions involved when adults appreciate humor, very few have examined the neurodevelopment of humor in young children.&nbsp;



In order to appreciate humor, children need to have the ability to comprehend when a situation arises that is contrary to expectations. This implies that they must have a certain level of cognitive development as well as a basic level of moral development in order to identify the incongruous situation. We all know that young children can find great amusement in funny situations, which indicates that the humor-processing network is already present in early childhood.



In a recent study by Naama Mayseless and Allan Reiss, both from the <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/">Stanford University School of Medicine</a>, the neural basis of humor processing was investigated in 35 children between the ages of six and eight years. The children watched samples of funny and neutral video clips while undergoing functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This is a method that is noninvasive and does not require participants to keep still, making it a useful technology when monitoring brain activity in children and infants in naturalistic settings.&nbsp;



The children were given the task of watching 32 short video clips chosen in random sequence from two categories: either funny (16 clips with average duration of 11 ± 2.06 sec) or neutral (16 clips with average duration of 10.18 ± 1.55 sec). After watching each video clip, the children had to choose a “smiley face” if they thought the video was funny, or a “frowny face” if it was not.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While doing the task, each child wore a specially fitted cap with 10–20 optodes, sensors that measure changes in blood oxygenation in the scalp. The optodes were connected to a fNIRS device that interpreted the stimuli in terms of brain activation.



The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS One</a>, showed that when children were watching funny videos, their brain activity increased in several different regions, but specifically in the left temporo-occipito-parietal junction (TOPJ). This is a region of the brain that has been associated with humor appreciation in adults, highlighting the idea that even young children share the same humor-processing network with adults. It is also a region that sits at the intersection between three of the brain’s lobes, and is ideally placed for integrating information from all of them.&nbsp;



The researchers observed that activation in the TOPJ region was positively correlated with age, reflecting the fact that older children have more mature cognitive, linguistic, and social skills that would enable them to process humorous stimuli.&nbsp;



The study also revealed that connectivity between different regions of the brain, as well as within individual regions, was greater when children were watching funny videos. They speculate that appreciating humorous content requires more information processing and brain gymnastics in different regions than processing neutral videos. This coherence effect was more noticeable in boys than in girls.



There are some limitations with the study, not least of which is the fact that fNIRS monitors changes in blood dynamics at the surface of the brain cortex and not in any of the deeper structures. It is also possible that, as the children laughed at the funny videos, the optodes may have moved and changed contact with the scalp, resulting in some confounding effects.&nbsp;



"While the current work expands our understanding on the neurodevelopment of humor as a crucial part of heathy development, we encourage future work to further characterize how and why children vary in their ability to comprehend and appreciate humorous content," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young children appreciate humor in the same brain region as adults

Humor is a universal human feature that relies on a...

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">coral reefs</a> in the Indo-Pacific. They are a major contributor to coral loss, since they feed on the living tissue of several hard coral species. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26786-8">Nature Communications</a> has found that reef fish such as tropical snappers, emperors, or rock cods, help keep the numbers of crown-of-thorn starfish in check on the Great Barrier Reef in the Indo-Pacific, thus protecting coral populations.



“More than 50 years ago concern was raised that removal of predators may contribute to starfish outbreaks. However, at the time only one predator of the starfish was known, the giant triton sea snail,” explained study lead author Dr. Frederieke Kroon, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS).



“Recent studies have revealed nearly one hundred species of coral reef organisms feed on different life stages of the starfish. Eighty of these are fish, including popular seafood species such as emperors, tropical snappers, and rock cods. Our study is the first to explore how fisheries harvests of these fish species may affect starfish abundance.”



Dr. Kroon and her colleagues compared long-term starfish and reef fish abundance data collected at reefs open and closed for fishing. They discovered that, on reefs closed for fishing, the biomass of emperors, rock cods, and snappers was 1.4 to 2.1 times higher and starfish densities almost three times lower than those on reefs that were open to fishing.



“It is well known that no-take marine reserves increase fish biomass and diversity of large fishes. Previous studies have suggested marine reserves could also influence starfish numbers, but our study provides strong evidence there are fewer crown-of-thorns starfish on reefs with more predatory fish,” said Dr. Kroon.



These findings may help develop new tools for controlling starfish outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef and the Indo-Pacific region, such as targeted fisheries-based management.



“Starfish outbreaks continue to be a major cause of coral loss, but unlike other pressures like climate change, can be managed at local and regional levels,” Dr Kroon said. “Targeted fisheries-based management, in combination with current crown-of-thorns starfish management interventions such as direct manual control, could assist in further controlling outbreaks.”



“Large-scale, long-term data such as those used this study, as well as experimental studies are the best scientific tools we have to help understand the complexities of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, and to implement effective and efficient management interventions for their control,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish protect corals by feeding on crown-of-thorns starfish

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to coral reefs in the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...