An asteroid impact on Mars 11 million years ago sent fragments of the red planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth, making its way to Purdue University and becoming known as the Lafayette Meteorite.&nbsp;



This rare find has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemical Perspective Letters</a> that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-mars-watery-past">Tracing Mars’ watery past</h2>



Scientists have long known that the Lafayette Meteorite interacted with liquid water on Mars, but the exact timing of this event was uncertain.&nbsp;



Dr. Marissa Tremblay, an assistant professor at Purdue University’s <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences</a> (EAPS), led an international research team to determine the age of the water-altered minerals in the meteorite, pinpointing it to 742 million years ago.



“Dating these minerals can therefore tell us when there was liquid water at or near the surface of Mars in the planet's geologic past,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that while liquid water wasn’t abundant on the surface at this time, it likely came from melting subsurface ice, or permafrost, caused by intermittent volcanic activity - a phenomenon still observed on Mars today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-a-moment-in-mars-geological-timeline">Preserving a moment in Mars’ geological timeline</h2>



The study not only identified when water interacted with the meteorite but also established that the dating was unaffected by events after the meteorite left Mars.&nbsp;



“The age could have been affected by the impact that ejected the Lafayette Meteorite from Mars, the heating it experienced during the 11 million years it was floating in space, or the heating when it fell to Earth,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



However, the team confirmed that none of these factors altered the age, validating the timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> interaction.



Study co-author and Purdue EAPS researcher Ryan Ickert applied heavy isotope analysis to further verify that previous data on the meteorite’s water-rock interaction had likely been skewed by other geological processes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This meteorite uniquely has evidence that it has reacted with water. The exact date of this was controversial, and our publication dates when water was present,” said Ickert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-journey-of-the-meteorite">Mysterious journey of the meteorite </h2>



The Lafayette Meteorite’s journey to Purdue is something of a mystery. It was found in a university drawer in 1931, though how it got there remains unknown.&nbsp;



In previous research, Tremblay and her team used crop disease markers from organic contaminants found on the meteorite to narrow down when it might have fallen to Earth.



Once the meteorite was ejected from Mars, it endured constant cosmic ray bombardment in space, which produced certain isotopes, offering clues to its time of impact on Earth.&nbsp;



“Many meteoroids are produced by impacts on Mars and other planetary bodies, but only a handful will eventually fall to Earth,” Tremblay said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-time-capsules">Planetary time capsules</h2>



Meteorites like Lafayette serve as planetary time capsules, offering invaluable data on the geological and environmental history of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">home worlds</a>. With their dense structure, metallic content, and magnetic properties, meteorites are often distinguishable from Earth rocks.&nbsp;



“We can identify meteorites by studying what minerals are present in them, their mineral relationships, and by checking for a fusion crust formed during entry into Earth’s atmosphere,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



By analyzing these traits and their chemical signatures, scientists can often determine a meteorite’s planetary origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-history-of-meteorites">Complex history of meteorites</h2>



This research marks a significant milestone for the team, which included scientists from institutions across the globe, such as the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Center (SUERC), the University of St. Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Bristol, and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



“Before moving to Purdue, Ryan and I were both based at SUERC, where the argon-argon isotopic analyses of the alteration minerals in Lafayette took place,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



Their partners at SUERC and the Natural History Museum have long contributed to studying Lafayette’s complex history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-minerals-in-meteorites">Dating minerals in meteorites</h2>



Dating the water-altered minerals in Lafayette, and others in its class of Martian meteorites called nakhlites, has been a central focus in planetary science, as they uniquely capture moments when liquid water was present on Mars.&nbsp;



Due to complex alterations over time, previous attempts to date these minerals were plagued with uncertainties.&nbsp;



However, the team has now developed a robust dating method that could be applied to other meteorites, enhancing our understanding of when water might have been present on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-planetary-science">The future of planetary science</h2>



Thanks to the Stahura Undergraduate Meteorite Fund, Tremblay and Ickert’s research on the Lafayette Meteorite will continue, with the involvement of undergraduate students in Purdue EAPS.&nbsp;



This opportunity allows students to engage in real-world planetary science, helping to reveal the intricate histories of meteoritic samples.



Tremblay and her team’s work on the Lafayette Meteorite highlights its scientific significance, revealing a complex history that ties it to Mars’ geological past.&nbsp;



Their findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also set a precedent for future studies that might unveil even more about the red planet’s climate history, water activity, and potential for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



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Meteorite that struck Mars reveals when the planet had liquid water

An asteroid impact on Mars 11 million years ago sent fragments of the red planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth, making its way to Purdue University and becoming known as the Lafayette Meteorite.&nbsp; This rare find has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of Mars’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal Geochemical Perspective Letters that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity. Tracing Mars’ watery past Scientists have long known that the Lafayette...

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>, scientists report that air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-a-major-risk-factor-for-heart-attacks/">pollution</a> has led to an increase of premature deaths in tropical cities across the world. Using observations from NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) satellites, the researchers assessed air quality for 46* future megacities in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.



The results revealed a decline in air quality and increase in urban air pollution hazardous to human health. Across all cities, a significant annual increase was identified of up to 14 percent for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and up to eight percent for fine particles (PM2.5).&nbsp;



An increase in precursors of fine particles were also found up to 12 percent for ammonia and up to 11 percent for reactive volatile organic compounds. This has been linked to emerging industries and residential sources like road traffic, waste burning, and widespread use of charcoal and fuelwood.



“Open burning of biomass for land clearance and agricultural waste disposal has in the past overwhelmingly dominated air pollution in the tropics," said study lead author Dr. Karn Vohra. "Our analysis suggests we’re entering a new era of air pollution in these cities, with some experiencing rates of degradation in a year that other cities experience in a decade.”



The scientists also found staggering increases in urban population exposure to air pollution over the study period. Overall, 40 of the 46 cities had significant increases of nitrous oxide, while 33 cities showed an increase in fine particles. This is caused by population growth and rapid deterioration in air quality.



The increase in the number of people dying prematurely from exposure to air pollution was highest in cities in South Asia, in particular Dhaka, Bangladesh, with 24,000 deaths. As well as the Indian cities of Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai, Surat, Pune and Ahmedabad - accounting for a total of 100,000 deaths.



While the number of deaths in Africa’s tropical cities are lower due to recent improvements in healthcare, researchers believe the worst health effects of air pollution can be expected in the coming decades.



“We continue to shift air pollution from one region to the next, rather than learning from errors of the past and ensuring rapid industrialisation and economic development don’t harm public health. We hope our results will incentivise preventative action in the tropics," said study co-author Dr Eloise Marais.



*Cities analyzed in the study:



<ul><li>Africa - Abidjan, Abuja, Addis Ababa, Antananarivo, Bamako, Blantyre, Conakry, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kampala, Kano, Khartoum, Kigali, Kinshasa, Lagos, Lilongwe, Luanda, Lubumbashi, Lusaka, Mombasa, N’Djamena, Nairobi, Niamey, Ouagadougou.</li><li>South Asia – Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Chittagong, Dhaka, Hyderabad, Karachi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Pune, Surat.</li><li>Southeast Asia – Bangkok, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Manila, Phnom Penh, Yangon.</li><li>Middle East – Riyadh, Sana’a.</li></ul>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution in tropical cities linked to 180,000 excess deaths

In a new study led by University College London, scientists...

The&nbsp;eastern oyster&nbsp;(Crassostrea virginica), also known as the Atlantic oyster, is a species&nbsp;of&nbsp;true oyster&nbsp;native to the eastern seaboard of the U.S., as well as to parts of eastern Canada and South America. It is an important commercial seafood that has been harvested for thousands of years but has also been severely overexploited in the past.&nbsp;



Eastern oysters are filter feeders that draw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">water</a> across their gills and filter out the edible organisms along with detritus. They release the cleaned water back into the environment and are known to keep bodies of water clear of suspended sediment. However, the removal of millions of tons of individual oysters over the past two centuries has reduced populations to only a small fraction of what they were prior to the arrival of European colonists.&nbsp;



Commercial harvesters did not only remove the oysters, but also the banks of accumulated shells that the oysters form as they cement themselves to the broken and disused husks of dead individuals. Shells were ground up and used in mortar, as road fill and as a source of lime in fertilizer. Gradually, the reefs that had been built along sand bars and muddy tidal flats over thousands of oyster generations were dredged out such that today only around 15 percent remain, worldwide.



However, the future of oyster reefs is not all doom and gloom. <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> researchers, in partnership with The Nature Conservancy, have published the results of a 15-year study in which they assess the possibility of restoring reefs to their former functional glory. Their findings, published in <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1755263x">Conservation Letters</a>, demonstrate that restored reefs can match natural reef oyster populations in about six years and continue to hold strong thereafter.



“Our study shows that restoration can catalyze rapid recovery of an imperiled coastal habitat and help reverse decades of degradation,” said the study’s lead author, Rachel Smith, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Environmental Sciences at UVA.



Since the 1990s, conservationists and government agencies have been restoring reefs by recycling oyster and clam shells from natural deposits, aquaculture farms and restaurant discards; the shells are used to form the substrate for the reefs, in the hopes that larval oysters will settle and grow on them. Unfortunately, many of these projects have not been rigorous enough to allow scientific conclusions, or they have terminated within two years or less, which is too short a time to see measurable results.&nbsp;



In the current study, the researchers monitored changes on 70 reefs, at 16 different sites in coastal Virginia. They studied the oyster populations for 15 years in order to answer the question of whether reefs that have become degraded and “functionally extinct” can be restored to health.



“In the past, answering this question has been hampered by unknown timelines for recovery, undefined benchmarks for success and uncertainty about whether restored ecosystems can match natural ones,” said study co-author Max Castorani, an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences. “Although preventing habitat loss should be the first priority, our new findings show that restored oyster reefs can catch up within a decade.”



Smith and Castorani worked with scientist Bo Lusk at The Nature Conservancy, which has been restoring oyster reefs in Virginia’s coastal bays since 2003. The scientists conducted their experiments at the National Science Foundation’s Virginia Coast Reserve Long-Term Ecological Research site, and were able to collect extensive empirical evidence of the relatively quick rebound of the oysters, as well as the recolonization of the reef habitat by small crabs that help support the broader food web.



“We also learned that as restored reefs matured and gained oysters, they became more stable over time, which suggests that restoration can increase ecosystem resilience,” Smith added.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New hope for degraded oyster reefs along the eastern seaboard

The&nbsp;eastern oyster&nbsp;(Crassostrea virginica), also known as the Atlantic oyster, is...

At least two-thirds of drinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">water</a> in the United States contains uranium, according to a new study from Columbia University's <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Mailman School of Public Health</a>.



The research, which was focused on metal concentrations in U.S. community water systems (CWS), also revealed patterns of inequalities. The highest levels of uranium, selenium, barium, chromium, and arsenic were found in Hispanic communities, which raises environmental justice concerns.&nbsp;



Uranium, in particular, is a known risk factor for the development of chronic diseases, even at low levels.



"Previous studies have found associations between chronic uranium exposure and increased risk of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and lung cancer at high levels of exposure," said Dr. Anne Nigra.&nbsp;



"Our objectives were to estimate CWS metal concentrations across the U.S, and identify sociodemographic subgroups served by these systems that either reported high metal concentration estimates or were more likely to report averages exceeding the US EPA's maximum contaminant level (MCL)."



In the United States, around 90 percent of residents rely on public drinking water systems. Most residents rely specifically on community water systems that serve the same population year-round, noted the researchers.



For the investigation, the experts analyzed EPA review records from 139,000 public water systems serving 290 million people



The goal was to determine if average concentrations of antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, thallium, and uranium exceeded the "safe" contaminant levels established by the EPA.&nbsp;



The study revealed that during compliance monitoring, uranium was detected in community water systems 63 percent of the time.



The researchers noted that the consistent association between elevated CWS metal concentrations and semi-urban, Hispanic communities implies that concentration disparities are a failure of regulatory policy or treatment rather than underlying geology.&nbsp;



"Additional regulatory policies, compliance enforcement, and improved infrastructure are therefore necessary to reduce disparities in CWS metal concentrations and protect communities served by public water systems with elevated metal concentrations," said Dr. Nigra.&nbsp;



"Such interventions and policies should specifically protect the most highly exposed communities to advance environmental justice and protect public health."



The study was supported by the US National Institutes for Environmental Health Sciences. The results are published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Uranium detected in two-thirds of U.S. drinking water

At least two-thirds of drinking water in the United States...

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats of processing, but they have nothing on the human brain. With its 100 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-neurons-respond-to-singing-but-not-instrumental-music/">neurons</a> and more than 1,000 trillion synapses or neuronal connections, the human brain is much more efficient than a traditional computer. In fact, computers that mimic the way in which human brains function may well be next, in terms of hardware development.&nbsp;



Currently, conventional computer systems are based on what is called the von Neumann architecture. They consist of an input, usually from a keyboard and mouse, and an output, such as to a monitor. They also involve a CPU, or central processing unit, and RAM, or memory storage. Transferring data through all these mechanisms from input to processing to memory to output takes a lot of power, at least compared to the human brain.&nbsp;



For instance, the Fugaku supercomputer uses upwards of 28 megawatts, roughly equivalent to 28 million watts, to run while the brain uses only around 10 to 20 watts. In addition, this conventional computer architecture does not allow for an instruction fetch and a data operation to take place at the same time, as both transfers of information share a common&nbsp;bus. This is referred to as the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture#Von_Neumann_bottleneck">von Neumann bottleneck</a>, and it can limit the performance of the system. In contrast, human brain neurons can both process and store data, which makes them more efficient.



Computer engineers are now trying to design computing systems that mimic the way neurons and synapses work in the human brain. They are developing components for these neuromorphic systems and are trying to do so in environmentally friendly ways. Hailed by some as the future of computing, neuromorphic systems are much faster and use much less power than traditional computers.&nbsp;



In a recent study, engineers at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> have demonstrated how to make an environmentally friendly memristor, a component similar to a transistor that can not only process but also store data in memory. One of the important components of the memristor is a thin layer of solid honey layered between two metal electrodes.&nbsp;



“This is a very small device with a simple structure, but it has very similar functionalities to a human neuron,” said Feng Zhao, associate professor of WSU’s School of Engineering and Computer Science, and corresponding author on the study.&nbsp;“This means if we can integrate millions or billions of these honey memristors together, then they can be made into a neuromorphic system that functions much like a human brain.”



For the study, Zhao and first author Brandon Sueoka, a WSU graduate student in Zhao’s lab, created memristors by processing honey into a solid form and sandwiching it between two metal electrodes, making a structure similar to a human synapse. They then tested the honey memristors’ ability to mimic the work of synapses with high switching on and off speeds of 100 and 500 nanoseconds respectively. The memristors also emulated the synapse functions known as spike-timing dependent plasticity and spike-rate dependent plasticity, which are responsible for learning processes in human brains and for retaining new information in neurons.



Currently the memristors have been developed at the micro scale, and so are approximately the size of a human hair. Zhao plans to make further changes in future, so that these components are sized at the nano scale and are comparable to about 1/1,000 of a human hair. In this case, many millions or even billions of these components could be bundled together, just like neurons in a nerve, to make a full neuromorphic computing system.



Several companies, including Intel and IBM, have already released neuromorphic chips which have the equivalent of more than 100 million “neurons” per chip; this may sound impressive, but it is not yet near the number of these structures found in the brain.&nbsp;



In developing the memristors, Zhao and his team have focused on looking for biodegradable materials to use in order to address the current ecological challenges of electronic waste. While many developers are still using the same nonrenewable and toxic materials that are currently used in conventional computer chips, Zhao’s investigations have led him to test various proteins, as well as the sugars in honey and in Aloe vera leaves for use in the memristors.&nbsp; He has found that honey has great potential for this task.&nbsp;



“Honey does not spoil,” he said. “It has a very low moisture concentration, so bacteria cannot survive in it. This means these computer chips will be very stable and reliable for a very long time.”



The honey memristor chips developed at WSU should tolerate the lower levels of heat generated by neuromorphic systems which do not get as hot as traditional computers. The honey memristors will also cut down on electronic waste.



“When we want to dispose of devices using computer chips made of honey, we can easily dissolve them in water,” said Professor Zhao. “Because of these special properties, honey is very useful for creating renewable and biodegradable neuromorphic systems.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0022-3727">Journal of Physics D</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey may be used in computer chips that work like brain cells

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language">Journal of Child Language</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-infants-recognize-words-using-similar-brain-regions/">words</a> used to direct caregivers, known as demonstratives, are likely to be among the first words a child learns and uses most frequently.&nbsp;



"Sharing attention is the infrastructure for the rest of language and social interaction," said Amalia Skilton, a linguistics scholar and Klarman Fellow in the College of Arts and Sciences at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.



We already know that early speakers of Mandarin, English, and Spanish use words such as "this" and "that." However, these languages have a relatively simple structure. Skilton wanted to see if there was a strong drive to use these types of words in languages that were different in structure and social context.&nbsp;



Skilton observed 45 Ticuna speakers in Peru and found that their children followed the same pattern even though the language is distinct from the other languages studied.&nbsp;&nbsp;



There are only two primary demonstratives in English ("this and "that"). However, Ticuna, an indigenous language spoken by people living along the Amazon/Solimões River in Peru, Colombia, and Brazil has six demonstratives. The four most common demonstratives were examined.



During her year in Peru, Skilton found that most of the one-year-olds she monitored said "this/that" or "here/there," indicating a universal desire to share attention. Based on this finding, she suggests that children should start using that vocabulary at roughly 12-18 months, regardless of language.&nbsp;



While young children are eager to share attention, Skilton points out that they find it difficult to understand other people's perspectives.&nbsp;



Observations have shown that children struggle to comprehend what others believe. Skilton's research adds to these findings because it demonstrates that they also have difficulty understanding how others think about objects in space.



Skilton explains that caregivers should not be concerned if a child under three years old misuses the words.



"While adults think of these words as simple, their meanings are fairly challenging for children to understand at young ages and having trouble with them is a typical part of child development."



Skilton plans on continuing her research in Peru, where she hopes to look at how children use pointing gestures to direct adults' attention.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many of a child's first words are used to direct caregivers

A new study published in the Journal of Child Language...

According to a <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/increase-in-atmospheric-methane-set-another-record-during-2021">preliminary analysis</a> led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a>), increases in atmospheric methane hit a new record in 2021, averaging 1,895.7 parts per billion (ppb) during last year – which is 15 percent higher than in the 1984-2006 period, and around 162 percent greater than pre-industrial levels.



Although carbon dioxide remains the biggest contributor to anthropogenic global warming, methane is roughly 25 times more powerful at trapping heat in the atmosphere, and thus has a major short-term impact on the rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-coming-on-faster-due-to-climate-change/">climate change</a>. This gas is emitted by oil and natural gas production, as well as by livestock farming and wetlands, whose microbe-rich soils are ideal for naturally producing and emitting methane.



In November, 2021, over 100 countries signed a “<a href="https://www.state.gov/united-states-european-union-and-partners-formally-launch-global-methane-pledge-to-keep-1-5c-within-reach/">Global Methane Pledge</a>” to cut methane emissions by 30 percent until the end of this decade. However, some major emitters such as Russia and China have not signed this pledge yet, and NOAA’s analysis suggests that even in countries that signed it, the rates of emissions remain extremely high.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our data show that global emissions continue to move in the wrong direction at a rapid pace. The evidence is consistent, alarming, and undeniable,” said NOAA administrator Richard Spinrad. “Reducing methane emissions is an important tool we can use right now to lessen the impacts of climate change in the near term, and rapidly reduce the rate of warming.”



Since a large part of methane emissions originate from unintentional leaks from industrial wells and pipelines, fixing these problems should be relatively easy. “Reducing methane emissions from fossil fuel is an important step, and a low-hanging fruit to reduce atmospheric methane levels,” said Xin “Lindsay” Lan, a research scientist at NOAA’s <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/">Global Monitoring Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



“The latest increases in methane concentrations reinforce the critical importance of reducing human-caused methane emissions if we are going to slow the rate of increase in warming,” confirmed Steven Hamburg, a chief scientist at the <a href="https://www.edf.org/">Environmental Defense Fund</a>. “There is agreement in the scientific community that the majority of methane emissions are human caused and account for more than a quarter of the warming we are currently experiencing.”



However, other factors such as the massive rains in tropical areas that have flushed huge quantities of methane from wetlands, or the major role livestock play in methane emissions, could be more difficult to control and mitigate. Nevertheless, slashing these emissions as much as we can remains the fastest and cheapest way to reduce global warming in the short term.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Methane emissions hit a new record in 2021

According to a preliminary analysis led by the National Oceanic...

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced some fascinating findings. Previously at the site, scientists discovered sturgeon and paddlefish that died as Chicxulub - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-details-on-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">asteroid</a> that killed the dinosaurs - hit Earth.&nbsp;



Lodged in the fishes gills are tiny spherules, particles created from molten rock that date to the impact. The fish seem to have inhaled these particles with their dying breath. It was through analyzing the growth patterns of these fish that scientists determined the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">asteroid struck in springtime</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Other fossils from the site have included a turtle impaled on a wooden stake, a pterosaur egg with embryo inside, small mammals along with their burrows and triceratops skin. Scientists believe that all of these amazing remains come from the moment of the asteroid impact.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now, another spectacular and perhaps more momentous finding comes from Tanis. An incredibly well preserved dinosaur leg with impressions of skin including foot pads was found by a team led by Robert DePalma, a University of Manchester graduate student. The leg appears to be that of a thescelosaurus, according to professor Paul Barrett of London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



"It's from a group that we didn't have any previous record of what its skin looked like, and it shows very conclusively that these animals were very scaly like lizards. They weren't feathered like their meat-eating contemporaries.” Barrett told BBC.&nbsp;



"This looks like an animal whose leg has simply been ripped off really quickly. There's no evidence on the leg of disease, there are no obvious pathologies, there's no trace of the leg being scavenged, such as bite marks or bits of it that are missing,"



Some scientists are suspicious of the claims at Tanis. For one thing, the entire site is a jumble of terrestrial and marine fossils from the western interior seaway mixed together, probably by the meteor impact. It’s possible that some of these animals died earlier and were mixed together after the impact. So far, the findings have not been presented in a peer reviewed scientific journal, and their scientific merit is yet to be confirmed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur fossil suggests it was killed by THE asteroid

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> has developed a new tool to better assess a highly important but largely overlooked indicator of global warming: the variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-worms-can-make-complex-decisions/">worms</a>, bugs, and snails that live in mountain streams. These aquatic invertebrates - which serve as food for a diversity of alpine life forms including birds, bats, fish, and frogs – are particularly vulnerable to climate fluctuations, such as rapid swings from droughts to massive floods.



In order to be able to protect aquatic life in high mountain streams, the scientists must first clearly understand their distribution. According to the study authors, classic theories for predicting biodiversity in such regions have various shortcomings.&nbsp;



For instance, one such theory – the “River Continuum Concept” – discusses how stream ecosystems function as they move from the stream sources down to larger, more open rivers. This theory argues that there should be a smooth gradient of change when moving from high to low elevations.



To test this theory, the scientists performed an in-depth survey of the aquatic life from the high mountain Sierra Nevada streams.&nbsp;



“We saw a change, but only partially and not for the reasons the theory said we should,” said study co-author Kurt Anderson, an associate professor of Evolution and Ecology at UC Riverside. “For example, we found that lakes tended to interrupt the smooth change we were supposed to have seen.”&nbsp;



According to Professor Anderson and his colleagues, while the diversity of invertebrates generally increased in waters headed downwards, it was lowest in streams situated immediately below lakes, where only a few species of invertebrates and insects with the ability to filter food particles were found.&nbsp;



“We believe the lakes may have a disconnecting effect and are causing the downstream waterways to have to start over again in building diversity,” said study lead author Matthew Green, an ecologist at UC Riverside.



The researchers have also found a large variety of life forms in cold, isolated streams high up in the mountains. Thus, despite the general trend towards an increase of biodiversity while moving downstream, sometimes, the differences in species between isolated headwaters is in fact as great as those between upstream and downstream areas.&nbsp;



“These are the aquatic life forms that are at the edge of the precipice of climate change,” said study co-author Dave Herbst, a researcher at the <a href="https://ucnrs.org/reserves/sierra-nevada-aquatic-research-laboratory/">Sierra Nevada Aquatic Research Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



In order to protect the biodiversity of these crucial ecosystems, interconnected systems of flowing water should be guarded from diversions such as habitat damage caused by unrestricted land development.&nbsp;



“That is what will permit these small, but crucially important life forms to thrive. Where intact habitats have been compromised, restoration efforts may be key to providing the entire ecosystem with resilience to the coming adversities of climate change,” concluded Professor Anderson.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecm.1520">Ecological Monographs</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How is the climate impacting aquatic life in mountain streams?

A recent study led by the University of California, Riverside...

Although rain is essential for the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-flower-colors-help-plants-survive/">plants</a>, it also frequently carries harmful pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, or filamentous fungi. A new study led by <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> in Japan has found that when plants are exposed to rain, hair-like structures on their leaves’ surface called trichomes recognize the rain as a risk factor for disease and promptly activate their immune systems to prevent or fight off infections.



Just like humans and other multicellular organisms, plants also have immune systems that help them detect pathogens and defend themselves against infections. To find out how plants respond to rain, the scientists conducted an experimental study using Arabidopsis thaliana&nbsp;seedlings. By performing RNA-sequencing analyses, they found that several major immune-related genes are expressed in response to rain. These genes are regulated by immunosuppressive genes called calmodulin-binding transcription activators (CAMTAs), which are controlled by calcium ions.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that when the plants were exposed to rain, calcium ions levels around the trichomes on leaf surfaces increased, suggesting that trichomes can sense rain as a risk factor and induce calcium waves across the leaves to inactivate the immunosuppressor CAMTA and thus activate immune-related genes.&nbsp;



In order to confirm these findings, the researchers conducted similar experiments on Arabidopsis mutants which lacked trichomes. As they expected, the propagation of calcium waves was compromised in these mutants, and their immune responses were consequently dampened.&nbsp;



“From these results, we confirmed that trichomes play a role in sensing rain as a risk factor and activating immune responses,” said study senior author Yasuomi Tada, an associate professor of Genetics at Nagoya University. “Our findings suggest that we may be able to artificially improve plants’ defensive capabilities against diseases at any time and for any length of time. Using this technology, we could make it possible to activate crops’ immune responses when environmental conditions are harsh enough to possibly cause disease in plants, which could result in stable crop yields.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28813-8">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants activate immune defenses against pathogens in rain

Although rain is essential for the survival of plants, it...

It’s strange that cacao, the main ingredient in chocolate, is central to a great mystery. For centuries, humans have grown and eaten cacao but somehow, we never understood one of the central processes that gave us such delicious food - its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-pollination-can-be-advantageous-for-plants/">pollination</a>.



Cacao flowers are tiny and the insects that gather on the tree are also miniscule and diverse, so it may be excusable that no one’s looked close enough at the right time to find a pollinator for cacao. Now, new research published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26888319">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a> examines the pollination of cacao.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



In northern Peruvian dry agroforests - that is, cacao plantations grown in the shade of other trees - glue was applied to the flowers of the plant to see what insect visited. A variety of insects were caught, with 38% being aphids, 13% were ants and 10% were thrips. In wet agroforests of southern Peru, thrips made up 65% of the insects caught, midges were 14%, and parasitic wasps were 10% of visitors.&nbsp;



There was also a difference in the behavior of insects in these different habitats. In dry agroforests, more insects were found in the shade. In the wetter agroforests, however, insects preferred to be in the sun - at least during the rainy season when the research was carried out.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the cacao set fruit at a rate of just 2%, hand pollination was only able to raise this number to 7%. This baffled the scientists who could only hypothesize. Perhaps there are no good pollinators for cacao in Peru. The scientists also noted that only an average of 30 pollen grains were found on cacao flowers, much less than expected for successful pollination.&nbsp;



There is still much to investigate in the pollination of cacao. "Among other things, it would be important to identify the main pollinators," said Justine Vansynghel, lead researcher and PhD student.



This information could help improve the yields of cacao in native regions like Peru, which lags behind the pollination rates of plantations in Asia and Africa, probably because these plants are high yielding clones. More research may finally discover the pollinator but for now, cacao remains a delicious mystery.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cacao tree pollination remains a mystery

It’s strange that cacao, the main ingredient in chocolate, is...

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of another. Researchers recently asked whether people empathize more with other people or with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-100-cases-of-humans-passing-disease-to-animals/">animals</a>. The study was published in a special issue of the journal <a href="https://www.hogrefe.com/us/journal/social-psychology">Social Psychology</a>.



To investigate this question, scientists recruited 193 participants. The research subjects were then asked whether they wanted to empathize with a human or an animal. If the participants said human, they were shown a picture of a college age person and asked to put themselves in their situation. If they chose an animal, the participants were shown the image of a koala bear. In this study, the participants more often chose the human.&nbsp;



“Participants indicated that empathizing with animals felt more challenging, and that belief of empathy being more difficult drove them to choose animal empathy less," said study lead author Daryl Cameron of the <a href="https://rockethics.psu.edu/">Rock Ethics Institute</a>. "It’s possible that people felt empathizing with a mind that’s unlike our own was more challenging than imagining the experience of another human.”



Another study illuminated and complicated things a bit more. In a second study, two new groups of 192 and 197 participants were given two choices. First, researchers asked one group to either empathize with or just describe without empathizing a person. The second group was given the same choice but with a koala instead of a person. Interestingly, with the image of the human, people tended to avoid empathizing. With the image of the koala people didn’t avoid empathy but embraced it.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s possible that if people are seeing humans and animals in competition, it might lead to them preferring to empathize with other humans,” said Cameron. “But if you don’t see that competition, and the situation is just deciding whether to empathize with an animal one day and a human the other, it seems that people don’t want to engage in human empathy but they're a little bit more interested in animals.”



The researchers hope that this sort of psychology study might help better target conservation efforts and in the end help further the cause of wild animals.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do humans empathize more with people or other animals?

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS) has found that rising greenhouse gas emissions have a long-term warming effect on the Amundsen Sea in West Antarctica, leading to significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-antarctic-sea-ice-has-fluctuated-over-the-past-century/">sea ice</a> melting. Although scientific observations of this region only began in 1994, the patterns of ice loss the scientists mapped suggest that the ocean may have been gradually warming over the past century, due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors.



Ice loss from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Amundsen Sea is one of the main contributors to sea level rises worldwide. According to the researchers, if this massive ice sheet were to melt completely, global sea levels could rise by up to three meters.



By using advanced computer modelling to simulate the response of the Southern Ocean to changes in the atmosphere from 1920 to 2013, the scientists found that the Amundsen Sea became increasingly warmer during this period, due to changes in wind patterns that increased temperatures by driving warm water currents towards and beneath the ice. These changes in wind patterns are partly driven by rising greenhouse emissions.



“The main cause of the warming in our simulations is changes in the winds near the edge of the Amundsen Sea that pump more warm water from the deep ocean onto the shallower continental shelf. These wind trends are partly caused by greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels,” the study authors explained.



According to study lead author Kaitlin Naughten, an ocean-ice modeler at BAS, if greenhouse gas emissions increase, further rises in ocean temperatures, ice melt, and global sea levels are to be expected. However, the fact that these patterns are partly caused by human activity should also give us reason to hope: if emissions are sufficiently reduced and wind patterns in the area are stabilized, this trend could be curbed and perhaps even reversed.



“Changes in the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds are a well-established climate response to the effect of greenhouse gases. However, the Amundsen Sea is also subject to very strong natural climate variability. The simulations suggest that both natural and anthropogenic changes are responsible for the ocean-driven ice loss from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet,” said study co-author Paul Holland, an oceanographer at BAS. While the natural changes occurring in the area are most probably beyond our control, urgent measures should be taken to curb emissions in order to protect our planet from catastrophic sea level rises.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL094566">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea ice loss is directly affected by greenhouse gas emissions

A new study led by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS)...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...