The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets about its formation. Among its fascinating residents is Chiron, a centaur orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune. 



New findings by scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) shed light on this hybrid of comet and asteroid, revealing unprecedented insights into its surface chemistry and activity.



The study was led by Dr. Noemí Pinilla-Alonso of the University of Oviedo and Dr. Charles Schambeau from the University of Central Florida (UCF). Their findings could reshape our understanding of centaurs and the solar system’s early history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-capsules-of-the-solar-system">Time capsules of the solar system </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-objects-called-centaurs-29p-continue-to-perplex-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centaurs</a> are objects with dual characteristics, straddling the line between asteroids and comets. 



Chiron, discovered in 1977, is unique even among centaurs. It exhibits comet-like behavior, including a coma - a cloud of gas and dust - alongside distinct surface and interior features.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso emphasizes that centaurs act as “time capsules,” preserving information about the solar system’s formation. "All small bodies in the solar system talk to us about how it was back in time,” she explained. 



Chiron’s activity, driven by solar heating, offers a rare opportunity to explore these preserved secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-chemical-diversity-in-a-centaur">Unprecedented chemical diversity in a centaur</h2>



Using <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>, the team discovered that Chiron's surface hosts carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide ice. Its coma contains methane and other gases, marking the first detection of such diversity in a centaur. 



“These results are like nothing we’ve seen before,” noted Dr. Schambeau from <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCF</a>.



JWST’s advanced capabilities allowed the researchers to study Chiron even at its farthest point from the Sun. This distance usually limits the activity of similar objects, such as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comet-will-be-visible-for-the-first-time-in-50000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> closer to the Sun, Chiron’s thinner coma offers clearer insights into its surface chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chiron-s-ice-and-gas-dynamics">Chiron's ice and gas dynamics</h2>



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that Chiron’s dual nature makes it invaluable for studying processes in both comets and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a>. 



"What is unique about Chiron is that we can observe both the surface and the coma,” she said.



This dual observation provides critical information about the ice layer's thickness, porosity, and chemical properties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1s.webp" alt="Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida." class="wp-image-1954508"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida.</figcaption></figure>



JWST’s observations revealed the coexistence of primordial ices, such as methane and water, and newer compounds formed through surface processes. 



“Every active centaur we observe shows some peculiarity,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso. Understanding these peculiarities may uncover patterns across these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-lifetime-comet-will-be-easily-visible-this-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enigmatic objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-oddball-among-centaurs">An oddball among centaurs</h2>



Chiron stands out due to its unusual behavior, including comet-like activity and potential rings of debris. 



Dr. Schambeau describes it as “an oddball” with a unique thermophysical process. He analyzed methane in Chiron’s coma, linking its outflow to sun-heated regions on its surface.



These findings deepen our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-chiron_debris-disk_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">centaurs’ evolution and behavior</a>. 



Chiron’s dynamic environment provides clues about how solar heating influences its surface and subsurface, offering a glimpse into processes shaping similar bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-future-of-chiron">Origins and future of Chiron</h2>



Chiron likely originated in the TNO region before moving into its current orbit. Gravitational interactions with giant planets alter the paths of centaurs, exposing them to varied environments.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso explained that centaurs typically remain in the giant planets’ region for about a million years before being ejected. “They may end their lives as Jupiter Family comets or return to the TNOs region."



Chiron’s journey across the solar system exposes it to solar radiation, driving surface changes and creating its unique chemical composition. 



Understanding this evolution provides valuable insights into the early solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-chiron-s-discovery">Broader implications of Chiron’s discovery</h2>



The study’s implications extend beyond Chiron. Identifying gases and ices on distant objects enhances our understanding of the solar system’s building blocks. 



These findings could also inform future research on centaurs and other icy bodies.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that JWST’s spectra revealed intricate details about Chiron’s ices and their interactions. "Based on our new JWST data, I’m not so sure we have a standard centaur."



Further studies may uncover shared traits among centaurs, offering a clearer picture of their origins and diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-more-about-centaurs">Learning more about centaurs</h2>



The researchers from <a href="https://www.uniovi.es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oviedo</a> and UCF plan to continue observing Chiron as it approaches the Sun.



Closer proximity will enable more detailed studies of its surface and coma, potentially uncovering new chemical and physical properties.



Future research may also explore seasonal variations and illumination effects on Chiron’s ice reservoir. Such studies could refine our understanding of how centaurs interact with their environments and evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mysteries-of-the-solar-system">Unveiling the mysteries of the solar system</h2>



The JWST, an international collaboration led by NASA, has revolutionized space science. 



Its ability to observe distant objects like Chiron is solving long-standing mysteries about the solar system and beyond. These discoveries highlight the telescope’s transformative impact on planetary science.



“JWST has made these detections accessible. These results enhance our understanding of Chiron’s interior composition and its unique behaviors,” concluded Dr. Schambeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-solar-system-exploration">New chapter in solar system exploration</h2>



Chiron’s unique chemistry and activity mark a significant milestone in understanding the solar system’s origins. 



The ongoing research, powered by JWST’s capabilities, promises to unravel more secrets about this enigmatic centaur and its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">counterparts</a>.



Through Chiron, scientists are not just uncovering the past - they are laying the groundwork for future exploration of icy bodies across the solar system.



“The analysis of Chiron’s gases and ices opens new frontiers and opportunities for exciting research,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/12/aa50124-24/aa50124-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Rare asteroid-comet hybrid is unlike anything ever seen before

The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets about its formation. Among its fascinating residents is Chiron, a centaur orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune. New findings by scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) shed light on this hybrid of comet and asteroid, revealing unprecedented insights into its surface chemistry and activity. The study was led by Dr. Noemí Pinilla-Alonso of the University of Oviedo and Dr. Charles Schambeau from the University of Central Florida (UCF). Their findings could reshape our understanding of centaurs...

Understanding how individuals change their behaviors as they age is useful for research on many different animal species, including humans. By clarifying the consequences of senescence for aging individuals, such studies could also provide new insights into how societal structure and function might change as the population ages. 



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has now studied a population of aging female wild red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deer-migration-is-driven-by-springtime-vegetation-patterns/">deer</a> on the Isle of Rum in Scotland. The analysis revealed that aging deer become less sociable with age and tend to adopt a life of solitude in their advancing years.



“We found that deer’s social networks shrink as they grow old and begin associating less with others,” said study lead author Greg Albery, a biologist at Oxford. “This ‘social aging’ appears to be driven by older individuals choosing to live in more isolated locations and engaging with fewer other deer within these sparser areas.”



Dr. Albery and his colleagues applied novel social network analysis methods to a large, 46-year-long dataset containing observations of over 3,500 female deer over their lifetimes. As these deer grew older, they began interacting with fewer conspecifics within their home ranges, and often shifted their locations to less populated areas of their habitat. Moreover, they had smaller home ranges, farther away from the center of the population, in areas of lower density with lower-quality grazing opportunities.



“This new evidence of social aging in the wild shows the value of long-term datasets. By tracking many individuals simultaneously over their entire lives, we can understand how and why their social associations with one another change over time,” said study senior author Josh Firth, a professor of Biology at Oxford.



Further research is needed to clarify why aging deer become less social. The scientists currently hypothesize that social aging is driven by a combination of multiple factors, including moving to areas that are easier for older individuals to forage in, and changing their behavior to become more socially selective in their relationships with other deer. Applying the scientific methods employed in this study to other long-term data sets of wild animals will help generate a broader view of the fundamental rules that govern aging and social behavior in natural populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01817-9">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Red deer become less sociable with age

Understanding how individuals change their behaviors as they age is...

An international team of researchers has uncovered six new species of miniature frogs in Mexico, which is a country that is well known as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> hotspot.&nbsp;



The new species - found in the states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Jalisco - are now considered some of the smallest frogs in the world. None of the miniature frogs exceed 15 millimeters (0.6 inches) in length.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the tiny size of the frogs can be explained by pedomorphosis, a process in which species retain juvenile characteristics as they mature. Over time, the frogs began breeding earlier and earlier in their development. This ultimately made them so small they can fit on a Mexican coin.



Study co-author Eric Smith, a professor of Biology at <a href="https://www.uta.edu/">UT Arlington</a>, believes these species have eluded us for so long because of a common bias found in conservation.



“Biodiversity research tends to focus on big, charismatic animals and can neglect smaller species,” said Professor Smith. “Because of this, these little frogs went undetected for a very long time.”



The frogs have a small range and are threatened by habitat loss. “These creatures inhabit a very narrow range among the leaf litter on the mountainsides,” explained Professor Smith. “If you hike too far too quickly, you could miss them completely.”



Hence, now that they have been discovered, the work of protecting them begins. The researchers hope to have them classified as endangered.&nbsp;



Beyond protecting the species the team has already identified, Professor Smith wants to explore other regions. He said that despite the progress they’ve made identifying new species, more research is needed to understand the diversity of miniature amphibians in Mexico.



“Our sampling efforts are limited in western Mexico and east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but we are already aware of more new species from this group that need to be described.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/herpetological-monographs/volume-36/issue-1/0733-1347-36.1.1/Miniaturization-in-Direct-Developing-Frogs-from-Mexico-with-the-Description/10.1655/0733-1347-36.1.1.full">Herpetological Monographs</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Frogs found in Mexico are among the world's smallest

An international team of researchers has uncovered six new species...

Instead of swimming freely in the ocean, garden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-hunting-behavior-observed-among-electric-eels/">eels</a> anchor themselves into burrows in the sandy seabed, staying in one place for most of their lives. Their heads face against the flow of the current as they strike at zooplankton drifting by. Until recently, scientists knew little about how these fascinating creatures feed.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST) has investigated for the first time the feeding behavior of garden eels in a laboratory setting, and revealed how these animals make use of their burrows, and change their posture and movements in response to strong currents, allowing them to feed in a wider range of flow speeds than many free-swimming fish.



“Free-swimming fish can shelter from currents by hiding in cracks and crevices in the reef,” said study lead author Kota Ishikawa, a doctoral student in Marine Biophysics at OIST. “But garden eels are stuck in a more exposed area, with only their own burrows for shelter, so they’ve had to develop their own unique strategies for dealing with strong currents.”



In their laboratory, the scientists recreated typical conditions by making a flume with a sandy bottom, containing several portable burrows, each of them housing a single spotted garden eel, Heteroconger hassi, a species commonly found in Okinawa. After adding zooplankton to the water, they used cameras to capture the motion of the garden eels as they fed at four different flow rates (0.1, 0.15, 0.2, and 0.25 m/s).&nbsp;



The experiment revealed that, as the current increased, the eels retreated farther into their burrows and focused their strikes on zooplankton which passed closer by. “This is a really important adaptation, as faster currents require more energy to move in,” Ishikawa explained.



However, as the current increased in speed up to 0.2 m/s, the retreat into burrows did not stop the eels from feeding at a rapid pace, due to the fact that more zooplankton drifted by in the given amount of time, thus offsetting the eels’ behavioral changes. Moreover, due to the shorter strike distance, the eels were more successful in catching their prey. At higher flows, the eels adopted a more curved posture, enabling them to reduce the amount of drag on their bodies by around 57 percent, which helped them conserve energy.



The feeding rate of the eels hit its peak at just under 0.2 m/s, proving that these animals are adapted to feed at a wider range of flow speeds than free-swimming reef fish (which have a peak rate of about 0.15 m/s). “We can see that their unique strategy of retreating into the burrows and reducing their strike distance really pays off when dealing with strong currents,” Ishikawa concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.243655">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Study reveals the secret feeding strategies of garden eels

Instead of swimming freely in the ocean, garden eels anchor...

A new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) has found that, regardless of their tiny brains, paper wasps (Polistes fuscatus) are capable of learning abstract concepts. Even more surprisingly, these wasps were also able to transfer what they learned through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-sparks-strikingly-similar-visuals-among-people-of-the-same-culture/">visual</a> training into a different sensory modality: the olfactory sense.



In a series of previous studies, U-M evolutionary biologist Elizabeth Tibbetts and her colleagues have shown that paper wasps have an amazing capacity to learn, remember, and make social distinctions about others. For instance, they can recognize individuals of their species by variations in their facial markings, and they behave more aggressively towards wasps with different markings. Moreover, these wasps seem to have surprisingly long memories, basing their actions on what they remember of previous social interactions, and are able of transitive inference – a behavior resembling logical reasoning.



In the current study, the experts used laboratory tasks to test whether the wasps can learn and apply one of the most basic abstract concepts – the idea of sameness and difference. The wasps were trained to distinguish between pairs of visual or olfactory stimuli – two colored pieces of paper, two pictures of wasp faces, or two chemical odors – which were either identical or different. While one pair of stimuli was associated with a mild but unpleasant electrical shock, the other one was not.&nbsp;



Afterwards, the insects were exposed to new pairs of stimuli and tested on their capacity to avoid electric shocks by selecting the “correct” pair. Strikingly, trained wasps made the correct choice over 80 percent of the time. “Our findings show the wasps learned the general concept of sameness and difference and applied it to new samples and new types of stimuli,” said Professor Tibbetts. “Abstract concepts are thought to be associated with high levels of cognitive sophistication, so there has been much interest in which species can form and use them. This is the first time anyone has shown that wasps can form abstract concepts.”&nbsp;



“Remarkably, wasps applied the concept of sameness and difference across sensory modalities, as they transferred concepts learned in the visual domain to the odor domain,” added study first author Chloe Weise, a former master’s student at U-M. “Therefore, our results illustrate that Polistes are able to master abstract interrelationships between stimuli.”



Although several species of vertebrates such as primates, pigeons, crows, parrots, dolphins, and ducklings are able to form abstract concepts, paper wasps are only the second invertebrate species (after honeybees) that were capable to do this. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms by which they perform this amazing feat, and compare them to those employed by other species.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1156">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Paper wasps can form abstract concepts

A new study led by the University of Michigan (U-M)...

A new study suggests that the face of an owner can provide positive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-support-can-lower-stress-levels-in-orphaned-elephants/">social</a> reinforcement for dogs. This theory was tested by gathering a group of dogs and presenting them with two choices: a video showing their owner's face and a food reward or a video which showed the back of the owner’s head with the same food reward.&nbsp;



"It is increasingly assumed that domestication has equipped dogs with unique socio-cognitive skills, which raises the possibility of intriguing parallels between the social motivational systems of the two species. However, the positive incentive value of human facial stimuli is a largely unexplored area," explained the study authors. "Here, we investigated whether the owner's face serves as a social reinforcer."



Anna Kis, who studies canine behavior, has found many interesting test results about man’s best friend. For instance, one investigation revealed that - like humans - dogs experience sleep disturbances with less time in deep sleep after a stressful day.&nbsp;



Another study considered the effect of oxytocin on canine social cognition. The research team found that positive interaction with humans can increase oxytocin levels in dogs. Meanwhile, dogs living in shelters exhibit increased levels of cortisol, which is the hormone associated with stress.



For the current study, Kis wanted to understand whether seeing a human caregiver's face could&nbsp; influence a dog in a two-way choice task. Overall, 19 males and 20 females dogs watched both videos. The participating dogs showed a significant selection bias toward food placed next to their owners' faces.&nbsp;



Previous research, and of course, the experience of any pet owner, has shown that dogs find social interaction with humans intrinsically rewarding. These results are in line with previous studies which suggest that dogs perceive neutral human faces as positive rather than negative.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs gain positive reinforcement from their owner's face

A new study suggests that the face of an owner...

Group,Of,Mature,Female,Friends,On,Outdoor,Yoga,Retreat,Walking

Physical and mental activity can help preserve thinking skills and delay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-may-protect-our-brains-against-dementia/">dementia</a>, but these benefits may vary for men and women, according to a new study.&nbsp;



The study looked at the effects of physical and mental activities, such as reading or playing card games, on cognitive reserve in the areas of thinking speed and memory.



“We found that greater physical activity was associated with greater thinking speed reserve in women, but not in men,” said study author Judy Pa.&nbsp; “Taking part in more mental activities was associated with greater thinking speed reserve for both men and women.”



Interestingly, greater physical activity was not associated with memory reserve in either men or women.



The research was focused on 758 people with an average age of 76. Some of the individuals had no thinking or memory problems, some had mild cognitive impairment, and some had dementia.&nbsp;



Brain scans were taken, and the participants underwent thinking speed and memory tests. To calculate cognitive reserve, test scores were compared against changes in the brain associated with dementia, such as the total volume of the hippocampus, a key brain region impacted by Alzheimer’s disease.



The participants were asked about their weekly physical activity. For mental activity, they were asked whether they read magazines, newspapers or books, went to classes, and played cards, games or bingo over the last 13 months. They were given one point for each type of activity, for a maximum of three points. On average, the individuals scored 1.4 points for mental activity.&nbsp;



For physical activity, participants took part in at least 15 minutes per week of activities that elevate heart rates such as brisk walking and biking.



Pa said that each additional mental activity corresponded to 13 fewer years of aging in their processing speed -17 years among men and 10 years among women.



“As we have arguably few-to-no effective treatments for Alzheimer’s disease, prevention is crucial. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of treatment,” Pa said. “To know that people could potentially improve their cognitive reserve by taking simple steps such as going to classes at the community center, playing bingo with their friends or spending more time walking or gardening is very exciting.”



In women, a doubling of the amount of physical activity would be equivalent to an estimated 2.75 fewer years of aging when it comes to processing speed in their thinking skills.



The researchers also looked at whether the relationship between physical and mental activities and cognitive reserve was affected by the gene that carries the strongest risk for Alzheimer’s, called APOE e4. For women, having the gene lessens the effects of the beneficial relationship between physical and mental activities and cognitive reserve.



The study does not prove that physical and mental activities help improve cognitive reserve. It only shows an association. Also, structural and societal factors that affect cognitive reserve, such as education, were not measured in the study.



The research was supported by the National Institute on Aging and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences.



Learn more about brain health at <a href="http://www.brainandlife.org/">BrainandLife.org</a>, home of the <a href="https://www.aan.com/">American Academy of Neurology</a>’s free patient and caregiver magazine focused on the intersection of neurologic disease and brain health.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Physical activity preserves thinking skills among women

Physical and mental activity can help preserve thinking skills and...

Tiktaalik is an iconic fossil species of lobe-finned fish discovered by scientists in 2004, on Ellesmere Island&nbsp;in&nbsp;Nunavut, Arctic Canada. What set this extinct species apart was that, in addition to having typical fish characteristics like gills, scales and fins, it also had some features of tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates), like strong bones in the fins that would have enabled it to support its weight on land. Tiktaalik’s combination of features are thought to show the&nbsp;evolutionary transition&nbsp;between swimming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-adapt-their-size-to-fit-their-environment/">fish</a> and their descendants, the four-legged vertebrates.



Some people have jokingly admonished Tiktaalik for dragging itself out of the water and giving rise to four-legged land vertebrates. After all, if Tiktaalik had not done this, humanity would not be around today to endure the ravages of disease, war and modern life. And now it seems that a new fossil fish, found at the same time and in the same area as Tiktaalik, shows evidence of opting to return to living in open water, rather than taking the terrestrial option.



Scientists from the laboratory of Neil Shubin, PhD, who co-discovered&nbsp;Tiktaalik&nbsp;in 2004, now describe a fossil species that closely resembles&nbsp;Tiktaalik&nbsp;but has features that made it more suited to life in the water.&nbsp;The fossil remains include the fish’s partial upper and lower jaws, portions of its neck, and its scales. In addition, a complete pectoral fin is also present and this where the differences from Tiktaalik are obvious.



Qikiqtania wakei&nbsp;had a pectoral fin with a distinct humerus bone that lacked the ridges indicating muscles and joints that would have enabled it to walk on land. Instead,&nbsp;its upper arm was smooth and curved, more suited for a life of paddling underwater.&nbsp; The uniqueness of the arm bones of&nbsp;Qikiqtania&nbsp;suggest that it returned to paddling the water after its ancestors began to use their appendages for walking.&nbsp;



“At first we thought it could be a juvenile&nbsp;Tiktaalik, because it was smaller and maybe some of those processes hadn’t developed yet,” Shubin said. “But the humerus is smooth and boomerang shaped, and it doesn’t have the elements that would support it pushing up on land. It’s remarkably different and suggests something new.”



Shubin, who is the Robert R. Bensley Distinguished Service Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>, found the fossil&nbsp;days before&nbsp;Tiktaalik&nbsp;was discovered, at a site about one mile east on southern Ellesmere Island in the territory of Nunavut in northern Arctic Canada. The name&nbsp;Qikiatania&nbsp;comes from the Inuktitut word Qikiqtaaluk or Qikiqtani, the traditional name for the region where the fossil site is located. The species name&nbsp;wakei&nbsp;is in memory of the late David Wake, an eminent evolutionary biologist from the University of California at Berkeley.



Shubin and his field partner, Ted Daeschler from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, collected the specimens from a quarry after spotting a few promising looking rocks with distinctive, white scales on the surface. But they sat in storage, mostly unexamined, while the team focused on preparing&nbsp;Tiktaalik.



It was fifteen years before postdoctoral researchers Justin Lemberg and Tom Stewart put one of the larger blocks of rock through a CT scanner and realized it contained what they thought was a fossilized pectoral fin. Unfortunately, it was too deep inside the rock to get a high-resolution image and they would have to remove parts of the block to get closer to the fin. And then came COVID, and laboratories were forced to close down.&nbsp;



“We were trying to collect as much CT-data of the material as we could before the lockdown, and the very last piece we scanned was a large, unassuming block with only a few flecks of scales visible from the surface,” said Lemberg, who is now doing cultural resource management fieldwork in Southern California. “We could hardly believe it when the first, grainy images of a pectoral fin came into view. We knew we could collect a better scan of the block if we had the time, but that was March 13th, 2020, and the University shut down all non-essential operations the following week.”



The scientists were able trim pieces off the block and send it for another CT scan within a few months, and this time the resulting images were much clearer, revealing a nearly complete pectoral fin and upper limb, including the distinctive humerus bone. Their exciting results are published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“That’s what blew our minds,” Shubin said. “This was by no means a fascinating block at first, but we realized during the COVID lockdown when we couldn’t get in the lab that the original scan wasn’t good enough and we needed to trim the block. And when we did, look at what happened. It gave us something exciting to work on during the pandemic. It’s a fabulous story.”



Qikiqtania&nbsp;is slightly older than&nbsp;Tiktaalik&nbsp;but not by much. The team’s analysis of its position on the tree of life places it, like&nbsp;Tiktaalik,&nbsp;adjacent to the earliest creatures known to have finger-like digits. But even though&nbsp;Qikiqtania’s distinct pectoral fin was more suited for swimming, it wasn’t entirely fish-like either. Its curved paddle shape was a distinct adaptation, different from the jointed, muscled legs or fan-shaped fins we see in tetrapods and fish respectively today.



Unfortunately for Qikiqtania, its own adaptation ultimately did not help it to survive in the evolutionary race – we do not see evidence of this type of pectoral fin adaptation in today’s fish. However, the find does help us to understand that there was a diversity of different forms around in ancient times and that most of them ended up becoming extinct. Animal evolution can’t be explained in terms of a straight line that connects prehistoric forms to living creatures today. The story of&nbsp;Qikiqtania&nbsp;shows that some animals stayed on a different path that ultimately didn’t work out.&nbsp;



“Tiktaalik&nbsp;is often treated as a transitional animal because it’s easy to see the stepwise pattern of changes from life in the water to life on land. But we know that in evolution things aren’t always so simple,” said Stewart, who will be joining the faculty at Penn State University this summer. “We don’t often get glimpses into this part of vertebrate history. Now we’re starting to uncover that diversity and to get a sense of the ecology and unique adaptations of these animals. It’s more than simple&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil fish from Tiktaalik’s time chose life in the water

Tiktaalik is an iconic fossil species of lobe-finned fish discovered...

Warm-bloodedness, or endothermy, is one of the most fascinating traits that arose sometime during the evolution of vertebrates. Early vertebrates, including fish and amphibians, were all cold-blooded, or ectothermic, meaning that they did not regulate their body temperatures but rather reflected the ambient temperature of their surroundings. But more modern vertebrates (birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-small-mammals-in-the-uk-tested-plastic-positive/">mammals</a>) use metabolic heat to keep their temperatures constant. When, in evolutionary time, this change occurred, is a topic of great interest for scientists.&nbsp;



There are several different forms of evidence for endothermy in dinosaurs - including their bone structure and largish brains, their distribution in colder regions, and their ability to move relatively fast. However, none of this evidence is conclusive. Now, in a new study published in&nbsp;the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>, scientists suggest an interesting relationship between metabolic rate and the size of vertebrate ear canals that may help shed light on the time when ancient mammal ancestors became warm-blooded.



Evidence of endothermy does not fossilize easily. Most dinosaur fossils don’t record the skin covering, which might be hair or feathers if the animal were warm blooded. The fossil record also does not indicate whether most dinosaurs behaved in a way that matched an active, warm-blooded metabolism or a slow, cold-blooded one.&nbsp;



A team of researchers, led by scientists from London’s Natural History Museum, the University of Lisbon’s Instituto Superior Técnico, and the Field Museum in Chicago have discovered that animals’ inner ears may provide an indirect clue about their body temperatures.



The inner ears of all vertebrate animals contain tiny canals, filled with fluid, that help them balance. The fluid may be viscose or runny, depending on the temperature of the animal. Ectothermic animals have more viscous fluid because their body temperatures are lower – and associated with this increased viscosity is the fact that the ear canals need to be wider in order for the thicker fluid to move appropriately. Endotherms are warmer and so their ear canal fluid is runnier and requires only narrow ear canals through which to travel.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Until now, semicircular canals were generally used to predict locomotion of fossil organisms. However, by carefully looking at their biomechanics, we figured that we could also use them to infer body temperatures,” said study co-lead author Romain David. “This is because, like honey, the fluid contained inside semicircular canals gets less viscous when temperature increases, impacting function. Hence, during the transition to endothermy, morphological adaptations were required to keep optimal performances, and we could track them in mammal ancestors.”



The researchers compared the sizes of the inner ear canals of 341 animals, including 243 living species and 64 extinct ones. They found that mammal ancestors didn’t develop the kinds of inner ear structures ideal for warm-blooded animals until 233 million years ago, which is nearly 20 million years later than scientists had previously proposed for the evolution of warm-bloodedness.&nbsp;



In addition, they found that when those smaller semicircular canals did show up in the fossil record, they were accompanied by other, rather rapid changes like the evolution of whiskers, fur and specialized backbones in proto-mammals. And these changes all appeared in the fossil record rather rapidly, in evolutionary terms. The evolution of fur and warm-bloodedness at about the same time gives support to the ear canal hypothesis because fur traps the body heat generated by a higher metabolism, helping to keep the body at the high temperature it needs in order to thrive.



“Contrary to current scientific thinking, our paper surprisingly demonstrates that the acquisition of endothermy seems to have occurred very quickly in geological terms, in less than a million years,” said study co-lead author Ricardo Araújo. “It was not a gradual, slow process over tens of millions of years as previously thought, but maybe was attained quickly when triggered by novel mammal-like metabolic pathways and origin of fur.”



Study senior author Ken Angielczyk said that he is excited by how the study helps answer one of the longest-standing questions about the evolution of mammals.



“The origin of mammalian endothermy is one of the great unsolved mysteries of paleontology. Many different approaches have been used to try to predict when it first evolved, but they have often given vague or conflicting results,” said Angielczyk. “We think our method shows real promise because it has been validated using a very large number of modern species, and it suggests that endothermy evolved at a time when many other features of the mammalian body plan were also falling into place.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ear canals may reveal when mammals became warm-blooded

Warm-bloodedness, or endothermy, is one of the most fascinating traits...

A recent survey study led by the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> has found that nearly one in three species are at risk of extinction by the end of the 21st century, due to multiple drivers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> loss including climate change, human rampant production and consumption, or environmental pollution. While all living organisms will face significant threats, insects and plants are considered to be the most endangered.&nbsp;



The survey received 3,331 responses from experts in biodiversity from 187 countries, covering all the main groups of species, ecosystems, and habitats.&nbsp;



“While considering the types of species and ecosystems they know best, experts estimated that about 30 percent of species have been globally threatened or driven extinct since the year 1500,” said study lead author Forest Isbell, an associate professor of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Minnesota.&nbsp;



“Experts also acknowledged substantial uncertainty around their estimates, with perhaps as few as 16 percent or as many as 50 percent of species threatened or driven extinct over this time.”



According to Professor Isbell and his colleagues, global biodiversity loss and its impacts may be significantly greater than previously thought, due to higher estimates provided for understudied taxa and underrepresented experts.&nbsp;



“This paper includes the perspectives of a very wide range of experts and allows us to assess less known taxa as well as give a voice to underrepresented experts in the global literature,” said study co-author Patricia Balvanera, a professor of Ecosystem and Sustainability Research at the <a href="https://www.unam.mx/">National Autonomous University of Mexico</a>.



“Experts who identify as women and who are from the Global South have provided significantly higher estimates for past biodiversity loss and its impacts. Also, experts who identify as women disproportionately study the taxa that experts estimate are most threatened.”



The scientists encourage biodiversity specialists to use these findings to learn how their own perspectives may differ from those of others, and to ensure that a wide range of perspectives is included when conducting global biodiversity assessments, setting conservation goals, and implementing new policies aiming to safeguard biodiversity.



“Since biodiversity is highly regional in nature, the attempt of our study to bring together the opinions of regional experts from around the world is unprecedented,” said co-author Akira Mori, a professor of Ecology at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a>. “From the perspective of social and cultural diversity and inclusiveness, even if they are not necessarily complete, I believe we have presented certain suggestions for future international policy discussions.”



Urgently increasing conservation efforts and investments is crucial for removing the threat of extinction for one in three species that may otherwise disappear by the end of the century.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2536">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

One in three species could vanish this century

A recent survey study led by the University of Minnesota...

In a win for biodiversity, scientists from <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/">George Washington University</a> have discovered three new species of black-bellied salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus). These new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-three-species-could-vanish-this-century/">species</a> inhabit the southern Appalachian mountains in the eastern United States.&nbsp;



The species were hidden in plain sight because they are known as cryptic species, which are species that do not look very different. For more than 100 years, scientists believed the salamanders all belonged to the same group.&nbsp;



“Black-bellied salamanders have been commonly studied for over 100 years,” said lead researcher R. Alexander Pyron.



“In 2002, a cryptic dwarf species was discovered, and, in 2005, DNA evidence began to suggest there were still more. It wasn’t until our NSF-funded research in 2020 that we were able to sequence genome-scale data to figure out there were actually five similar-looking species.”



The researchers began to take a closer look at the black-bellied salamander and noticed slight morphological, genetic, and geographic differences between individuals. Some were different sizes, different shapes, or had their own unique color patterns.&nbsp;



Through genetic analysis, the experts determined that there are five species of black-bellied salamander - three of which were unknown to scientists. The new species are D. gvnigeusgwotli, D. kanawha, and D. mavrokoilius.



Pyron said that black-bellied salamanders have been miscategorized for a long time. “After looking at multiple specimens, we see obvious and substantial phenotypic variation between most lineages.”



“In fact, the name ‘quadramaculatus,’ which was used for over 120 years, is not the correct name for any of these five species. We tracked down the original specimens at museums in Philadelphia and Paris and found that they belonged to a totally separate species. This raises the question of how ‘cryptic’ they ultimately are.”



According to the researchers, this discovery offers opportunities to learn about the new black-bellied salamanders. These cryptic species may have more secrets to reveal.



Image Credit: Todd Pierson, Kennesaw State University



This study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mapress.com/bn/article/view/bionomina.27.1.1">Bionomina</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Three new black-bellied salamanders were hidden in plain sight

In a win for biodiversity, scientists from George Washington University...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.izs.it/">Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Teramo</a> (IZSAM) has found that free-ranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origin-of-horse-domestication-has-finally-been-revealed/">horses</a> have higher levels of stress, compared to the ones living in stables under human management. This is likely due to factors including the pervasive danger of predators, the continuous need to search for food and water, and the more complex social dynamics characterizing wild horse populations.



The experts analyzed the cortisol levels of 47 horses, divided into three groups: 16 horses belonging to the State Police of Ladispoli, where they carried field work and training, 16 engaged in public order services at the Rome State Police, and 15 living in the wild in the mountains of the Abruzzo region. None of these horses had any acute or chronic pathologies at the beginning of the study.



“Cortisol is considered to be a valid indicator of stress, according to scientific literature. So its amount in the horsehair can be an ‘archive,’ providing information about the animal’s chronic status of well-being,” said study lead author Francesco Cerasoli, a researcher in Animal Welfare at IZSAM.



The analysis revealed that the cortisol levels were higher in the wild mountain horses than in the two groups kept in stables and involved in intense work activities. “This evidence contradicts some common beliefs stating that a free-raging animal, capable of expressing its natural behavior, would experience higher levels of well-being than the one at work and managed by humans” Cerasoli said.



“Our study shows that the animals managed by State Police, although subjected to work and/or public order service, an activity presumably rich in stressful factors, experience lower cortisol levels. Our conclusion is that proper management by humans seems more respectful of horses’ well-being than a pure nature condition.”



This study – published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/12/14/1739">Animals</a> - sheds new light on the factors that contribute to equine well-being. In the future, such methods could be extended to other species too in order to reliably assess their stress levels, and could become a point of reference for animal welfare, a field of research which is sparking growing interest recently.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Wild horses have higher stress levels than domestic ones

A new study led by the Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of...

According to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GL098574">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, reconstructing how natural communities located near a rapidly advancing and retreating glacier in Alaska have responded to fast-paced warming events in the past could help predict their responses to climate change in the future.&nbsp;



While studying once-buried layers of trees that had been plowed down by glaciers in the 19th century, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> (UAF) have noticed that tree rings in the Glacier Bay National Forest had compressed growth during the late 1800s, as the La Perouse glacier advanced and pushed a bubble of cold air out into the woods.



“Then we had this idea to monitor the size and intensity of the cold microclimate around the ice using temperature sensors,” said study lead author Benjamin Gaglioti, an ecologist at UAF. “If the glacier went back and forth and this microclimate influenced the surrounding forest, we could use it as an experiment” to assess how ecosystems may respond to climate change in the future.



By using historical accounts, tree cores, and aerial imagery, Gaglioti and his colleagues found that the glacier rapidly advanced hundreds of meters during the late 19th century, remained stable during the early 20th century, and began retreating around 1950. These microclimate changes were clearly reflected in the tree rings from the surrounding forest, which exhibited a slowdown of growth as the glacier advanced and an increase in growth rates as it retreated.



“That was stunning to me,” Gaglioti said. “Because of the glacier’s advance and retreat, the La Perouse forest experienced some of the fastest rates of historical cooling and warming on Earth, but climate models indicate these rates of change will&nbsp;become more common in the next century. Studying these types of glacier-adjacent ecosystems can help us understand how they may respond to the unprecedented rate of warming in the future.”



In future studies, the scientists aim to compare how different species of trees have responded to microclimate changes in the vicinity of the glacier in order to better understand the effects of large magnitude cooling and warming on entire forests. In addition, similar microclimates elsewhere can be used to examine climate sensitivities of other ecosystems, ranging from microorganisms to mammals.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Fluctuating glaciers shed new light on climate change

According to a new study published in the journal Geophysical...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...