The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

A new botanical survey of southwest Ohio conducted by the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> (UC) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive species</a> introduced in the United States over the past century are gradually crowding out many native plants, threatening a large variety of ecosystems that depend upon them. These non-native species include plants such as the Amur honeysuckle, the porcelain berry, the winged euonymus, the European buckthorn, or the Oriental bittersweet.



By focusing on undeveloped parts of cemeteries, banks of the Mill Creek, and public parks that have remained protected from development during the past two centuries, the scientists found that many species that were initially introduced as ornamental plants have now spread and are flourishing in the wild.&nbsp;



One of the most invasive species is the Amur honeysuckle, a woody shrub originating from Asia, which has delicate white flowers in the spring and red berries in the fall. According to a survey from 1961, this plant started to grow in some parts of Hamilton County, but had not yet spread in the wild in other places in Ohio. Now, it is found everywhere in the state, crowding out virtually all other low-lying vegetation.&nbsp;



“Amur honeysuckle is now the most abundant woody plant in Hamilton County. It has escaped into the wild and is propagating on its own,” said study lead author Denis Conover, a professor of Biology at UC. “One bush can produce thousands of seeds that get dispersed by birds and mammals.”



According to Professor Conover, in places where these introduced plants are found, there is often less biodiversity to support wildlife and the native food chains. Once they take hold, eradicating them is labor-intensive, time consuming, and expensive.



“Native plants just don’t have a chance. Everything that depends on the native plants — insects, birds — can be lost,” he said. “When they introduce nonnative plants to the United States, they can also import fungal diseases that can wipe out native trees, which is what happened with the American chestnut.”



Besides the Amur honeysuckle, the researchers found dozens of other examples of foreign species that have taken root in southwest Ohio’s forests, including the tree of heaven, the common privet, the lesser periwinkle, the Norway maple, the Amur cork tree, and the white poplar, as well as various herbaceous species such as the lesser celandine, the garlic mustard, and the Japanese knotweed.



“The spread of nonnative invasive species into wooded natural areas in southwestern Ohio threatens the continued survival of native flora and fauna. Efforts by park managers and volunteers to control invasive plant species has become a major part of their duties. This effort will be required in perpetuity and will be at great expense both monetarily and timewise due to collateral damage to native plants, wildlife, and humans caused by the extensive use of herbicides, chainsaws, and other mechanical equipment,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3368/er.40.2.94">Ecological Restoration</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Invasive plants are taking over Ohio’s forests

A new botanical survey of southwest Ohio conducted by the...

According to the latest annual report from the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (<a href="https://epic.uchicago.edu/">EPIC</a>), air pollution currently takes over two years off the global life expectancy – more than alcohol, smoking, or terrorism. The experts found that particulate air pollution (a combination of dust, smoke, fumes, and pollen) has remained high even during the lockdowns triggered by the Coronavirus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-unearth-the-origins-of-the-black-death-pandemic/">pandemic</a>, leading to a variety of health hazards.



Air pollution can lead to cardiovascular disease, strokes, lung cancer, and other respiratory diseases. While smoking cigarettes cuts life expectancy by 1.9 years, drinking alcohol by eight months, and terrorism by just nine days, the newly released Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) has shown that particulate pollution is on track to reduce global average life expectancy by a staggering 2.2 years.



“It would be a global emergency if Martians came to Earth and sprayed a substance that caused the average person on the planet to lose more than two years of life expectancy,” said report lead author Michael Greenstone, the director of EPIC. “This is similar to the situation that prevails in many parts of the world. Except we are spraying the substance, not some invaders from outer space.”



Last year, the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) updated its guideline on the acceptable level of air pollution that people could safely breathe, from a recommended ceiling of 10 µg/m3 to 5 µg/m3. According to this revised benchmark, 97 percent of the global population lives in areas where air pollution exceeds the recommended level.&nbsp;



The researchers found that South Asia is the most polluted region – with Bangladesh the most polluted country and New Delhi in India the “most polluted megacity in the world,” reaching average annual pollution levels over 21 times higher than the limit set by WHO. If pollution is not urgently curbed, residents of South Asia could lose up to five years of life expectancy.&nbsp;



Even more developed regions, such as the United States and Europe, have air quality levels that fail to meet WHO’s recommendation, with 92.8 percent of the United States and 95.5 percent of Europe living in areas exceeding the recommended pollution ceiling. However, China – which reached peak levels of pollution in 2013 – has been more successful in curbing emissions, by prohibiting new coal-fire powered plants in certain areas, requiring already existing plants to reduce emissions, and restricting road traffic in major cities. These measures helped reduce particulate pollution by almost 40 percent, adding about two years to the life expectancy of China’s residents.



Since air pollution is deeply intertwined with climate change, tackling it would also help protect our planet’s climate. “Policy can simultaneously reduce dependence on fossil fuels that will allow people to live longer and healthier lives and reduce the costs of climate change,” the authors concluded.



The full report can be found <a href="https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/reports/">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Air pollution is deadlier than cigarettes or alcohol

According to the latest annual report from the Energy Policy...

The origins of the most devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/investing-in-nature-is-needed-to-avoid-the-next-pandemic/">pandemic</a> that humankind experienced – the plague (also known as the Black Death) outbreak that killed more than half of Europe’s population in the space of only seven years in the 14th century – has been debated by historians for centuries. A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04800-3">Nature</a> has found genetic evidence that this pandemic emerged on the territory of what is now Kyrgystan in the 13th century, before mutating into several strains and spreading across Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.



In 2011, scientists sequenced for the first time the genome of Yersinia pestis, a bacterium that spread from rodents to humans via fleas and entered the Mediterranean in 1347 on trade ships transporting goods from territories around the Black Sea, leading to a massive, deadly outbreak. Further genetic analyses retrieved from grave sites throughout Europe and southern Russia have shown that, before the plague ravaged Europe, there was an explosion in diversity of plague strains.&nbsp;



Now, by analyzing genetic material from the teeth of seven bodies exhumed from Kara-Digach and Burana - two cemeteries located near Lake Issyk-Kul in Kyrgystan - researchers have found a single plague strain that appears to be the most direct ancestor of the major diversification event that led to the Black Death pandemic.&nbsp;



“We found that the ancient strains from Kyrgyzstan are positioned exactly at the node of this massive diversification event,” said study lead author Maria Spyrou, a postdoctoral researcher in the history and evolution of infectious diseases at the University of Tübingen. 



“It is like finding the place where all the strains come together, like with coronavirus where we have Alpha, Delta, Omicron all coming from this strain in Wuhan,” added study senior author Johannes Krause, the director of the Max Planck Institute.



Further evidence to back up these claims came from comparing the ancient strain found in Kyrgystan with plague strains from modern-day rodents. The scientists discovered that the modern plague strains most closely related to the ancient strains belong to wild rodents (such as marmots) living in the Tian Shan mountains, very close the two burial grounds.&nbsp;



“We found not just the ancestor of the Black Death, but we actually found the ancestor of the majority of plague strains that are circulating in the world today,” explained Krause.&nbsp;



While there is still much the scientists don’t know – such as from which animals the disease first spilled over into humans – understanding the origins of the biggest pandemic in human history could help us prepare for and possibly prevent future pandemics.&nbsp;



“Just like Covid, the Black Death was an emerging disease, and the start of a huge pandemic that went on for some 500 years. It’s very important to understand actually in what circumstances did it emerge,” Krause concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Scientists unearth the origins of the Black Death pandemic

The origins of the most devastating pandemic that humankind experienced...

Irrigation can be a powerful tool for increasing global food supply. In fact, more than a billion additional people can be fed through sustainable irrigation without converting natural spaces into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-farmland-is-a-huge-reservoir-of-microplastics/">farmland</a>, according to a new study by Lorenzo Rosa of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>.&nbsp;



“Population trends indicate that we will need to double global food production by 2050,” explained Rosa. “To accomplish this, we will either need to clear more land or farm more efficiently, despite the increased stresses of a warming world.”



Converting land into farms can further exacerbate climate change, while reducing biodiversity. Using modern technology, low crop yields in existing farmland could be improved.&nbsp;



However, these intervention strategies must be evaluated to determine which ones will lead to a greater increase in food production, while maintaining the lowest environmental impact.&nbsp;



Climate change is expected to both shift precipitation patterns and increase heat stress on plants. This means that rain alone cannot be relied on to support the increasing demand for food.&nbsp;&nbsp;



One strategy for improving the productivity of farmland is irrigation. Irrigated crops are twice as productive than those that rely only on rainfall. However, irrigation already accounts for between 85 and 90 percent of human water consumption.&nbsp;



Is it possible to use irrigation to increase food production without creating water shortages? To do so, we must consider sustainable irrigation methods. Sustainable irrigation uses groundwater and local available water sources without depletion beyond what precipitation can replace.&nbsp;



To maximize agricultural productivity while minimizing environmental impacts of water use, Rosa set out to determine which strategies could be utilized. He found that under current conditions, there is enough water available from local, renewable sources to expand sustainable irrigation over 35 percent of farmland around the world. This would boost crop productivity to feed 1.4 billion more people.&nbsp;



Sounds simple - but factoring in the effects of climate change makes this much more complex. As temperatures rise, water could start to evaporate faster, decreasing the efficiency of irrigation. On the other hand, elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide could make crops grow somewhat more productively, which might offset this concern. These competing factors demonstrate the need for further research.



The study indicates that constructing long-term water storage reservoirs could enable sustainable irrigation to feed 1.2 billion more people than relying on renewable water resources alone.



Specifically, the United States, Russia, Brazil, and Nigeria were identified as having the greatest potential for sustainable irrigation under extreme warming conditions using water storage facilities. This could also be feasible in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa.



Despite this, many factors remain unknown, such as the potential effects on water quality due to increased fertilizer, and the socioeconomic and land-use impacts of constructing infrastructure. However, the study makes a clear case that sustainable irrigation could alleviate poverty and hunger, while decreasing environmental risks.



“Ensuring sufficient and equitable access to food while reducing agriculture’s environmental impacts is one of the greatest societal challenges of the 21st century,” concluded Rosa.&nbsp;



Thoughtful uptake of irrigation could potentially help meet our growing demands for food with minimal impacts.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac7408">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sustainable irrigation could feed feed 1.4 billion more people

Irrigation can be a powerful tool for increasing global food...

A 100,000-year-old polar bear skull has revealed extensive hybridization between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinct-population-of-polar-bears-found-in-greenland/">polar bears</a> and brown bears during the warm period of the Pleistocene. The study was led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>.&nbsp;



The skull was a rare find; scientists happened upon it while study co-authors Pamela Groves, Daniel Mann, and Michael Kunz were taking a stroll on the Beaufort Sea coastline.&nbsp;



The skull belonged to a juvenile female polar bear who the scientists named ‘Bruno.’ Researchers were able to analyze DNA from the ancient skull and gain valuable information.&nbsp;



“The availability of Bruno’s paleogenome has made it possible to detect an ancient admixture event that impacted all living brown bears," explained study first author Ming-Shan Wang of the <a href="https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/">UCSC Paleogenomics Lab</a>.



The team discovered that Bruno was part of a population of polar bears that were ancestral to the polar bears we share the Earth with today. They predict that about 125,000 years ago, the polar bear lineage that led to Bruno and the one that led to all living brown bears hybridized.&nbsp;



As a result of this hybridization, polar bear ancestry makes up about 10 percent of today’s brown bear genome. However, this evidence for hybridization could not be found in modern polar bear DNA.



Study co-author Beth Shapiro explained the importance of Bruno’s contribution. “We never would have seen this without Bruno’s genome, because all living brown bears have that admixture as part of their genomes.”



This is not the only time polar bears and brown bears have mixed. Previous DNA samples indicate that admixing occurred at least four separate times between 15,000 and 25,000 years ago. Moreover, they discovered that genes flowed from polar bears to brown bears in all incidences.&nbsp;



“The admixed individuals, if they survive, do so as brown bears, perhaps because they have difficulty hunting successfully on the sea ice if they are not completely white," explained Shapiro. "Polar bears have always been a small population with not much genetic diversity.”



According to Shapiro, as our Earth warms again, we may see another era of mixing, “We shouldn’t be surprised to see admixture happening again today as the climate changes and these species are overlapping and encountering each other again in the wild. Climate change allows gene flow to occur between what we think of as different species.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01753-8">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

DNA confirms ancient hybridization of polar bears and brown bears

A 100,000-year-old polar bear skull has revealed extensive hybridization between...

Analysis of a charred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wooden-shipwrecks-have-become-diverse-microbial-habitats/">wood</a> assemblage from an archaeological site at Tel Tsaf in the Jordan Valley, Israel, has revealed the presence of burned wood from 16 different species of trees, including olive (Olea europea) and fig (Ficus carica) trees. The researchers have proposed that since the olive did not grow naturally in the Jordan Valley, the inhabitants must have planted the trees intentionally about 7,000 years ago. This would represent the earliest example of olive domestication in the Mediterranean and in the world.



The groundbreaking study was led by Dr. Dafna Langgut of the&nbsp;Jacob M. Alkow Department of Archaeology &amp; Ancient Near Eastern Cultures and the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a>. The charcoal remnants were found in the archaeological excavation directed by Prof. Yosef Garfinkel of the Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University. The findings were published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



Tel Tsaf is located in the Central Jordan Valley, 32.5&nbsp;km south of the Sea of Galilee, on the edge of the Jordan River’s west bank. Its chronology indicates that occupation began in the last quarter of the 8th millennium BP and ended the first quarter of the 7th millennium BP. The remains of the stone settlements include courtyards, dwellings and large silos that would have been able to store 20–30 tons of produce. The large capacity of these silos would have exceeded the needs of the inhabitants, and indicate successful agriculture and a complex economic system of surplus and wealth accumulation.



The seeds found at the site include those from crop plants such as barley, wheat, lentil and pea. However, the researchers were particularly interested in the presence of charred wood assemblages from various locations around the site. In total, 662 samples of charred wood were analyzed, most of which turned out to be from Quercus ithaburensis&nbsp;(Mt. Tabor oak, 39.8 percent) and from Tamarix&nbsp;spp. (22.3 percent). The researchers identified the species using microscopic investigation of the anatomical features of the wood (e.g., vessels and their arrangements, size and arrangement of rays, and the patterns of parenchyma and fibers).&nbsp;



The wood of olive trees (6.4 percent) and fig trees (6.5 percent) was also present in the assemblages. “It is well-accepted, based on archaeobotanical research, that the existence of wood and/or its charcoal remains from fruit trees at a site point to their horticulture in its vicinity," noted the study authors.&nbsp;



A few specimens of olive pips have also been collected at Tel Tsaf, giving evidence that there were olive orchards nearby the site. Interestingly, the Central Jordan Valley is located outside the natural distribution area of wild olives, and this appears to have been true in the 7th millennium BP as well. The olives must, therefore, have been planted there by the local inhabitants.&nbsp;



“Trees, even when burned down to charcoal, can be identified by their anatomic structure. Wood was the ‘plastic’ of the ancient world. It was used for construction, for making tools and furniture, and as a source of energy. That's why identifying tree remnants found at archaeological sites, such as charcoal from hearths, is a key to understanding what kinds of trees grew in the natural environment at the time, and when humans began to cultivate fruit trees,” explained Dr. Langgut.



The samples of charred fig tree involved specifically the young branches, a part that is not usually used for construction or fuel. The branches were carbon dated to between 6960 and 6860 years before present. The researchers propose that the presence of these young branches was due to the fact that they had been pruned off larger trees in order to promote fruit production. This would also be evidence of horticultural practices involving fig orchards. Both figs and olives can be preserved and transported, and would have been useful commodities for trade.



According to Dr. Langgut, olive trees grow in the wild in the land of Israel, but they do not grow in the Jordan Valley. "This means that someone brought them there intentionally – took the knowledge and the plant itself to a place that is outside its natural habitat. In archaeobotany, this is considered indisputable proof of domestication, which means that we have here the earliest evidence of the olive's domestication anywhere in the world.”&nbsp;



“I also identified many remnants of young fig branches. The fig tree did grow naturally in the Jordan Valley, but its branches had little value as either firewood or raw materials for tools or furniture, so people had no reason to gather large quantities and bring them to the village. Apparently, these fig branches resulted from pruning, a method still used today to increase the yield of fruit trees.”



The evidence of fruit tree cultivation, along with large silos and dwellings at Tel Tsaf, indicate that the inhabitants were wealthy and had considerable material means. The presence of other, exotic items such as obsidian, rare-mineral beads, complex pottery, and a copper awl, all support the interpretation that the society was wealthy and probably engaged in trade.&nbsp;



“Storage capacities [at Tel Tsaf] were up to 20 times greater than any single family's calorie consumption, so clearly these were caches for storing great wealth," said Professor Yosef Garfinkel, who headed the archaeological dig. "The wealth of the village was manifested in the production of elaborate pottery, painted with remarkable skill. In addition, we found articles brought from afar: pottery of the Ubaid culture from Mesopotamia, obsidian from Anatolia, a copper awl from the Caucasus, and more.”



Dr. Langgut and Professor Garfinkel were not surprised to discover that the inhabitants of Tel Tsaf were the first in the world to intentionally grow olive and fig groves, since growing fruit trees is evidence of luxury, and this site is known to have been exceptionally wealthy.&nbsp;



“The domestication of fruit trees is a process that takes many years, and therefore befits a society of plenty, rather than one that struggles to survive," said Dr. Langgut. "Trees give fruit only 3–4 years after being planted. Since groves of fruit trees require a substantial initial investment, and then live on for a long time, they have great economic and social significance in terms of owning land and bequeathing it to future generations – procedures suggesting the beginnings of a complex society.”



“Moreover, it's quite possible that the residents of Tel Tsaf traded in products derived from the fruit trees, such as olives, olive oil, and dried figs, which have a long shelf life. Such products may have enabled long-distance trade that led to the accumulation of material wealth, and possibly even taxation – initial steps in turning the locals into a society with a socio-economic hierarchy supported by an administrative system."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Olives were first cultivated 7,000 years ago

Analysis of a charred wood assemblage from an archaeological site...

A new study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> has found that an invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/">wasp</a> - which has already caused significant damage in the Southern Hemisphere - could spread throughout North America. For now,&nbsp; it appears that nature’s defenses are keeping this insect under control.&nbsp;



The experts estimate that the Sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio) has the potential to reproduce at rates two to three times higher in North America than in its native range in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Although its impact in this new territory has been limited so far, under the right conditions it could spread quickly and pose major threats to local ecosystems.



Unlike yellow jackets and other common species of wasps, Sirex woodwasps eat wood instead of fruit and meat. Injecting a fungus and a dose of venom into trees can weaken and sometimes even kill them.&nbsp;



The woodwasps also place eggs in the trees, where their larvae hatch and feed on wood that was pre-digested by the fungi. While other invasive species are limited in range by sensitivity to temperature and other climatic factors, the woodwasps do not seem to be restricted by climate.&nbsp;



Although the wasps are considered to be minor tree-eating scavengers in their native region (Galicia, Spain), in non-native areas such as New Zealand, Australia, Chile, Argentina, and other countries in the Southern Hemisphere – where they have no natural enemies – they are responsible for major attacks on pine trees and can be highly expensive to manage. Since entering the United States in 2004 at a cargo port on Lake Ontario, these wasps have expanded throughout the entire northeastern U.S. and parts of Quebec and Ontario in Canada.



According to the scientists, the woodwasp has the potential to be over 150 percent more productive in the U.S. than in Spain. Its higher reproduction rates in the Northeast are partly driven by their different relationship with a parasitic worm that sterilizes wasp eggs in Spain, but not in its new territory. Fortunately, due to the relative scarcity of host pine trees in northeastern U.S. and the existence of natural enemies such as parasitic wasps, these regions appear more resilient to the invaders than initially thought.



“When we first observed the Sirex woodwasp in North America, we said ‘oh no, we better brace ourselves for this,’” said study lead author Flora Krivak-Tetley, an expert in invasive species at Dartmouth. “We are not sure how it will go in other parts of the continent but, for the moment, nature has rallied to its own defense against this woodwasp.”&nbsp;



However, if the wasp will expand in southern or western states – which have larger populations of pine trees – it could cause extensive damage. “This wasp will continue to spread throughout North America and can be expected to eventually show up everywhere there are pine trees,” said study senior author Matthew Ayres, a professor of Biology at Dartmouth. “The good fortune we’ve enjoyed so far with the Sirex woodwasp could change if the insect reaches areas with higher resource availability and fewer natural enemies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://neobiota.pensoft.net/article/75392/">NeoBiota</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive woodwasp threatens North America’s ecosystems

A new study led by Dartmouth College has found that...

In a recent survey of California’s bumble bees, only 17 species were found, making up just 68 percent of the estimated species diversity of the state. The last survey of bumble bee populations was carried out in the 1980s. The current study, conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> (UCR), was a long overdue follow-up to investigate where bee populations are now.



Besides being beautiful creatures with their own lives and role in the universe, scientists remind us that bumble bees also pollinate some $3 billion worth of crops every year in the United States. The plants that are pollinated by bees include spicy peppers, delicious tomatoes and tart cranberries.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The UCR team, led by entomologist Hollis Woodard, surveyed 17 sites throughout California comprising six different ecosystems where an abundance of bees had previously been found. The researchers tried in four additional locations in southern California but were only able to find ten individual bees at those locations.



“Although we found that relative to other sites the mountains are home to the most diverse bumble bee populations, even at those sites we also failed to find some species that used to be there,” said Woodard.&nbsp;



One of the most common bees, the western bumble bee - which is also an important pollinator - was not found anywhere during the survey. “We didn’t find it even once,” said Woodard. “If it was okay, we should have seen it."



Over half of the bees collected were one species, the yellow-faced bumble bee (Bombus vosnesenskii) making it the most commonly found species in the survey. Even still, this bee has shrunk in population size as well.&nbsp;



“Even the most dominant species has lost a lot of suitable habitat since the last large-scale survey,” said Woodard. “The winner is not doing great.”



In an attempt to limit their damage to the already imperiled insects, the scientists collected just 100 bees at each site, a relatively small number for this type of survey,&nbsp;



A recent court decision put four species of bumble bee on California’s state endangered species list, but none of these species was found during the survey. These bees were already on the federal endangered species list.&nbsp;



“Generally, the state list directs more action toward more local measures. It’s good for them to be covered under both,” said Woodard. “I hope the state listing also encourages Californians to feel like they have a stake in helping the bees survive, because bees certainly help humans survive.”



Now, we can only hope that the listing isn’t too late to protect these bee species, which may or may not be already gone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

California’s bumble bees are vanishing

In a recent survey of California’s bumble bees, only 17...

Heatwaves pose a significant health risk depending on their intensity and exposure time. While such problems have long been known to affect urban areas, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a> has found that these extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-weather-will-increase-violence-against-women/">weather</a> phenomena are increasingly affecting rural areas too. According to the experts, heatwaves are making more people in rural areas of England severely ill today than they were in the 1980s.



“Heatwaves are getting deadlier, even in Britain,” said study co-author Prashant Kumar, director of the University of Surrey’s <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/global-centre-clean-air-research">Global Center for Clean Air Research</a> (GCARE). “We already knew that the urban heat island effect exacerbates the problem in cities, but now we also have proof that people living in less built-up areas are also threatened.”



Professor Kumar and his colleagues examined the relation between mortality rates and maximum daily temperatures over a period of 38 years (from 1981 to 2018) in Southeast England and Aberdeenshire. They discovered that, when temperatures rise significantly above 26.5°C, people living in the Southeast of England are now seven percent more likely to die prematurely, while for those in Aberdeenshire, the chance of dying prematurely increases by four percent when temperatures rise by just two degrees, from 24.5 to 26.7°C.



“The problem of rising temperatures is pronounced in southern England, but it’s probably only a matter of time before northern areas experience the same. More needs to be done to prepare for hot weather, and leaders in government – whether national, devolved, or local – need to update their heat action plans and identify how to protect vulnerable people during heatwaves,” said Professor Kumar.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to the researchers, further research is needed to consider the impact of other environmental conditions such as black carbon, which is known to intensify and prolong the impact of heatwaves. Local and national policy initiatives - such as the promotion of sustainable modes of transportation, and the implementation of strict emission standards from both the transport and non-transport sectors - are urgently needed to mitigate the impact of emissions on the severity of heatwaves.



“Cutting&nbsp;carbon emissions&nbsp;remains vital to protect people from the fast-rising risks of the climate crisis, in particular deadly heatwaves,” concluded the authors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670722000890?via%3Dihub#sec0017">Sustainable Cities and Societies</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Heatwaves are threatening the health of people in the UK

Heatwaves pose a significant health risk depending on their intensity...

Crowded streets, drab grey buildings, and noise pollution are well-documented causes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turn-stress-productive-energy/">stress</a> and fatigue. Thus, urban spaces can negatively impact health and emotional well-being. However, a possible antidote may lie in nature, which is known to have calming and restorative effects. 



By employing virtual reality (VR) simulations, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.univ-lille.fr/">University of Lille</a> in France has found that one way to make cities more hospitable may be to introduce patches of vegetation and colorful patterns.



Since installing plants or covering city buildings in paint to test such approaches is expensive and inconvenient, the scientists used state-of-the-art computer technology to provide a virtual testing ground for this hypothesis.&nbsp;



“Measuring pleasure and motivation in natural settings is difficult,” explained study senior author Yvonne Delevoye-Turrell, a professor of Cognitive Psychology at the University of Lille. “Human reactions are sensitive to environmental changes, such as weather or traffic, and measurement biases. Consequently, we used virtual reality as a proof of concept to measure reactions to these interventions in a simulated urban space.”&nbsp;



By using groundbreaking VR technology, Professor Delevoye-Turrell and her colleagues created an immersive urban environment with either no vegetation or some green vegetation. Moreover, they introduced colorful patterns in one of this virtual environment’s paths. Student volunteers from the University of Lille were asked to wear a VR headset containing an eye tracker and explore this virtual space.



The researchers found that green vegetation caused volunteers to walk slower, and increased their heartrate, features indicating that they have a pleasurable experience. At the same time, the colorful patterns increased their alertness, fascination, and curiosity. Overall, the participants spent less time looking at the ground and more time observing their surroundings, similarly to when people spend time near green spaces in the real world.



Besides offering proof that vegetation and colorful patterns can reduce the stress that more drab urban environments cause, while increasing well-being, this study also shows that virtual reality could be a highly useful tool for urban planners, allowing them to test the impact of various interventions virtually.



In future studies, the scientists aim to make the VR experience even more immersive to reach more accurate results. “Odors and sounds could be the next step for VR to truly test the impact of colors on the pleasure of walking,” concluded Professor Delevoye-Turrell.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frvir.2022.819597/full">Frontiers in Virtual Reality</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Colorful urban environments promote well-being

Crowded streets, drab grey buildings, and noise pollution are well-documented...

A team of researchers led by the University of Washington and the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources has recently discovered an isolated and genetically distinct population of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-forced-to-hunt-for-food-on-land/">polar bears</a> in Southeast Greenland. 



Unlike other polar bears that rely on rapidly disappearing sea ice for survival, these bears hunt during the entire year on the freshwater ice near marine-terminating glaciers, in sea-ice conditions close to those projected for the High Arctic in the late 21st century. These findings offer reasons for optimism regarding polar bear resilience in the face of climate change.



Previous studies have shown that the Arctic is warming at an unprecedented rate, more than twice as fast as the rest of the planet. This phenomenon is threatening a variety of animal populations, among which polar bears are particularly vulnerable, since most of them rely upon sea ice to hunt seals. 



However, recent forecasts of reduced polar bear populations and geographic distribution are based on broad-scale climate projections that fail to take into account the crucial role of small-scale habitat features which could serve as climate refugia for endangered polar bears.



By combining 36 years of genetic, movement, and demographic data, the scientists discovered and described a genetically distinct, isolated population of polar bears in Southern Greenland. 



Moreover, through sophisticated habitat analysis, natural history observation, and traditional ecological knowledge, they also managed to identify a previously unknown polar bear behavior in this population: the use of fresh ice at the marine terminal glacial fronts (known as “glacial mélange”) as a platform for seal-hunting. While other polar bear populations are forced to move on land or migrate with receding sea ice into less productive regions during the ice-free season, this adaptation allows the Southeast Greenland bears to thrive in rather inhospitable conditions.



These findings have important implications for polar bear conservation, suggesting that marine-terminating glaciers – which are uncommon in most of the Arctic, but can be found in places such as Greenland or Svalbard – may serve as previously unrecognized climate refugia.



The study is published in the AAAS journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abk2793">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Distinct population of polar bears found in Greenland

A team of researchers led by the University of Washington...

According to the largest ever DNA-based study of domestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-most-beloved-cats-are-more-likely-to-be-destructive/">cats</a>, thirteen genetic variants linked to disease in cats are present in more pedigreed cats than previously thought. However, the experts from the <a href="https://www.wisdompanel.com/en-us">Wisdom Panel</a> in the United States and the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> in Finland who conducted the study have found that these variants are declining in frequency in breeds that are regularly screened for the genetic markers.



The scientists genotyped more than 11,000 domestic cats - including 90 pedigreed breeds, and 617 non-pedigreed ones - for 87 genetic variants associated to diseases, physical appearance, and blood type. The results revealed that there was more genetic diversity in the non-pedigreed cat population. While three variants associated with disease were only found in non-pedigreed cats, the researchers also identified 13 disease-associated variants in 47 breeds in which these diseases were not previously found.



Fortunately, the frequency of some markers appeared to have declined since they were first identified. For instance, PKD1 – a genetic variant linked to Polycystic Kidney Disease and previously found to affect over 40 percent of Persian cats – was identified in none of the 118 Persians, but appeared in Scottish Straights and Maine Coons.&nbsp;



Genetic markers for specific coat colors and patterns, such as colorpoints in Siamese cats, seemed to be responsible for the same traits in other breeds. Finally, the analysis revealed that the rarest color variant was the Amber coat color specific to Norwegian Forest Cats, which was also detected in one of the non-pedigreed cats.



According to the scientists, genetic screening for disease variants, together with the information on all breeds’ genetic diversity, can reliably inform breeders decisions. Moreover, these tools can also help establishing well-balanced breeding plans that maintain genetic diversity and avoid breeding disease-prone kittens.



“This information can help support sustainable breeding goals within the cat fancy. Direct-to-consumer genetic tests help to raise awareness of various inherited single gene conditions in cats and provide information that owners can share with their veterinarians. In due course, ventures of this type will enable the genetics of common complex feline disease to be deciphered, paving the way for precision healthcare with the potential to ultimately improve welfare for all cats,” the authors explained.



“This study demonstrates the clinical utility and importance of comprehensive genetic screening of feline variants in supporting domestic cat breeding programs, veterinary care and health research,” concluded lead author Heidi Anderson, an expert in Feline Genetics at the Wisdom Panel.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009804">PLOS Genetics</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disease-triggering variants found in new cat breeds

According to the largest ever DNA-based study of domestic cats,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...