Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown.



Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-origins-of-the-wheel">Redefining the origins of the wheel</h2>



A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and compelling insights into this fascinating puzzle.



This discovery represents an exciting development that shatters the conventional timeline, moving it far beyond the previously accepted era of 4000 BC in ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesopotamia</a>.



It was during that period when the wheel was first recognized as an essential tool, initially used in pottery-making and preceding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a> innovation of wheeled vehicles by centuries.



This newfound understanding prompts a reevaluation of how early humans harnessed rotational technology and its transformative impact on the trajectory of human civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-rotational-tools">Development of rotational tools</h2>



The spotlight is now shining on an archaeological discovery in Israel that has potentially rewritten this humble invention’s history and shifted our understanding of early human ingenuity.



Over a hundred perforated pebbles - primarily composed of limestone and bearing a circular shape with a central hole - were unearthed at the Nahal-Ein Gev II site, a location that has already provided valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life.



This extraordinary find represents a key milestone in the development of rotational tools, including our beloved wheel, and emphasizes the sophisticated craftsmanship and resourcefulness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early societies</a>.



It reveals not only the ingenuity behind these tools but also hints at the broader implications for the evolution of technology and innovation in human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invention-of-a-wheel-shaped-tool">Invention of a wheel-shaped tool</h2>



What's astonishing is that these ancient stones date back to approximately 12,000 years, far surpassing any previously known examples. 



Scholars from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> suggest that these stones served as spindle whorls - round weighted objects attached to a spindle stick.



This tool was instrumental in gathering fibers such as wool and spinning them into yarn, demonstrating the human use of rotation with a wheel-shaped tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-wheels-in-form-and-function">The first wheels in form and function </h2>



Professor Leore Grosman emphasized the importance of these artifacts, describing them as early examples of wheel-shaped tools connected to a rotating axle.



"These perforated stones are actually the first wheels in form and function - a round object with a hole in the center connected to a rotating axle, used long before the appearance of the wheel for transportation purposes," said Professor Grosman.



This early use eventually paved the way for more advanced wheel-based rotational inventions, including the renowned potter's wheel and, later, the significantly useful cart wheel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-prehistoric-innovation">Fingerprints of prehistoric innovation</h2>



"The most important aspect of the study is how modern technology allows us to delve deep into touching the fingerprints of the prehistoric craftsman, then learn something new about them and their innovativeness, and at the same time, about our modern technology and how we're linked," noted the researchers.



Their study embodies the "wheel and axle" concept, a revolutionary mechanism that triggered technology's transformation from linear to rotary motion.



The paper concludes that the ancient origins tied to the carts' prominence during the Bronze Age now focus on a much-earlier wheel-shaped tool.



So, the next time you marvel at the complexity of modern machinery, remember its connection to these humble stones from 12,000 years ago, and appreciate the role of human innovation throughout the ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ingenuity-and-innovation">Human ingenuity and innovation</h2>



This discovery not only enriches our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> but also illustrates the seamless progression from simple tools to complex mechanisms.



The spindle whorls unearthed at Nahal-Ein Gev II showcase the fundamental principles of rotational technology, a concept that would eventually lead to the wheel's application in pottery, transportation, and machinery.



By examining these early developments, researchers draw parallels between ancient creativity and modern technology, highlighting the continuous thread of human ingenuity through the ages.



The study is published in the journal Plos One.



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Who invented the wheel? It all started with stones

Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown. Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools. Redefining the origins of the wheel A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and...

The "waggle dance" is performed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetation-helps-wild-honeybees-survive-the-winter/">honeybees</a> to alert one another to the location of nectar-rich flowers. Inspired by this technique, a study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> has devised a way for robots to communicate. The new technique could be most valuable when robots are needed yet network communications are unreliable, such as in a disaster zone or in space.



Honeybees excel at nonverbal communication by wiggling their backside while parading through the hive letting other honeybees know about the location of food. The direction of this "waggle dance" lets other bees know the direction of the food with respect to the hive and the sun. The duration of the dance lets the bees know how far away it is - a simple method to communicate geographical coordinates.



Typically, robots communicate using digital networks, but these can become unreliable during an emergency or in remote locations, making it difficult for human communication as well.&nbsp;



To address this, the researchers designed a visual communication system for robots with cameras using algorithms that allow the robots to interpret what they see. The system allows a human to communicate with a “messenger robot," which supervises and instructs a handling robot that performs the task.



The human can communicate with the messenger robot using gestures, such as a raised hand with a closed fist. This is recognized by the robot's camera and skeletal tracking algorithms. Once the human has shown the messenger robot where the package is, it conveys this information to the handling robot.



The messenger robot must position itself in front of the handling robot and trace a specific shape on the ground. The orientation of the shape indicates the direction of travel, while the length of time it takes to trace it indicates the distance. The researchers put this to a test, where robots interpreted the gestures correctly 90 and 93.3 percent of the time.&nbsp;



“This technique could be useful in places where communication network coverage is insufficient and intermittent, such as robot search-and-rescue operations in disaster zones or in robots that undertake space walks,” said study senior author Professor Abhra Roy Chowdhury.



“This method depends on robot vision through a simple camera, and therefore it is compatible with robots of various sizes and configurations and is scalable,” added study first author Kaustubh Joshi.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frobt.2022.915884/full">Frontiers in Robotics and AI</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bee waggle dance inspires new method of robot communication

The "waggle dance" is performed by honeybees to alert one...

As the bodyguards of the coast, barrier islands offer protection from storms and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-some-plants-resistant-to-flooding/">flooding</a>, and if you have beachfront property, they protect your home. However, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00980-9">a paper published in Nature Geoscience</a> predicts that barrier islands will begin disappearing 50 percent faster than they have in the past.



"These findings can be applied all over the world, but they may be particularly significant in the U.S., where houses are being built extremely close to the beach," said study lead author Professor Giulio Mariotti of <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>.



Still, the barrier island situation is not so simple. Mariotti explained that there have been gaps in our understanding. "It is well known that barrier islands retreat as sea level rises, but it has not been clear how."



Mariotti and co-author Christopher Hein of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science noticed that barrier island retreat hasn't kept pace as sea levels have risen.&nbsp;



To explore this question further, Mariotti developed a computer model. Many scientists thought barrier islands would retreat as fast as sea levels rose. However, Mariotti's model shows a lag between sea-level rise and barrier island retreat.&nbsp;



Mariotti explained why previous researchers got it wrong. "One reason previous models didn't see the lag was because they assumed the geometry of the whole coastal tract – from the lower continental shelf to the upland boundary, including subaerial barriers, inlets and tidal channels ­- was frozen. However, the geometry can change and that's what's enabling this lag effect."



The model makes a worrisome prediction. The model predicts that over the next 100 years, the rate of barrier island retreat will increase by at least 50 percent. The rate could climb further if storm strength and frequency continue to increase or sea levels begin to rise faster. The author also points out that this prediction can vary by region.&nbsp;



Mariotti explained why his model is unique: "One of the most original parts of this model is it can run simulations over thousands of years but can also provide insights into decades, which is more interesting for management. At the same time, I can also run simulations over centuries and millennia, which allows the results to be compared with geologic data."&nbsp;



Although this model does not give us the best news, it provides some of the information we need to manage coastlines and a way to compare current conditions with Earth's geological past.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Barrier islands are set to retreat at an alarming rate

As the bodyguards of the coast, barrier islands offer protection...

Images of swans typically bring up ideas of graceful, refined creatures. And although they possess these attributes, even swans have their rowdy days.&nbsp;



New research conducted by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the Wildfowl &amp; Wetlands Trust (WWT) reveals that mute and whooper swans sacrifice resting to aggressively protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taste-cells-may-control-foraging-and-decision-making/">foraging</a> areas.&nbsp;



"These swans use aggression if there's competition over foraging areas. Our findings show this this (sic) requires a trade-off, and that both species reduce resting time to allow for this aggression," said Dr. Paul Rose.



"This was the strongest trade-off we found, but there was also a trade-off for both species between foraging and resting. However, there was no apparent trade-off between some behaviours, such as aggression and foraging, and aggression and maintenance."



The trade-off can harm the swans since, without rest, the swans will burn precious calories and may not be as agile or aware of predators.&nbsp;



Moreover, whooper swans are a migratory species, while mute swans stay in the same area throughout the year. Consequently, whooper swans are less likely than mute swans to change their aggressive behavior since they need to store fat before migrating.



The study, published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLoS ONE</a>, was conducted remotely, using a webcam. Dr. Rose says this data can inform conservation, habitat management, and future research.



"By providing enough foraging spots for the birds, we can reduce the need for aggression around desirable feeding spots, giving them more time to rest. This can help to ensure that migratory species don't 'push out' non-migratory species when they mix in the same wintering locations. Our study also demonstrates how remotely collected data can be used to investigate fundamental questions in behavioural research," explained Dr. Rose.



"At WWT we get lots of questions from our visitors about the aggressiveness of swans," said Dr. Kevin Wood. "This new study helps us to understand how swans' behaviour changes when they engage in their disputes."



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Swans sacrifice rest to defend their foraging areas

Images of swans typically bring up ideas of graceful, refined...

Volunteers have made an unexpected discovery of tree climbing by over 50 common toads in nest boxes and tree cavities at least 1.5 meters high. Until now, common toads were thought to be terrestrial.&nbsp;



New research led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and Froglife, and supported by wildlife charity People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), is the first to study the tree climbing potential of amphibians at a national scale.&nbsp;



The researchers found toads as high as three meters up a tree, and scientists say these toads could be venturing even higher. The surprising discovery was made during a survey for hazel dormice and bats as part of the National Dormouse Monitoring Programme and the Bat Tree Habitat Key project.



“This is a really exciting finding, and significant for our understanding of the ecology and conservation of common toads - one of the most widespread and abundant European amphibians," said study first author Dr. Silviu Petrovan.



“We know common toads favour woodlands as foraging and wintering habitat, but it appears their association with trees is much more complex than we had previously thought.”



Common toads are terrestrial amphibians, spending their time on land and in water during breeding. There have only been a handful of documented sightings of common toads in trees in the United Kingdom.



Over 50 common toads were found during surveys of hazel dormouse nest boxes and tree cavities usually used by bats. This suggests that toads spend more time in trees than previously thought.&nbsp;



Given the small sizes of tree cavities, it is unclear how toads are finding them, and how difficult it is for toads to climb particular trees.



“We couldn’t believe what we found. We’re used to discovering woodland birds and other small mammals in nest boxes but we hadn’t considered finding amphibians in them," said Nida Al-Fulaij, Conservation Research Manager at PTES.



The findings highlight the ecological importance of tree cavities and protecting natural woodland habitats and ancient trees for all wildlife. In 2016, common toad populations declined by 68 percent in the last 30 years across the UK.



It is not currently known why toads are climbing trees and using nest boxes. Factors could include searching for food, avoiding predators or evading parasites such as toad fly. Future research will support a better understanding of tree climbing behaviour, and how conservation efforts can best support the species. The study demonstrates how much there is still to learn about species believed to be well known.&nbsp;



Froglife is calling on members of the public to record any sightings they have of amphibians in trees on their <a href="https://www.froglife.org/dragon-finder-app/">Dragon Finder App</a>, or to <a href="https://www.froglife.org/contact-us/">contact them directly</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toads in the UK are unexpectedly climbing trees

Volunteers have made an unexpected discovery of tree climbing by...

Many insects undertake seasonal migrations, the most famous of them being the monarch butterflies of southern Canada and the United States. Hoverflies are also migratory, with billions of them moving southwards from northern Europe each year, to spend the winter in warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-climates-linked-to-low-oxygen-dead-zones-in-the-north-pacific/">climates</a>. However, not all individuals go along for the ride – some stay home and take their chances. This has given scientists an opportunity to study the genetic differences between migratory and non-migratory individuals in an attempt to identify the genetic basis of migratory behavior.&nbsp;



On their autumn journey southwards, the hoverflies cross the Pyrenees Mountains in dense concentrations, making use of narrow mountain passes. A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> was able to capture samples of these hoverflies as they flew through a pass, and take them back to the laboratory for DNA analysis. The genetic information was then compared with DNA from non-migratory hoverflies.&nbsp;



“It is an amazing spectacle to witness, an endless stream of hundreds of thousands of individuals through a 30-meter pass,” said Dr. Karl Wotton, research fellow in the College of Life and Environmental Sciences.



“We identified 1,543 genes whose activity levels were different in the migrants,” said lead author Toby Doyle, of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/cornwall/research/facilitiesandcentres/cec/">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall. “What really struck us though was the remarkable range of roles these genes play.”



“Migration is energetically very demanding, so finding genes for metabolism was no surprise but we also identified genes with roles in muscle structure and function, hormonal regulation of physiology, immunity, stress resistance, flight and feeding behavior, sensory perception and for increasing longevity."



When the researchers categorized the genes by function, they found that suites of genes were being activated in concert in the migratory hoverflies. These included genes for insulin signaling for longevity, pathways for immunity, and those leading to octopamine production, the insect equivalent of the fight or flight hormone adrenaline, for long-distance flight.



“These pathways have been integrated into migratory hoverflies and modified by evolution to allow for long-distance movement,” Dr. Wotton said.



The work provides a powerful genomic resource and theoretical framework to direct future studies into the evolution of migration in other species.



“Our research has already indicated several genes that have previously been associated with migration in butterflies, suggesting the existence of a shared ‘migratory gene package’ that controls migration across multiple animals,” said Dr. Wotton. “It is an exciting time to be studying the genetics of migration.”



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals key genes that drive insect migration

Many insects undertake seasonal migrations, the most famous of them...

A new study led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has argued that efforts to conserve the carbon stored in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-reveals-vulnerable-tropical-forests-on-a-global-scale/">tropical forests</a> would benefit by linking them to policies designed to protect the endangered primate populations that live there. Since climate change and the biodiversity crisis are two of the major problems our planet is currently facing, integrating climate mitigation and biodiversity protection has a greater potential to attract support among both policy makers and the larger public than trying to tackle climate change in isolation.



“Climate change and the biodiversity crisis are two of the planet’s greatest threats,” said study co-author William Ripple, a professor of Ecology at OSU. “And it’s becoming clear that large-scale climate action won’t happen if we treat climate change as a standalone problem.”



Together with Christopher Wolf, a postdoctoral fellow at the same university, Professor Ripple analyzed 340 species of threatened forest primates in terms of how much carbon their habitats are warehousing. The forests’ total carbon stocks of 861 gigatons include 140 gigatons that are characterized as “irrecoverable.” According to Dr. Wolf, among the lands with the highest levels of irrecoverable carbon, there are 635,000 square kilometers that also hold the highest levels of forest primate species biodiversity.&nbsp;



In South America, Africa, and Asia, for instance, many primate species live in “hotspots” – areas with a large amount of irrecoverable carbon that are also high in primate species diversity. Unfortunately, despite their conservation and climate mitigation value, these hotspots remain largely unprotected.



“Conserving irrecoverable carbon is obviously an important objective and policies aimed at achieving it might be more appealing and effective if they were framed in the context of multiple benefits,” Dr. Wolf said.&nbsp;



“The effectiveness of linking irrecoverable carbon and forest primates will depend on policy implementation details,” added Professor Ripple. “For example, some primate species may be especially charismatic and have ranges that are closely aligned with irrecoverable forest carbon. That opens the door to sustainable ecotourism that could provide funding for simultaneously safeguarding primates and carbon.”



However, the researchers warn that any policies must account for local conditions and help support indigenous populations, overall human well-being, and sustainability.



“What we’re arguing for will require extensive collaboration. And primates make up only a single taxonomic order, one that’s heavily concentrated in the tropics. That means efforts are needed to look at the overlap between irrecoverable carbon and species in other taxonomic groups, especially in temperate regions. But the primate-carbon connection is an important start,” Dr. Wolf concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2207604119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Climate action should be linked with primate protection

A new study led by Oregon State University (OSU) has...

While many people are familiar with the hole in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">ozone</a> layer above the Antarctica, until recently less attention has been given to the problems the protective ozone in the stratosphere over the Arctic is also facing. In 2011 and 2020, for instance, a significant thinning of the ozone layer over the North Pole gave rise to weather anomalies across the entire northern hemisphere, including exceptionally warm and dry springs in central and northern Europe and Russia, or unusually wet conditions in the polar regions. However, whether there is a direct causal relationship between stratospheric ozone destruction and these weather anomalies has remained a matter of debate in climate science.



To clarify this issue, a team of experts led by <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zürich</a> ran simulations which integrated ozone depletion into two different climate models, and discovered that the main cause of the weather anomalies in the northern hemisphere observed in 2011 and 2020 is most likely ozone depletion over the Arctic. The simulations coincided with observational data from these two years (as well as eight such events which were used for comparison purposes). Moreover, when the scientists removed ozone destruction from their models, they could not reproduce the results.&nbsp;



“What surprised us most from a scientific point of view is that, even though the models we were using for the simulation are utterly different, they produced similar results,” said study co-author Gabriel Chiodo, an expert in Climate Dynamics at ETH Zürich.



According to the scientists, ozone depletion occurs when temperatures in the Arctic are very low. “Ozone destruction occurs only when it is cold enough and the polar vortex is strong in the stratosphere, about 30 to 50 kilometers above the ground,” explained study lead author Marina Friedel, a doctoral student in Environmental Sciences at the same university.&nbsp;



Usually, ozone absorbs UV radiation from the Sun, warming the stratosphere and helping to break down the polar vortex in spring. However, if there is less ozone, the stratosphere cools down and the vortex becomes stronger. “A strong polar vortex then produces the effects observed at the Earth’s surface,” Dr. Chiodo said. Thus, ozone appears to play a fundamental role in temperature and circulation changes around the Arctic.



These findings could help climate scientists build more accurate seasonal weather and climate forecasts, allowing for better predictions of temperature fluctuations, which are crucial for agriculture. However, more research is needed to understand the future evolution of the ozone layer. Although ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been banned since 1989, they are extremely long lived, and can linger in the atmosphere for up to a century, thus still damaging the ozone layer. “Yet CFC concentrations are steadily declining, and this raises the question of how quickly the ozone layer is recovering and how this will affect the climate system,” Friedel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00974-7">Nature Geoscience</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Ozone depletion in the Arctic leads to weather anomalies

While many people are familiar with the hole in the...

As the world starts to wean itself off fossil fuels and turn to "greener" alternatives, the focus will turn to wind farms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switching-to-solar-energy-affects-endangered-florida-panthers/">solar energy</a>, electric cars and improved batteries. All these technologies will require a high volume and wide range of metallic resources, many of which are in short supply – except in deposits under the sea bed.&nbsp;



There is currently no deep-sea mining taking place, but the International Seabed Authority has granted 19 exploratory licenses in the Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ), an area of the Pacific Ocean between Mexico and Hawaii. Mining of the sea bed would involve mining platforms at the surface, a range of robotic mining machines and hydraulic pumps, as well as surface ships, all of which would generate underwater noise.&nbsp;



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a> examines the potential for underwater noise pollution from seabed mining operations, and concludes that the noise from one mine alone could travel approximately 500 km (about 311 miles) from the source and could potentially affect deep-sea species that are relatively unknown and unstudied.&nbsp;



For the investigation, an international team of scientists modeled the potential noise pollution effects using&nbsp;known noise levels from oil and gas industry ships and coastal dredges. Although mining companies are already testing smaller-scale prototypes of deep-sea mining systems, they have yet to share their data on underwater noise pollution, so the researchers had to use noise levels from these better-studied industrial activities.&nbsp;



True noise levels from deep-sea mining may be different from the proxies used in this study, but are likely to be higher, rather than lower, because seabed mining equipment is much larger and more powerful than the machinery used in the proxy activities. “These are probably conservative estimates," noted Andrew Friedman, director of Pew’s seabed mining project.&nbsp;



In addition, if there are several mining operations in an area, the sounds generated will overlap and interfere, potentially creating complex noise patterns in the underwater environment. The deep sea is the largest environment on Earth, and is home to organisms found nowhere else, many of which are likely to use sound to communicate, find food, navigate and avoid predators, given the absence of light at these depths.



Overall, 17 contractors are currently exploring the possibility of mining in the CCZ, an area that spans 4.5 million square kilometers (1.7 million square miles). The authors of the study estimate that, if each of the contractors were to launch just one mine, an estimated 5.5 million square kilometers (2.1 million square miles) – an area larger than the European Union – would have elevated noise levels. Not only could this level of mining activity have untold impacts on noise-sensitive species, but the noise generated would carry into areas known as “preservation reference areas” where no mining will take place. These areas have been set aside as controls to monitor the impacts of the mining activity and to use for scientific comparisons.&nbsp;



“What surprised me most was how easy it would be for noise from just one or two mines to impact nearby areas that have been set aside as experimental controls,” said Rob Williams, co-founder of Oceans Initiative. “With so many unknowns, we need a careful comparison of these preservation reference areas to sites where mining is taking place in order to understand mining’s impacts. But noise will cross the boundaries between preservation zones and mining sites.”



Craig R. Smith is a professor emeritus at the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii at Manoa</a>. “Our modeling suggests that mining noise could impact areas far beyond the actual mining sites, including preservation reference zones, which are required under draft mining regulations to be unaffected by mining.” Professor Smith said this finding “could require rethinking of environmental regulations, including the number of mining operations allowed within the CCZ.”



“Estimating the noise of future equipment and installations is a challenge, but we don’t have to wait until the first mines are operational to discover the noise they make," said Professor Christine Erbe of Curtin University. "By identifying the level of noise in the engineering design phase, we can better prepare for how this might impact marine life.”



The island nation of Nauru invoked a United Nations rule two years ago that could force the International Seabed Authority, to complete regulations that would allow large-scale seabed mining by July 2023. This deadline makes it unlikely that sufficient research will have been done to accurately assess the ecological risks from underwater noise pollution. Because of this, an increasing number of countries, experts, corporations, and environmental organizations are calling for a halt to any seabed mining until scientists can confirm that the mining will not cause harm to the marine environment.



Friedman said that the current study highlights how much remains unknown about mining’s potential impacts, not just on the deep ocean, but throughout the water column. At the moment, the science and governance surrounding deep-sea mining remain woefully inadequate.&nbsp;



“The deep sea houses potentially millions of species that have yet to be identified, and processes there allow life on Earth to exist,” said Travis Washburn, a deep-sea ecologist at AIST. “While much work is still needed to determine the extent and magnitude of environmental impacts from deep-sea mining, with careful study and management we have a unique opportunity to understand and mitigate human impacts to the environment before they occur.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noise from deep-sea mining may stretch hundreds of miles

As the world starts to wean itself off fossil fuels...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a> (RVC) in London has found that flat-faced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scent-dogs-can-sniff-out-coronavirus-on-human-skin/">dogs</a> with skin folds, such as bulldogs or pugs, are up to 50 times more likely to develop a painful skin condition called skin fold dermatitis. With symptoms including reddened skin, ulcers, and a bad smell, this condition - caused by friction, excessive moisture, and lack of ventilation deep in the folds of the skin – can often be extremely debilitating for dogs, leading to significant discomfort and pain.&nbsp;



By analyzing the records of over 900,000 dogs in the UK, the experts found that English Bulldogs were most likely to be diagnosed with skin fold dermatitis. Compared to crossbred dogs, English bulldogs had 49.1 times the risk of developing this condition, followed by French bulldogs (26 times the risk), pugs (16 times), basset hounds (10.7), cocker spaniels (7.5), shar peis (6.4), boxers (4.6), and Cavalier King Charles spaniels (4.5). By contrast, the most protected breeds were found to be&nbsp;Yorkshire terriers (0.1 times the risk), border collies (0.3), whippets (0.43), Patterdale terriers (0.45), and Lhasa Apsos (0.47).



The most common symptoms of skin fold dermatitis were reddened skin, inflammation, moistness, bad odor, and pain, occurring most frequently on the lips (36.8 percent), facial folds (22 per cent), vulvas (14.2 percent), nasal folds (nine percent), tails (5.8 percent), and periocular folds (3.5 percent).&nbsp;



“Skin fold dermatitis is a common problem in dogs with skin folds or pockets,” said study senior author Anke Hendricks, a veterinary dermatologist at RVC. “It is not always easy to spot where folds are deep, nor is it necessarily recorded in the health records, and as such this study is likely to underestimate the problem. Prevention or treatment of infection requires very frequent skin care or medication throughout a dog’s life and adds a considerable care burden and cost to living with an affected dog.”



“As humans, we hold the power to ensure that every pet dog starts life with good natural health,” added study lead author Dan O’Neill, an associate professor of Companion Animal Epidemiology at RVC. “When choosing which dog to own, this means selecting a breed that does not have extreme conformations such as folded skin which can lead to a lifetime of painful skin infections.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-14483-5">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Flat-faced dogs have a high risk of painful skin conditions

A new study led by the Royal Veterinary College (RVC)...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers have discovered Meraxes gigas, a new species of dinosaur with short arms just like T. rex. The study demonstrated that T. rex and M. gigas evolved to have tiny arms for functions like mating or movement support.



“The fossil of M. gigas shows never seen before, complete regions of the skeleton, like the arms and legs that helped us to understand some evolutionary trends and the anatomy of Carcharodontosaurids –the group that M. gigas belongs to,” explained&nbsp; Juan Canale, the project lead at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Bachmann_Paleontological_Museum">Ernesto Bachmann Paleontological Museum</a> in Neuquén, Argentina.



First, the authors clarified that the T. rex did not get their short arms from M. gigas or vice versa. In fact, these species are very far apart on the evolutionary tree. For instance, M. gigas became extinct almost 20 million years before T. rex even became a species.&nbsp;



“There is no direct relationship between both,” said Canale. Instead, it is believed that tiny arms may have been a physical advantage to the survival of each species.



“I’m convinced that those proportionally tiny arms had some sort of function. The skeleton shows large muscle insertions and fully developed pectoral girdles, so the arm had strong muscles,” said Canale. In other words, the arms did not shrink because they were useless to the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Understanding the functions of these tiny arms is more of a challenge. For dinosaurs like M. gigas and T. rex, the larger their heads were, the smaller their arms became. The study authors also determined that actions related to hunting were more likely performed by the head.&nbsp;



Using a well preserved fossil, the research team painted a picture of the M. gigas before it died. Living&nbsp; in the northern Patagonia region of Argentina, the dinosaur was 45 years old, about 11 meters long, and weighed more than four tons. And, it had a big family.&nbsp;



“The group flourished and reached a peak of diversity shortly before it became extinct,” said Canale. “They may have used the arms for reproductive behavior such as holding the female during mating or support themselves to stand back up after a break or a fall."



The skull of M. gigas was found to be decorated with crests, furrows, bumps and small hornlets. “Those ornamentations appear late in the development when the individuals became adults,” explained Canale. These features were likely used to attract potential mates. “Sexual selection is a powerful evolutionary force. But given that we cannot directly observe their behavior, it is impossible to be certain about this."



The research team looks forward to exploring other questions that the M. gigas fossil can help answer. The work was supported by The National Science Foundation of the United States and the National Geographic Society.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Newly discovered dinosaur had tiny arms like T. Rex

In a new study published by Cell Press, researchers have...

It has been known since the 1960s that sound can have analgesic effects on people. Accounts from dental operations indicated that music and noise relieved pain to some extent, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-sparks-strikingly-similar-visuals-among-people-of-the-same-culture/">music</a> that is used as an intervention can alleviate postoperative pain and bring relief. Because diverse genres of music and even nature sounds can relieve pain to an equal extent, the inherent characteristics of sound, as well as contextual factors, have been hypothesized to drive these analgesic effects. However, the neural mechanism by which this occurs is still not understood.&nbsp;



New research published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a> has investigated whether sound brings relief to mice with inflammatory pain induced by hindpaw injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant. Inspired by observations in humans, Wenjie Zhou and colleagues evaluated the phenomenon in mice using a suite of methods, including behavioral tests, viral tracing, microendoscopic calcium imaging, and multielectrode recordings.&nbsp;



The researchers found that sounds with a low-signal to ambient noise ratio, specifically a 5 decibel increase in sound intensity over ambient sound levels, caused relief from pain in the experimental mice. This involved inhibitory inputs from the auditory cortex to distinct regions of the somatosensory thalamus, depending on whether the pain was administered in the forepaw or hindpaw.&nbsp;



Furthermore, artificial manipulation of the identified circuits both mimicked and suppressed sound-induced analgesic effects. According to the researchers, their study revealed the corticothalamic circuits underlying sound-promoted analgesia by deciphering the role of the auditory system in pain processing.”



“The neural mechanisms underlying music-induced analgesia in humans are doubtlessly more complicated than those revealed in mice,” said the study authors. In humans, multiple brain areas are involved in pain processing and this warrants further investigation. However, this study suggests that music-induced analgesia could be developed as an alternative or complementary intervention for treating and relieving pain in humans.



“Although this experimental paradigm is not equivalent to using music and pleasant sounds to evoke analgesia in humans, the study of Zhou&nbsp;et al.&nbsp;opens up new directions for research on sound-induced analgesia by creating a model in which the mechanistic underpinnings can be investigated,” wrote Rohini Kuner and Thomas Kuner in a related Perspective.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sound linked to pain relief in mice

It has been known since the 1960s that sound can...

Researchers from <a href="https://mortonarb.org/">The Morton Arboretum</a> and United States Botanic Garden (USBG) have located a lone Chisos Mountain oak,&nbsp;Quercus tardifolia, within the Big Bend National Park in Texas, U.S.A. The rare species has only ever been recorded in the Chisos Mountains in Texas, and in the nearby Sierra del Carmen in northern Coahuila, Mexico. It was first described in the 1930s and the last living specimen was believed to have perished in 2011.



Botanical researchers from 10 different institutions collaborated in the search for a living specimen of the oak tree in its native Chisos Mountains. Their find, although exciting, is also rather disheartening because the 30-foot tree is in very poor condition. Its trunk has been burned in places, and it shows signs of severe fungal infection. It is clearly clinging to life at this stage; a single bush fire or season of drought could mean the end of it.



“This work is crucial to preserve the biodiversity that Earth is so quickly losing,” said Dr. Murphy Westwood. “If we ignore the decline of&nbsp;Q. tardifolia&nbsp;and other rare, endangered trees, we could see countless domino effects with the loss of other living entities in the ecosystems supported by those trees,” she said. According to Westwood,&nbsp;Q. tardifolia&nbsp;is considered one of the rarest, if not the rarest oak in the world.



Scientists are interested in understanding why this species of tree is on the verge of extinction because this knowledge may help to manage other endangered species such that they don’t face the same fate. The group of researchers that discovered the living specimen on May 25, 2022, is now working with the National Park Service to protect the tree from the threat of fires, which have become more prevalent due to climate change. In addition, conservationists will search for acorns from the parent plant and attempt to germinate them, thus propagating new specimens.&nbsp;



“This is important collaborative research necessary for the conservation of&nbsp;Q. tardifolia,” said Carolyn Whiting, a botanist at Big Bend National Park. “The Chisos Mountains support a high diversity of oak species, partly because of the wide range of habitats available in this ‘sky island.’ There is still much to learn about the oaks in the Chisos.”



“The United States Botanic Garden is thrilled about the success of this partnership and collecting trip that rediscovered such a rare oak,” said Susan Pell, Ph.D., acting executive director at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usbg.gov/">United States Botanic Garden</a>, which is funding and collaborating on the project. “This discovery is just the beginning of the conservation work we are doing in partnership with The Morton Arboretum to better understand and conserve threatened trees.”



Scientists in the collaborative plan to undertake genetic analysis of the newly-discovered lone tree in order to establish whether its DNA matches that of other specimens collected previously. Oaks tend to hybridize easily, which may allow them to adapt more quickly to changing climate conditions such as extreme heat and new diseases. However, frequent hybridization can blur the genetic lines between oak species in a given ecosystem like Big Bend.&nbsp;



“This is an interesting problem. We’re looking into whether this tree is genetically similar to other trees that have been previously collected as&nbsp;Q. tardifolia. That should tell us whether this collection is the same as what Cornelius H. Muller named&nbsp;Q. tardifolia.&nbsp;It should also tell us whether this collection of specimens is genetically distinct enough from other, closely related oaks in the area to warrant recognition as a species," said Dr. Andrew Hipp.



Oaks are unusual among tree species because their acorns cannot survive the usual treatment given to seeds that are stored in seed banks. Acorns do not tolerate being dried and frozen for long periods of time.&nbsp; Because of this, they must be preserved in the wild or in living collections, which is why the involvement of botanical gardens is critical. The researchers who found the&nbsp;Q. tardifolia&nbsp;tree are concerned that it may not be producing acorns due to its dire condition. If this is the case, then other methods of propagation, including grafting, will be used to preserve the oak’s future.



“Across the planet, oaks serve as an ecological anchor cleaning air, filtering water, sequestering carbon dioxide and supporting countless fungi, insects, birds and mammals,” explained Westwood. “When one is lost, we don’t know what else we might permanently lose in its wake."



However, Westwood, Pell and others warn that conservation efforts such as this require collaborative initiatives, such as the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.globalconservationconsortia.org/gcc/oak/">Global Conservation Consortium for Oak</a>, the involvement of botanical gardens and a variety of scientific experts to secure a future for endangered trees.



“In many ways, this tree is an ancient relic. Due to the changing climate, the world is completely different now than when it evolved,” said Wesley Knapp, chief botanist at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.natureserve.org/">NatureServe</a>, who participated in the expedition. “It is incumbent upon us to learn from it and protect it while we still can in order to inform future conservation efforts,” he said. “Nature rarely hands us a second chance, and I doubt we’ll get a third. We won’t waste it.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Researchers find "extinct" oak tree hiding in plain sight

Researchers from The Morton Arboretum and United States Botanic Garden...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...