Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

As apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clash-of-the-top-predators-wolves-are-eating-sea-otters/">predators</a>, large carnivores such as lions or wolves play crucial roles in their ecosystems. However, their numbers have significantly declined over the past decades, giving rise to efforts of relocating several species – including reintroduction of species to areas where they had been exterminated or reinforcing an existing population to increase its viability – to support their conservation. To date though, there has been little information about what factors determine whether such rewilding programs are successful or not.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has analyzed data from nearly 300 animal relocations that took place between 2007 and 2021, spanning 22 countries on five continents, and involving 18 different large carnivore species, such as wolves, bears, hyenas, wild dogs, and big cats.



The analysis revealed that two thirds (66 percent) of the relocations were successful and that success rates for large carnivore relocations have increased substantially since 2007. According to the experts, for wild-born carnivores, success rates increased from 53 percent (pre-2007) to 70 percent, and for captive-born animals, success rates doubled from 32 percent to 64 percent. The species with the highest success rates were maned wolves, pumas, and ocelots (100 percent success rate), while those with the lowest success rate (approximately 50 percent) were African lions, cheetahs, brown hyenas, Iberian lynxes, and wolves.



“Soft-release” methods – involving acclimatizing the animals to the new environments before fully releasing them – appeared to me most successful. At the same time, releasing young animals (one or two years of age) also increased success rates, due to their greater behavioral plasticity to adapt to new environments. Compared to animals born in the wild, the success rate of animals released from captivity decreased by 1.5-fold. Unfortunately, just over a third (37 percent) of the relocated animals could find a mate and/or raise a cub in their new habitats.



Although the fact that most relocated animals survived is highly encouraging, their low mating success show the ongoing challenges rewilding efforts face and highlight the importance of protecting already existing habitats.



“In the last 15 years we have become more successful at translocating and reintroducing large carnivores. This allows us to be optimistic for the future of rebuilding damaged ecosystems around the globe, but we must remember that it is always more important to protect large carnivore populations where they are now before we lose them. Even as we have grown to be more successful, 34 percent of individual translocations fail and they cannot be seen as a replacement for immediate conservation action to save these populations,” concluded lead author Seth Thomas, a biologist at Oxford.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109909">Biological Conservation</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Rewilding programs have become increasingly successful

As apex predators, large carnivores such as lions or wolves...

The preferred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-spiders-transfer-more-sperm-when-mating-with-cannibals/">mating</a> strategy of the eastern Australian humpback whale has shifted from singing to fighting in recent years, according to a new study led by Professor Rebecca Dunlop from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">The University of Queensland</a>.



While analyzing nearly two decades of data, the researchers found that male whales along Australia’s eastern seaboard have given up singing to attract mates. Instead, they are battling it out with other male competitors.&nbsp;



"The eastern Australian humpback whale population was whaled almost to extinction in the 1960s (~200 whales) and has recovered to pre-whaling numbers (&gt;20,000 whales). Using an 18-year dataset, where the population increased from approximately 3,700 to 27,000 whales, we found that as male density increased over time, the use of mating tactics shifted towards more males engaging in non-singing physical competition over singing," wrote the study authors.



The experts noted that while singing was the more successful mating strategy in earlier post-whaling years, non-singing behavior became the more successful tactic in later years.



“In 1997, a singing male whale was almost twice as likely to be seen trying to breed with a female when compared to a non-singing male,” said Dr. Dunlop. “But by 2015 it had flipped, with non-singing males almost five times more likely to be recorded trying to breed than singing males."



“It’s quite a big change in behavior so humans aren’t the only ones subject to big social changes when it comes to mating rituals.”



According to the researchers, the transition in mating behavior happened progressively as whale populations recovered from low numbers.



Study co-author Dr. Celine Frere noted that previous work by UQ Professor Michael Noad found that the whale population increased from approximately 3,700 whales to 27,000 between 1997 and 2015.



“We used this rich dataset, collected off Queensland’s Peregian Beach, to explore how this big change in whale social dynamics could lead to changes in their mating behavior,” said Dr. Frere. “We tested the hypothesis that whales may be less likely to use singing as a mating tactic when the population size is larger, to avoid attracting other males to their potential mate.”



“If competition is fierce, the last thing the male wants to do is advertise that there is a female in the area, because it might attract other males which could out-compete the singer for the female,” explained Dr. Dunlop. “By switching to non-singing behavior, males may be less likely to attract competition and more likely to keep the female.



“If other males do find them, then they either compete, or leave. With humpbacks, physical aggression tends to express itself as ramming, charging, and trying to head slap each other. This runs the risk of physical injury, so males must weigh up the costs and benefits of each tactic.”



“It will be fascinating to see how whale mating behavior continues to be shaped in the future.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04509-7">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: The Cetacean Ecology Group, University of Queensland.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Whales changed their mating tactic from singing to fighting

The preferred mating strategy of the eastern Australian humpback whale...

The sale of indoor houseplants soared during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-risk-linked-to-specific-environmental-pollutants/">COVID-19</a> pandemic as people were confined to their homes and needed to remind themselves of the beauty of nature. Green spaces are known to be beneficial to mental and physical health, and confer a sense of wellbeing, and people love to bring a bit of that greenness into their homes by means of attractive plants in pots. Interestingly, many of the most popular pot plants have strange roots that grow out of their stems and seem to live comfortably in the air, rather than in the pot’s soil.&nbsp;



These are known as aerial roots, and a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pce.14568">Plant, Cell &amp; Environment</a> suggests that they are capable of elevating the health of our indoor plants, as long as we pay them some attention. Just like underground roots, aerial roots can absorb nutrients and water, although the relative importance of this to the plant had not been investigated.&nbsp;



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> decided to grow houseplants that have both aerial roots and roots in the soil, and to compare the uptake of nitrogen by the two different types of roots. Nitrogen is used for forming proteins and so is essential for healthy plant growth.



“Houseplants are really important for improving air quality and bring mental health benefits, but many people struggle to know the best way to look after them. The main focus is usually on feeding them in the soil with regular watering and plant food, but what many people don’t know is that many plant varieties have roots along the external stems that need our attention too," said Dr. Amanda Rasmussen, who led the study. "We wanted to test if these roots do take up nutrients and if so, find out exactly how much they can take up to improve the health of the plants.”



The researchers used three different species of plants that are commonly kept in pots in homes and that have aerial and below-ground roots: Anthurium andreanum, also known as flamingo flower; Epipremnum aureum or devil’s ivy;&nbsp;and&nbsp;Philodendron scandens or sweetheart plant.&nbsp;They grew these plants in custom-made growth chambers under conditions of high humidity and ambient humidity for three months. Both aerial roots and soil-formed roots were fed mixtures of the nitrogen-containing compounds known as nitrate, ammonium and glycine, and growth and physiology parameters were measured weekly.



The results showed that aerial roots were consistently better at taking up nitrogen than soil roots, and it didn’t matter which form the nitrogen was in. All three forms of nitrogen were absorbed more readily by the aerial roots. This was contrary to expectations as the aerial roots are thicker than the soil roots and therefore have a smaller surface area to volume ratio. The researchers had expected the thin soil roots to be better adapted to absorbing nitrogen.&nbsp;



The experts had also expected that the plants would absorb nitrogen in organic form (ammonium and glycine) in preference to nitrogen in inorganic nitrate form. But the plants absorbed all three forms of nitrogen equally well. In addition, all three species of plants grew better in high humidity conditions, with aerial roots showing the greatest increase in biomass.&nbsp;



“The results of this study are really exciting as they could transform the way we feed certain types of plants and help us to keep them healthy and thriving! A simple spray with water and some plant food to the aerial roots may help optimize the amount of nutrients the plant gets and will ensure we can enjoy them to their fullest for many years," said Dr. Rasmussen.



The authors state that there is a need for future studies involving more different plant species and a wider range of nutrients. They also feel that the growth of plants with aerial roots can be enhanced by the use of misting and the addition of foliar applications of fertilizers that coat the aerial roots. Instead of ignoring these strange structures that sometimes appear to grow upwards instead of downwards into the soil, plant owners would do well to pay attention to their needs, thereby ensuring healthy and long-lived plants.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How to keep your houseplants healthy

The sale of indoor houseplants soared during the COVID-19 pandemic...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thwaites-glacier-underground-lakes/">Thwaites Glacier</a> is one of the fastest changing glaciers in Antarctica, with its grounding zone - the point where it meets the seafloor – retreating 14 kilometers since the 1990s. Since much of this glacier’s ice sheet lies below the sea level and is susceptible to rapid, irreversible loss, global sea levels could rise by over half a meter within centuries if melting continues at such rates.



However, according to two new recent studies published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>, although melting has increased beneath the floating ice shelf, the current rate of melting is slower than several computer models have estimated.&nbsp;



By collecting data from ocean measurements through deep boreholes at six different locations underneath the ice shelf over a nine-month period, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS) and <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has found that the rapid retreat of this glacier is driven by different processes under the ice shelf. According to the scientists, while melting beneath much of the ice shelf is weaker than expected, melting in cracks and crevices is much faster.



“Our results are a surprise but the glacier is still in trouble,” said Peter Davis, an oceanographer at BAS and lead author of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05586-0">one of the studies</a>. “If an ice shelf and a glacier is in balance, the ice coming off the continent will match the amount of ice being lost through melting and iceberg calving. What we have found is that despite small amounts of melting there is still rapid glacier retreat, so it seems that it doesn’t take a lot to push the glacier out of balance.”



Thus, although the vertical melting along the base of the ice shelf was less than expected, melting along sloped ice in cracks and terraces is much higher and could be a major factor in ice loss across this massive glacier, particularly as large rifts are progressing along the ice shelf and may become the primary trigger for ice shelf collapse.



“These new ways of observing the glacier allow us to understand that it’s not just how much melting is happening, but&nbsp;how&nbsp;and&nbsp;where&nbsp;it is happening that matters in these very warm parts of Antarctica. We see crevasses, and probably terraces, across warming glaciers like Thwaites.&nbsp;Warm water is getting into the cracks, helping wear down the glacier at its weakest points,” explained Britney Schmidt, an associate professor of Planetary Science at Cornell and lead author of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05691-0">second study</a>.&nbsp;



“Our results demonstrate that the canonical model of ice-shelf basal melting used to generate sea-level projections cannot reproduce observed melt rates beneath this critically important glacier, and that rapid and possibly unstable grounding-line retreat may be associated with relatively modest basal melt rates,” the experts concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What is causing the rapid retreat of the Thwaites Glacier?

The Thwaites Glacier is one of the fastest changing glaciers...

By examining data spanning nine billions of years, a team of scientists led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa</a> has found the first observational evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-closest-black-hole-has-been-discovered/">black holes</a> contain cores of dark energy, a mysterious force driving the accelerating expansion of the universe. Thus, instead of dark energy being spread out across spacetime, as many scientists have previously assumed, the new findings suggest that this energy was created and remains inside the (increasingly larger) black holes that formed in the crushing forces of collapsing stars.



The existence of dark energy was first proposed in the 1990s when investigations of distant stars revealed that the expansion of the universe was accelerating. This strange phenomenon – given that gravity should be slowing the universe’s expansion – made scientists ponder what could drive the expansion faster and led them to postulate dark energy as an unknown, mysterious force working against gravity. However, its precise nature and origins have not yet been clearly understood. Now, by connecting this force to the evolution of black holes over extended periods of time, the researchers have managed to shed new light on the nature of our universe.&nbsp;



“We’re really saying two things at once: that there’s evidence the typical black hole solutions don’t work for you on a long, long timescale, and we have the first proposed astrophysical source for dark energy,'” said lead author Duncan Farrah, an astrophysicist at Hawai’i.



“What that means, though, is not that other people haven’t proposed sources for dark energy, but this is the first observational paper where we’re not adding anything new to the universe as a source for dark energy: black holes in Einstein’s theory of gravity are the dark energy.”



By comparing black hole masses in young galaxies, where stars are still forming, with black holes masses in old, so-called “dormant galaxies,” where no more stars are currently born, the scientists discovered that black holes in dormant galaxies are between seven to 20 times larger than expected, suggesting that black holes too are growing as the universe expands.



“Here’s a toy analogy. You can think of a coupled black hole like a rubber band, being stretched along with the universe as it expands,” explained co-author Kevin Croker, a cosmologist at Hawai’i. “As it stretches, its energy increases. Einstein’s&nbsp;E = mc2&nbsp;tells you that mass and energy are proportional, so the black hole mass increases, too.”



“The importance of this work is that it’s taken the theories about black holes with dark energy cores and linked them for the first time to tangible observations of the universe,” concluded co-author Chris Pearson, an astronomer at the research institute <a href="https://www.ralspace.stfc.ac.uk/Pages/home.aspx">RAL&nbsp;Space</a>&nbsp;in Oxfordshire. “These black holes are expected to grow in mass as the universe expands.”&nbsp;



The findings are synthetized in two articles published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/acac2e">The Astrophysical Journal</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/acb704">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dark energy is created and contained in black holes

By examining data spanning nine billions of years, a team...

According to music psychology expert Michael Bonshor of the University of Sheffield, to create a happy song, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-helps-dementia-patients-connect-with-caregivers/">music</a> artists should combine a major key, 7th chords, 137 BPM (beats per minute), strong beats, four beats in every bar, and a verse-chorus-verse-chorus structure. Moreover, happy songs should have a short intro, repeated riffs, bright tone, high volume, and a mix of predictability and surprise.



“Previous studies have found songs are perceived as happy if they are in a major key, with a sweet spot of approximately 137 beats per minute. We like ‘7th chords’ as they add interest; regular chords use three notes, whereas ‘7th chords’ add an extra note which provides a sense of musical ‘tension’ and ‘relief,’” Bonshor explained.



“Alongside this, cheery songs usually&nbsp;have a strong 1-2-1-2 beat to them, so that you can dance along – and a short introduction means the song kicks off with a bang straight away, and there’s not a long build up. We like high volume when it comes to how our happy songs are made, with notes played in a bright and bouncy way by instruments such as trumpets or electric guitars instead of mellower instruments. Finally, a repetitive rhythm or guitar riff that people can latch onto and becomes memorable is the cherry on the cake.”



According to Dr. Bonshor’s formula, the happiest song ever created and performed is “Good Vibrations” by The Beach Boys, followed by “I Got You” (I Feel Good) by James Brown, “House of Fun” by Madness, and “Get the Party Started” by P!nk. Moreover, this “happy formula” has now been turned by Jamie P and Oliver Price into a pitch-perfect track called “<a href="https://soundcloud.com/mullerlight/the-lighter-note?utm_source=clipboard&amp;utm_medium=text&amp;utm_campaign=social_sharing">The Lighter Note</a>.”



Here are the top 10 happiest songs according to Dr. Bonshor’s formula:



<ol><li>“Good Vibrations” by The Beach Boys</li><li>“I Got You” (I Feel Good) by James Brown</li><li>“House of Fun” by Madness</li><li>“Get the Party Started” by P!nk</li><li>“Uptown Girl” by Billy Joel</li><li>“Sun Is Shining” by Bob Marley</li><li>“I Get Around” by The Beach Boys</li><li>“YMCA” by Village People</li><li>“Waterloo” by ABBA</li><li>“September” by Earth, Wind &amp; Fire</li></ol>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Which songs make people the happiest?

According to music psychology expert Michael Bonshor of the University...

Paleontology is usually associated with studying ancient bones, and most would imagine that brain study would be off the cards for creatures as ancient as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-dinosaurs-benefited-from-changes-in-global-climate/">dinosaurs</a>. However, recent collaborative studies between the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> and Ohio University concern exactly that - the reconstruction of the brains of two spinosaurs based on fossils found at the Isle of Wight.&nbsp;



 The team studied Baryonyx fossils from Surrey and Ceratosuchops from the Isle of Wight, both of which contained the oldest braincase material known. The fossils are anticipated to be around 125 million years old, yet both specimens have been well preserved, which helped to facilitate the reconstruction.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted the study to learn more about the spinosaur brain and how these animals interacted with their environment. They were unusual species that had crocodile-like jaws, conical teeth, and lived an aquatic lifestyle of stalking riverbanks - behaviors which were very different from other theropods such as the Allosaurus or the Tyrannosaurus.



 The researchers noted that the creature's sense of smell would not have been very good due to the undeveloped nature of its olfactory bulbs. Furthermore, it was concluded that these animals would mostly only hear low frequencies, and that parts of the brain involved in developing head stability and a prey gaze were likely to be less developed than in more specialized dinosaurs.&nbsp;



“Despite their unusual ecology, it seems the brains and senses of these early spinosaurs retained many aspects in common with other large-bodied theropods – there is no evidence that their semi-aquatic lifestyles are reflected in the way their brains are organized,” explained study lead author Chris Barker.



“It’s surprising to see such ‘non-specialized’ brains…but the results are still significant. It’s exciting to get so much information on sensory abilities from British dinosaurs. Using cutting-edge technology, we basically obtained all the brain-related information we possibly could from these fossils,” said Dr. Darren Naish.



The researchers are anticipating that this study is just the start of a new research boom in dinosaur cognition, with several spinosaur studies already taking place in Britain over the last few years.&nbsp;



“This new research is just the latest in what amounts to a revolution in paleontology due to advances in CT-based imaging of fossils,” said Professor Lawrence M. Witmer. 



“This new study highlights the significant role British fossils have in our constantly evolving, fast-moving understanding of dinosaurs, and shows how the UK - and the University of Southampton in particular - is at the forefront of spinosaur research,” said Dr. Neil Gostling.



 The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joa.13837">Journal of Anatomy</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Spinosaur brains reveal how they interacted with their environment

Paleontology is usually associated with studying ancient bones, and most...

We cannot know exactly how Earth’s climate was in the past, nor how it will be in the future. However, it is very important for scientists to try and predict what changes may take place so that policy- and decision-makers can develop ways to reduce and mitigate against the destructive effects of a warming planet.&nbsp;



Scientists make use of climate system models to get a better idea of how weather patterns and climatic factors may change in the future. These are computer simulations that use real data on factors that drive the climate today to predict how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> patterns may change under different conditions, such as increases in the levels of greenhouse gases.&nbsp;



Before using a climate model to predict what may happen in future, it is important that its accuracy in identifying past climatic conditions is assessed. This is done by comparing the model’s simulated conditions with climatic data derived from other sources, such as tree rings or pollen, or the stable isotope ratios in lake and ocean sediments or ice cores. These sources of data are known as proxies since they reflect past climatic conditions indirectly.&nbsp;



Interestingly, when climatic models are used to predict the Earth’s temperature during the Holocene Period (the past 12,000 years), the predictions disagree with the evidence obtained from proxy sources. The paleo-environmental proxy data, including evidence from ocean and lake sediments, indicate that temperature peaked at 6,500 years ago and then gradually cooled down until humans started burning fossil fuels around 200 years ago. In contrast, the climate models generally show global average temperatures increasing gradually throughout the Holocene Period.



The disagreement on climatic conditions during this time period is known as the Holocene temperature conundrum. A new review article, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05536-w">Nature</a>, has now addressed this conflict between the findings of climate models and proxy evidence by analyzing a large quantity of available data on global temperature from the past 12,000 years.&nbsp;



The researchers included lead author Darrell Kaufman, a Regents’ professor in the School of Earth and Sustainability at <a href="https://nau.edu/">Northern Arizona University</a>, and University of Arizona postdoctoral researcher Ellie Broadman, a co-author who worked on the study while earning her Ph.D. at NAU. The team aimed to identify whether the global average temperature 6,500 years ago was warmer, as indicated by proxy evidence, or colder, as simulated by models, than the temperature in the late 19th&nbsp;century, when the Industrial Revolution led to a significant increase in human-caused warming.



This comprehensive and systematic assessment concludes that the global average temperature 6,500 years ago was likely warmer and was followed by a multi-millennial cooling trend that ended in the 1800s. This finding supports the data derived from numerous proxy sources, rather than the conclusions derived from current climate models. However, the authors cautioned that uncertainty still exists, despite recent studies that have claimed to have resolved the conundrum.



“Quantifying the average temperature of the earth during the past, when some places were warming while others were cooling, is challenging, and more research is needed to firmly resolve the conundrum,” Kaufman said.&nbsp;



“But tracing changes in global average temperature is important because it’s the same metric used to gauge the march of human-caused warming and to identify internationally negotiated targets to limit it. In particular, our review revealed how surprisingly little we know about slow-moving climate variability, including forces now set into motion by humans, that will play out as sea level rises and permafrost thaws over coming millennia.”



We know more about the climate of the Holocene, which began after the last major ice age ended, 12,000 years ago, than any other multi-millennial period. There are published studies from a variety of natural archives that store information about historical changes that occurred in the atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere and on land; studies that look at the forces that drove past climate changes, such as Earth’s orbit, solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions and greenhouse gases; and climate model simulations that translate those forces into changing global temperatures. All these types of studies were included in this review.



If the researchers are correct, and the proxy data gives a more accurate reflection of global temperature changes during this time, this implies deficiencies in the models and casts uncertainty on their use to forecast climatic conditions in the future. In particular, this would challenge climate scientists’ understanding of factors that naturally drive climate changes and feedbacks, and that are used in the development of climate models.&nbsp;



If the researchers are incorrect, then scientists need to improve their understanding of the way in which proxy records indicate past temperature information, and further develop analytical tools to capture these trends on a global scale.



What is a certainty, however, is that the change in global average temperature in the past 6,500 years, be it upwards or downwards, has been gradual and has been very small – less than 1oC (1.8oF). This is less than the warming already measured in the last 100 years alone, most of which is related to human activities.&nbsp;



Attempting to resolve the Holocene global temperature conundrum has been a priority for climate scientists in the last decade; Broadman remembers reading the initial paper on this topic when she started her Ph.D. in 2016. All the studies since then have added to the understanding of this issue. However, it is still not clear what factors might be driving a cooling climate in the past 6,500 years when levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases were slowly increasing and ice sheets were slowly retreating – both factors that would be expected to cause warming, not cooling.



The current review certainly highlights the fact that we don’t yet know the solution to this conundrum.



“One interesting takeaway is that our findings demonstrate the impact that regional&nbsp;changes can have on&nbsp;global&nbsp;average temperature. Environmental changes in some regions of the Earth, like declining Arctic sea ice or changing vegetation cover in what are now vast deserts, can cause feedbacks that influence the planet as a whole,” Broadman said.&nbsp;



“With current global warming, we already see some regions changing very quickly. Our work highlights that some of those regional changes and feedbacks are really important to understand and capture in climate models.”



Additionally, Kaufman said, accurately reconstructing the details of past temperature change offers insights into climate’s response to various causes of both natural and anthropogenic climate change. The responses serve as benchmarks to test how well climate models simulate the Earth’s climate system.



“Climate models are the only source of detailed quantitative climate predictions, so their fidelity is critical for planning the most effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change,” said Kaufman. “Our review suggests that climate models are underestimating important climate feedbacks that can amplify global warming.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Was Earth heating up or cooling down before global warming?

We cannot know exactly how Earth’s climate was in the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has found that there is a significant lack of awareness among both U.S. and UK populations regarding the possibility and effects of a “nuclear winter” – the potential for long-term environmental and public health consequences from any exchange of nuclear weapons.



According to the experts, detonations from nuclear exchanges would throw vast amounts of debris into the stratosphere, blocking out much of the sun for over a decade, and thus causing global drops in temperature, mass crop failure, and widespread famine. Combined with radiation fall-out, such consequences would lead to the death of millions of people in the wake of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-wildfire-smoke-nuclear-war/">nuclear war</a>, including many far outside of any blast zone.



To assess their awareness of such a scenario, the researchers asked 3,000 participants in an online survey (half from the U.S. and half from the UK) to self-report on a sliding scale how much they felt they knew about a nuclear winter, and if they heard about such a possibility from contemporary media/culture, recent academic studies, or Cold War era beliefs and memories.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that only 3.2 and 7.5 percent of the participants (from UK and US, respectively) were familiar with such a phenomenon from media or culture, 1.6 percent (UK) and 5.2 percent (U.S.) from academic studies, and 5.4 percent (UK) and 9 percent (U.S.) from Cold War memories. In the event of a hypothetical Russian nuclear attack on Ukraine, fewer than one in five participants from both countries supported in-kind retaliation, with men more likely than women to back nuclear reprisal - 20.7 percent (U.S.) and 24.4 percent (UK) of men compared to 14.1 percent (US) and 16.1 percent (UK) of women.



“In 2023 we find ourselves facing a risk of nuclear conflict greater than we’ve seen since the early eighties. Yet there is little in the way of public knowledge or debate of the unimaginably dire long-term consequences of nuclear war for the planet and global populations,” said study lead author Paul Ingram, a senior research associate at University of Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.cser.ac.uk/">Center for the Study of Existential Risk</a> (CSER).



“Ideas of nuclear winter are predominantly a lingering cultural memory, as if it is the stuff of history, rather than a horribly contemporary risk. Of course, it is distressing to consider large-scale catastrophes, but decisions need to account for all potential consequences, to minimize the risk. Any stability within nuclear deterrence is undermined if it is based on decisions that are ignorant of the worst consequences of using nuclear weapons.”&nbsp;



“There is an urgent need for public education within all nuclear-armed states that is informed by the latest research. We need to collectively reduce the temptation that leaders of nuclear-armed states might have to threaten or even use such weapons in support of military operations,” he concluded.



The findings are published in a report on CSER’s <a href="https://www.cser.ac.uk/news/opinion-poll-survey-public-awareness-nuclear-winte/">website</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Risk of nuclear winter underestimated by most people

A new study led by the University of Cambridge has...

While coastal populations all over the world are already bracing for rising sea levels, planning for measures to mitigate flooding and other possible damages has been quite difficult. This is because the latest climate projections disagree on how rapidly the world’s largest ice sheets will respond to global warming.&nbsp;



Now, a study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36051-9">Nature Communications</a> argues that an irreversible loss of the West Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, along with a rapid acceleration of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cause-widespread-impacts-sooner-than-expected/">sea level rise</a>, will be imminent if global temperatures rise more than 1.8°C above pre-industrial levels.



Although melting ice sheets are likely the largest contributor to sea level rise, their behavior has been hardest to predict since the physics governing their temperature-related changes is highly complex.&nbsp;



“Moreover, computer models that simulate the dynamics of the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica often do not account for the fact that ice sheet melting will affect ocean processes, which, in turn, can feed back onto the ice sheet and the atmosphere,”&nbsp;said study lead author Jun Young Park, a doctoral student in Climate Sciences at the <a href="https://ibsclimate.org/">IBS Center for Climate Physics</a> and the <a href="https://www.pusan.ac.kr/eng/Main.do">Pusan National University</a> in South Korea.



By using a groundbreaking computer model that captures the complex relations among ice sheets, icebergs, ocean, and atmosphere, the scientists discovered that a rapid acceleration of ice sheet melting and sea level rise could only be prevented if the world reaches net zero emissions by 2060.



“If we miss this emission goal, the ice sheets will disintegrate and melt at an accelerated pace, according to our calculations. If we don’t take any action, retreating ice sheets would continue to increase sea level by at least 100 cm within the next 130 years. This would be on top of other contributions, such as the thermal expansion of ocean water,” explained study co-author Axel Timmermann, the director of the IBS Center.



While in previous studies scientists have mainly stressed the importance of subsurface ocean melting, sea ice and atmospheric circulation changes around Antarctica also play major roles in controlling the amount of ice sheet melting and subsequent sea level rise. Thus, more complex earth system models that can capture the interactions between different climate components are urgently needed, along with new observational programs.



“One of the key challenges in simulating ice sheets is that even small-scale processes can play a crucial role in the large-scale response of an ice sheet and for the corresponding sea-level projections. Not only do we have to include the coupling of all components, as we did in our current study, but we also need to simulate the dynamics at the highest possible spatial resolution using some of the fastest supercomputers,”&nbsp;Timmermann concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Rapid acceleration of sea level rise may be unavoidable

While coastal populations all over the world are already bracing...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> has found that dogs and humans who have the strongest relationships have similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-select-their-dogs-according-to-their-own-personality/">personalities</a>, matching on features such as levels of warmth, enjoyment of spending time outdoors, and selflessness with their possessions. However, according to the experts, owners who are overly attached to their pups may give rise to dysfunctional human-animal relationships.



The scientists reviewed 29 published articles on dog-owner relationships to clarify what personality traits lead to positive interspecies connections.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that canine personality traits associated with functional and fulfilling dog-owner relationships included energy, affection, openness, intelligence, agreeableness, and responsiveness to training. By contrast, antisocial, territorial, and destructive dogs were linked to problematic relationships with their owners.



“Openness and agreeableness of the dog could represent traits which enable them to facilitate these social interactions especially well.&nbsp;Particularly in cases where the owners do not possess these traits, they might benefit greatly from their presence in their dogs,” the authors explained.



Moreover, the researchers discovered that functional dog-owner relationships tend to be “complementary” – with both humans and animals being similarly friendly, but opposite in dominance/submissiveness traits. However, the combination of a dominant dog and a submissive owner was found to be challenging in practical ownership.



Finally, the investigation provided evidence that highly attached owners characterized by a “humanistic orientation towards the dog” could often give rise to mental issues in their pet, such as increased separation anxiety.&nbsp;



“That highly attached owners often owned dogs with separation related problems might be because the owners themselves are very worried about the imminent spatial separation, which in turn creates a negative feeling in the dogs,” the authors wrote.



“While many studies have reported that cuteness and general appearance are among the most important purchase motives of owners, this review suggests that future owners should focus more on personality and attachment aspects in the acquisition process instead. Compatibility between owners and their dogs may help unfold advantages of dog ownership, and prevent canine behavioral problems and their adverse consequences,” they concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105857">Applied Animal Behavior Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Dogs and their humans often share similar personalities

A new study led by the Max Planck Institute for...

The oldest European hedgehog that ever lived has been identified in Denmark. The hedgehog was alive until the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-gives-animals-a-survival-advantage-but-only-to-a-point/">age</a> of 16, which is seven years longer than the previous record holder.



Since the year 2000, hedgehog populations across the UK countryside have declined by at least 50 percent, according to the British Hedgehog Preservation Society.&nbsp;



Various projects have been launched to monitor the state of wild populations, including “The Danish Hedgehog Project" led by Dr. Sophie Lund Rasmussen of the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. For the 2016 project, citizen scientists were asked to collect any dead hedgehogs they could find.



The goal of the research was to investigate the typical life expectancy of hedgehogs in Denmark. Overall, 697 specimens were collected by more than 400 volunteers.&nbsp;



A subsequent analysis revealed that the oldest hedgehog in the sample was 16 years old - the oldest scientifically documented European hedgehog ever found. In addition, two individuals were found to have lived for 11 and 13 years.&nbsp;



By contrast, the average age of the hedgehogs was only around two years. The researchers determined that 56 percent of the hedgehogs had been killed when crossing roads, 22 percent died at a rehabilitation center, and 22 percent died of natural causes.&nbsp;



"Although we saw a high proportion of individuals dying at the age of one year, our data also showed that if the individuals survived this life stage, they could potentially live to become 16 years old and produce offspring for several years," said Dr. Rasmussen.



"This may be because individual hedgehogs gradually gain more experience as they grow older. If they manage to survive to reach the age of two years or more, they would have likely learned to avoid dangers such as cars and predators."



‘The tendency for males to outlive females is likely caused by the fact that it is simply easier being a male hedgehog. Hedgehogs are not territorial, which means that the males rarely fight. And the females raise their offspring alone."



The researchers tested tissue samples to examine whether inbreeding had a negative impact on the life expectancy of the hedgehogs. The team was surprised to find that this was not the case.&nbsp;



"Sadly, many species of wildlife are in decline, which often results in increased inbreeding, as the decline limits the selection of suitable mates. This study is one of the first thorough investigations of the effect of inbreeding on longevity," said Dr. Rasmussen.



"Our research indicates that if the hedgehogs manage to survive into adulthood, despite their high degree of inbreeding, which may cause several potentially lethal, hereditary conditions, the inbreeding does not reduce their longevity. That is a rather groundbreaking discovery, and very positive news from a conservation perspective."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13040626">Animals</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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World’s oldest European hedgehog lived in Denmark

The oldest European hedgehog that ever lived has been identified...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...