Evolution is like a grand performance on Earth's stage, with each species taking the spotlight at different moments in time. 



Imagine if there were a record chronicling the grand entrances and exits of these species - not on scrolls or parchments, but etched into the bones and shells of creatures preserved across millennia.



Now, picture a timeline that not only captures the journey of life forms over the last half a billion years but extends back nearly 2 billion years. A team of experts at Virginia Tech have turned this idea into a reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extending-the-timeline-of-evolution">Extending the timeline of evolution</h2>



The researchers conducted a detailed analysis of ancient life that extends the timeline of evolution to nearly 2 billion years ago.



Shuhai Xiao, a geobiologist at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, along with his team, examined these corridors of time. The research was particularly focused on marine eukaryotes, which are organisms that have cells with a nucleus.



These creatures eventually evolved into multicellular organisms, including animals, plants, and fungi, and set the stage for a whole new chapter of life on Earth.



"This is the most comprehensive and up-to-date analysis of this period to date," said Xiao. "And more importantly, we've used a graphic correlation program that allowed us to achieve greater temporal resolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-etched-across-ages">A story etched across ages</h2>



The researchers traced life forms back to the Proterozoic Eon, which extends from 2,500 million to 539 million years ago.



This period was characterized by life forms like sea sponges that were generally smaller, squishier, and fewer in number. Most of the organisms hadn't evolved mineral skeletons, meaning that fewer traces were left in the fossil record for us to find today.



Xiao and his team present this journey of life as a dance of species - the choreography of which offers vital insights into the parallel evolutionary paths of life and Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-boring-billion-and-the-ice-ages">The Boring Billion and the ice ages</h2>



One interesting pattern observed in the study was the existence of a rather uneventful period known as the "Boring Billion" (1,800 million to 720 million years ago), during which eukaryotic diversity was thought to remained stable, suggesting a slower pace of evolution.



"Eukaryotic species in the 'boring billion' may have evolved slower and lasted longer than those that came later," noted the researchers.



Then comes a twist in the tale - the cataclysmic Snowball Earth episode that encased the planet in ice at least twice between 720 million and 635 million years ago.



This cold break ushered in an era of accelerated evolutionary activity, which replaced the "boring," sloth-like pace with a gradual increase in species richness.



Xiao credits the ice ages as a major factor that reset the evolutionary path in terms of diversity and dynamics. "We see rapid turnover of eukaryotic species immediately after glaciation. That’s a major finding."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-amid-ancient-revelations">New questions amid ancient revelations</h2>



These patterns stir up several questions for future research. Why was evolution slow during the "Boring Billion"? 



What factors accelerated evolutionary pace after the snowball ice ages? Did changes in the environment, increased levels of atmospheric oxygen or inter-species competition contribute to this evolutionary sprint?



Such questions are crucial to understanding the complex interplay between life on Earth and Earth itself. And with this new study and the extended chart of life, we move closer to unraveling the mysteries of ancient evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-evolution-s-timeline">Broader implications of evolution’s timeline</h2>



This fascinating research not only extends our understanding of evolution but also opens doors to new scientific inquiries.



By mapping nearly 2 billion years of life’s history, scientists can better connect shifts in biodiversity to environmental and geological changes - offering insights into how life adapts to planetary transformations.



Moreover, the detailed timeline provides a framework for exploring the origins of multicellularity, the rise of complex ecosystems, and even the potential for life beyond Earth. 



By understanding how Earth’s life forms evolved under diverse conditions, researchers can refine models for identifying biosignatures on other planets.



As Xiao and his team continue their work, this extended evolutionary chart will serve as a critical resource for future studies, bridging the gap between Earth’s ancient past and its dynamic present. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adm9137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Timeline of life: Ice ages gave evolution a kick-start

Evolution is like a grand performance on Earth's stage, with each species taking the spotlight at different moments in time. Imagine if there were a record chronicling the grand entrances and exits of these species - not on scrolls or parchments, but etched into the bones and shells of creatures preserved across millennia. Now, picture a timeline that not only captures the journey of life forms over the last half a billion years but extends back nearly 2 billion years. A team of experts at Virginia Tech...

Exposure to fine particulate air pollutants, also known as PM2.5, may increase the risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-reduces-the-risk-of-dementia/">dementia</a>, according to a new meta-analysis conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>. 



Dementia is a syndrome that affects cognitive function, including memory, thinking, language, and the ability to carry out daily activities. It is caused by damage to the brain cells and can be progressive, meaning it gets worse over time.



Dementia can have a significant impact on a person's life, including their ability to communicate, their mood and behavior, and their independence. People with dementia may experience memory loss, difficulty with language, confusion, personality changes, and impaired reasoning and judgment.&nbsp;



Individuals who suffer from dementia may also have difficulty with everyday tasks, such as dressing, grooming, and eating. As the condition progresses, individuals may require increasing levels of care and support from their loved ones or healthcare professionals.



The study is the first systematic review and meta-analysis to use the new Risk of Bias In Non-Randomized Studies of Exposure (ROBINS-E) tool, which addresses bias in environmental studies in greater detail than other assessment approaches. It is also the first to include newer studies that used "active case ascertainment," a method that involved screening entire study populations followed by in-person evaluation for dementia among individuals who did not have dementia at baseline.



The researchers identified 51 studies that evaluated the association between ambient air pollution and clinical dementia, all published within the last ten years. The studies were assessed for bias using ROBINS-E, and 16 of them met the criteria for the meta-analysis.&nbsp;



The majority of the research was focused on PM2.5, with nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen oxide being the next most common pollutants studied. Of the studies used in the meta-analysis, nine used active case ascertainment.



The researchers found consistent evidence of an association between PM2.5 and dementia, even when annual exposure was less than the current EPA annual standard of 12 micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m3). Among the studies using active case ascertainment, the researchers found a 17-percent increase in risk for developing dementia for every two μg/m3 increase in average annual exposure to PM2.5.&nbsp;



They also found evidence suggesting associations between dementia and nitrogen oxide (five percent increase in risk for every 10 μg/m3 of annual exposure) and nitrogen dioxide (two percent increase in risk for every 10 μg/m3 of annual exposure), though the data was more limited.



"This is a big step in providing actionable data for regulatory agencies and clinicians in terms of making sense of the state of the literature on this hugely important health topic," said study lead author Professor Marc Weisskopf. "The results can be used by organizations like the Environmental Protection Agency, which is currently considering strengthening limits on PM2.5 exposure. Our findings support the public health importance of such a measure."



More than 57 million people worldwide are currently living with dementia, and estimates suggest that number will increase to 153 million by 2050. Up to 40 percent of these cases are thought to be linked to potentially modifiable risk factors, such as exposure to air pollutants.&nbsp;



Air pollution's estimated association with the risk of dementia is smaller than that of other risk factors, such as education and smoking. However, because of the number of people exposed to air pollution, the population-level health implications could be substantial.



"Given the massive numbers of dementia cases, identifying actionable modifiable risk factors to reduce the burden of disease would have tremendous personal and societal impact," said Professor Weisskopf. "Exposure to PM2.5 and other air pollutants is modifiable to some extent by personal behaviors—but more importantly through regulation."



Air pollution is caused by the release of harmful substances into the air by human activities such as transportation, industrial processes, and energy production. These substances can include particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, and volatile organic compounds.



The impact of air pollution on the planet can be significant. Particulate matter, for example, can cause respiratory problems and other health issues in humans and animals. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides can lead to acid rain, which can damage crops and forests, harm aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. Ozone, when it is present in the lower atmosphere, can be harmful to human health and vegetation.



Air pollution also contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, which is released through the burning of fossil fuels, is a greenhouse gas that traps heat in the atmosphere and contributes to rising global temperatures. This can lead to a range of impacts, including sea level rise, changes in weather patterns, and more frequent and severe natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and wildfires.



Overall, air pollution has significant negative impacts on both human health and the environment, and addressing this issue is crucial for creating a sustainable and healthy future for our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-071620">The BMJ</a>.



—



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Air pollution linked to increased risk of dementia

Exposure to fine particulate air pollutants, also known as PM2.5,...

New research led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has revealed that the spiny pollen of plants in the sunflower family can reduce infection of a common bee parasite by up to 94 percent. The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14320">Functional Ecology</a>, has significant implications for pollinator health and the wider ecosystem.



Insect pollinators, including bees, are responsible for fertilizing crops that contribute over $200 billion in annual ecosystem services worldwide. However, many species are in decline due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and other factors. The decline of pollinators poses a significant threat to global food security and biodiversity.



Led by Laura Figueroa, incoming assistant professor of environmental conservation at UMass Amherst, the research team aimed to understand why certain species of flowers, including sunflowers, can help pollinators resist disease infections. In particular, they investigated sunflowers’ effectiveness at combatting the widespread pathogen Crithidia bombi, which lives in a bee’s gut.



“We know that the health benefits from some foods come from the specific chemicals in them. But we also know that some foods are healthy because of their physical structure - think of foods high in fiber,” said Professor Figueroa.



To investigate how sunflowers help bumblebees withstand C. bombi, Figueroa and her team separated the spiny outer shell of the pollen from the chemical metabolites in the pollen’s core. They then mixed the spiny sunflower shell, with the chemistry removed, into the pollen fed to one group of bees. Another group was fed wildflower pollen sprinkled with sunflower metabolites and no sunflower shells.



The researchers discovered that the bees that ate the spiny sunflower pollen shells had the same response as bees feeding on whole sunflower pollen. These bees had a markedly reduced risk of C. bombi infection compared to those fed sunflower metabolites. In fact, they suffered 87% lower infections from C. bombi than the control group.



Additionally, bees fed pollen from ragweed, cocklebur, dandelion, and dog fennel – all members of the sunflower family and with similarly spiny pollen shells – had similarly low rates of C. bombi infection. This raises the possibility that such disease-fighting medicinal effects may be common to plants in the sunflower family.



The findings have significant implications for efforts to protect pollinators, which play a vital role in maintaining healthy and diverse ecosystems. “We depend on them for diverse, healthy, nutritious diets,” said Figueroa. “Understanding how sunflowers protect bees from disease could help us identify other flowers that have similar protective properties.”



Although sunflower pollen is not particularly nutritious due to its low protein content, it has been shown to protect bumblebees from gut pathogens such as C. bombi, which is known to affect the queen bees and their ability to produce offspring.



Study senior author Professor Lynn Adler explained that it is essential to look at the bigger picture of bee health, not just focus on individual factors such as gut pathogens. "It's no good curing the common cold if you starve the patient. We need to look at the community level, as well as what's happening in bees' guts, to know how to help them respond to stressful environments," said Professor Adler.



To determine the impact of sunflower pollen on colony health, Adler and her team placed commercial colonies of bumblebees on twenty different farms in Western Massachusetts that grew varying amounts of sunflowers. Over several weeks, the team collected samples of pathogens in the bees' guts, weighed the colonies to determine whether or not they were thriving, and counted the number of daughter queens.



The study found that infection decreased as sunflower abundance increased, and that queen bee production increased by 30 percent for every order of magnitude increase in the availability of sunflower pollen. "It's really exciting to show that sunflower not only reduces disease but positively affects reproduction," said Rosemary Malfi, lead author of the study.



Adler and Malfi cautioned that more research needs to be done to fully understand why sunflower pollen benefits queen bees, and that this study only focused on one common species of bumblebee that is not endangered. However, the findings suggest that the sunflower family may play a crucial role in maintaining pollinator health, which ultimately benefits our food systems.



The study provides much-needed food for thought in the ongoing effort to reverse the decline of pollinators worldwide. The results show that the physical structure of pollen can have significant impacts on bee health, which could inform new strategies for supporting pollinator populations.



This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation and Department of Agriculture.



Why bumble populations are declining



Bumblebees, vital pollinators of crops and wildflowers, are experiencing a rapid decline in their populations worldwide. While there are several factors contributing to this decline, the primary reasons are habitat loss, climate change, and pesticide use.



Habitat loss due to urbanization and agricultural intensification is the biggest threat to bumblebees. As natural habitats are converted into farmlands, forests, and urban areas, bumblebees lose their food sources, nesting sites, and breeding grounds. This reduces their population size and genetic diversity, making them more vulnerable to disease and environmental stress.



Climate change is also taking a toll on bumblebees. As temperatures rise, bumblebees are forced to move further north to cooler climates, which can affect their ability to find food and nesting sites. Changes in rainfall patterns can also impact the availability of nectar and pollen, making it difficult for bumblebees to survive.



Pesticide use is another significant threat to bumblebees. Pesticides like neonicotinoids, which are widely used in agriculture, have been linked to declines in bumblebee populations. These chemicals are highly toxic to bees and can impair their navigation, foraging, and immune systems, leading to reduced reproductive success and increased mortality.



The decline of bumblebees is a cause for concern because they play a crucial role in pollinating crops and wildflowers. Without them, we would lose the diversity of fruits, vegetables, and flowers that we rely on for food and aesthetic value. Therefore, it is important to take action to conserve and protect bumblebee populations by reducing pesticide use, restoring natural habitats, and mitigating climate change.



—



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Sunflowers are a ‘superfood’ for bumblebees

New research led by scientists at the University of Massachusetts...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/">Neurology</a> has found that people who experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-who-exercise-are-less-likely-to-have-sleep-problems/">sleep problems</a> are at a higher risk of stroke.&nbsp;Such issues include getting too little or too much sleep, taking long naps, having poor quality sleep, or experiencing breathing problems such as snoring, snorting, or sleep apnea.



“Not only do our results suggest that individual sleep problems may increase a person’s risk of stroke but having more than five of these symptoms may lead to five times the risk of stroke compared to those who do not have any sleep problems,” said study author Christine McCarthy, a medical expert at the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie/">University of Galway</a> in Ireland.



The researchers investigated the sleep habits of a cohort of 4,496 individuals with an average age of 62, including 2,243 people who had a stroke. The analysis revealed that those getting too much or too little sleep were more likely to have a stroke than those who slept an average number of hours.&nbsp;



For instance, a total of 162 individuals who had a stroke slept less than five hours per night (compared to 43 of those who did not have a stroke), while 151 of those who had a stroke slept over nine hours (compared to 84 of those who did not have a stroke). Participants who slept less than five hours per night on average were three times more likely to have a stroke and those who slept over nine hours were twice as likely to have a stroke than those who slept seven hours. Moreover, participants who took naps longer than one hour were 88 percent more likely to have a stroke than those who took shorter or no naps.



Besides sleep duration, other factors increasing the risk of stroke included breathing problems such as snoring, snorting, or apnea. For example, people who snored were 91 percent more likely to have a stroke and people who snorted or had sleep apnea were three times more likely to have a stroke than those who did not experience such issues.



“With these results, doctors could have earlier conversations with people who are having sleep problems. Interventions to improve sleep may also reduce the risk of stroke and should be the subject of future research,” McCarthy concluded.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Sleep problems linked to higher risk of stroke

A new study published in the journal Neurology has found...

<a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> scientists have conducted research into how coral reefs are affected by different kinds of natural disasters. The study, led by doctoral student Kai Kopecky and published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170">Ecology</a>, found that coral is less likely to recover from bleaching than from storms, even when the mortality rate is similar between the two events.



“Natural disasters can devastate a region, abruptly killing the species that form an ecosystem’s structure,” wrote the researchers. “While fires scorch the landscape to the ground, a heatwave leaves an army of wooden staves in its wake. Storm surges and coral bleaching do something similar underwater.”



Most shallow-water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-additives-reduce-breeding-success-of-corals/">corals</a> host symbiotic algae that provide them with food in exchange for a safe home and nutrients. However, extreme conditions can cause the coral to expel the algae, known as bleaching, which can be fatal.



The researchers studied coral and their reef ecosystems around the island of Moorea, French Polynesia, where they have been conducting research since the late 1980s. During Kopecky’s second visit to the island, a major bleaching event occurred, and he noticed that seaweed, a major competitor with coral for space on the reef, began colonizing the bleached skeletons left behind.



Kopecky wondered whether the presence of the skeletons was setting the reef on a pathway toward a more algae-dominated state. Previous work at Moorea had shown that tropical reefs can host either coral- or seaweed-dominated communities.&nbsp;



These distinct states are resilient to small disturbances, but a large shock can flip the ecosystem from one to the other in a process called hysteresis, after which the reef won’t revert to its previous state even if conditions do. The system finds a new equilibrium.



To compare reef dynamics after a bleaching event, which leaves skeletons in place, and after a storm, which scours the reef bare, Kopecky developed a mathematical model using a system of five differential equations to capture the transition between empty space, live and dead branching coral, and seaweed cover on the reef.



“The results were telling,” said Kopecky. “Just the fact that those skeletons are left on the reef results in these fundamentally different patterns of recovery.”



Coral skeletons play a protective role for young algae by shielding them from herbivores that would otherwise consume them. The crevices in the coral structure provide a safe haven for the algae to grow and spread, which is not possible in the open reef.&nbsp;



However, this protection does not appear to provide the same benefits to young coral. The authors of the study suggest that coral does not face as much pressure from predators as algae does. Furthermore, algae can outgrow coral when given the opportunity.



Holly Moeller, an assistant professor of ecology, evolution, and marine biology, explained: "Coral is literally laying down rock, while the algae are mostly just fast-growing, soft, leafy material."



Reef buildup is a slow process, and new growth incorporates dead skeletons into the larger reef structure. However, bleaching kills a lot of coral at once, particularly the oldest and youngest, and the skeletons eventually become brittle through erosion. This is not a sturdy foundation for young coral to build upon.



The idea of removing dead coral skeletons to promote coral recovery is gaining popularity in other ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Think of prescribed fires or the thinning of dead trees in forests so that the system is more resilient to future disturbances," explained Kai Kopecky, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Santa Barbara.



However, coral skeletons provide numerous benefits, including providing habitats for various types of animals. Additionally, some evidence suggests that the structural complexity of a reef correlates with faster coral recovery. "The effect really depends on what the nature of that structure is," Kopecky said. "Those aspects need to be taken into consideration before you go out and just start jackhammering the reef."



The researchers have ongoing experiments in Moorea, including one that examines how the reef recovers when dead coral skeletons are removed. Others are testing the assumptions Kopecky used to create his model. For example, how much does dead coral actually reduce herbivory? And how do the skeletons affect the growth of living corals?



Moeller believes that the study is a classic example of the value of mathematical models in ecology. Coral can live for hundreds of years, and reef recovery can take decades. "That's just not an experiment that you can realistically do," she said. "But if you have a model, and you trust the way you set that model up because you've done other experiments, then you can make these projections decades into the future."



Coral reefs are incredibly diverse ecosystems that are home to many different species of marine animals and plants. However, these ecosystems are under threat from a phenomenon known as coral bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs when the coral's symbiotic algae, which provide them with food and color, are expelled due to changes in temperature, light, or nutrients.



When coral bleaches, it turns white, loses its color and may eventually die. The loss of coral has serious implications for the ocean's biodiversity, as well as the millions of people who depend on these ecosystems for food and income.



Climate change is the primary cause of coral bleaching. As ocean temperatures rise, the coral becomes stressed, which can cause it to expel its algae. Other factors that can cause bleaching include pollution, overfishing, and nutrient runoff.



Scientists are working to understand how to protect coral reefs from bleaching. One approach is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which would help slow the rate of warming oceans. Another is to reduce pollution and overfishing in coral reef areas.



In summary, coral bleaching is a serious problem that threatens the health of coral reefs and the many species that depend on them. While there is no easy solution to this problem, scientists are working hard to find ways to protect these important ecosystems from further damage. It's up to all of us to take action to protect the ocean's biodiversity and the millions of people who rely on it.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Coral skeletons improve reef recovery after bleaching

UC Santa Barbara scientists have conducted research into how coral...

Many studies have provided evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severity-of-covid-symptoms-linked-to-air-pollution/">air pollution</a> is linked to a variety of adverse health outcomes, including lung cancer, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and diabetes. Now, a team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal) has identified another significant problem caused by air pollution: people exposed to higher levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and blank carbon (BC) before the Covid-19 pandemic appeared to have lower antibody responses to Covid-19 vaccines, suggesting that air pollution has a negative effect on the immune system too.



The scientists analyzed data from 927 participants in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.germanstrias.org/en/technology-services/gcat/">GCAT Genomes for Life</a>&nbsp;cohort (aged 40-65), who answered questionnaires and provided blood samples both in the summer of 2020, after the first lockdowns, and in the spring of 2021, after the beginning of Covid-19 vaccination. The participants’ exposure to air pollution was estimated based on their address before the pandemic.



The investigations revealed that, in previously uninfected individuals, pre-pandemic exposure to PM2.5, NO2, and BC was linked to a five to ten percent reduction in vaccine-induced antibodies, both for early IgM responses and later ones measured by IgG, with lower antibody levels persisting for several months after vaccination. These results were similar for all the three vaccines that were used (AstraZeneca, Pfizer, and Moderna).



“Air pollution can induce chronic inflammation, which has been associated with a negative effect on vaccine efficacy,” explained co-senior author Carlota Dobaño, an associate professor of Immunology at ISGlobal. “Our findings are consistent with evidence that persistent organic pollutants reduce vaccine responses in children.”



Further research is needed the clarify the role of long-term exposure to air pollution on hybrid immunity (infection plus vaccination) and assess whether the reduction in antibody responses led to an increased risk of breakthrough infections.



“However, our findings add to a&nbsp;growing body of evidence on the adverse effects of air pollution&nbsp;even at the relatively low levels observed in Western Europe. They also call for&nbsp;stricter air pollution limits, as recommended by the WHO,” concluded co-senior author Cathryn Tonne, an environmental epidemiologist at ISGlobal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/EHP11989">Environmental Health Perspectives</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Air pollution associated with lower Covid-19 vaccine responses

Many studies have provided evidence that air pollution is linked...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amygdala-experience-fear/">amygdala</a> is a small, almond-shaped structure located deep within our brain’s temporal lobes, which plays a fundamental role in learning, remembering, triggering fight-or-flight responses, and promoting the release of a “feel-good” chemical called dopamine. Although scientists have studied this brain structure for decades, they have not yet reached a full understanding of how it functions.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.cshl.edu/">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL) has made a series of discoveries that clarify how so-called somatostatin-expressing (Sst+) central amygdala (CeA) neurons help us learn about threats and rewards, and how they are related to dopamine. These findings could be of crucial importance in the future development of treatments for mental health issues such as anxiety disorders or drug addiction.



While scientists have previously assumed that the amygdala cannot distinguish between good and bad stimuli, a series of experiments on mice taught to associate specific sounds with particular rewards and punishments have shown that not only did the neurons respond differently to rewards versus punishments, but also responded differently to various types of rewards.



“This is entirely new to us. These neurons really care about the nature of each individual stimulus. It’s almost like a sensory area,” said study lead author Bo Li, a professor of Neuroscience at CSHL.



Moreover, since the mice’s brains fired more&nbsp;Sst+ CeA neurons&nbsp;after training, these neurons seem to be essential for learning. To test this hypothesis, the researchers inhibited Sst+ CeA neurons in some of the mice, and discovered that these animals were unable to associate sounds with rewards or punishments. In addition, normal dopamine neuron responses were also suppressed in these mice.



“We found those neurons are required for normal function for dopamine neurons, and therefore are important for reward learning. That is direct evidence of how CeA neurons regulate the function of dopamine neurons,” Li explained.&nbsp;



In future research, the experts aim to examine more closely the relationship between Sst+ CeA neurons and addiction, which could potentially help devising better treatments. “Our study provides a basis for developing more specific ways to regulate these neurons in different disease conditions,” Li concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05910-2">Nature</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does the brain identify rewards and punishments?

The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped structure located deep within...

New research from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) has uncovered an intriguing connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-mountain-lions-are-not-fully-protected-from-humans/">humans</a> and rats: both species appear to fall victim to the same type of logical fallacy, known as the conjunction fallacy. This groundbreaking study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/13423">Psychonomic Bulletin and Review</a>, suggests that the underlying cognitive mechanisms behind this fallacy may be shared across species, opening up the possibility of using rats as research models for studying certain psychopathological conditions.



The conjunction fallacy is a well-documented psychological phenomenon, famously exemplified by the "Linda problem" designed by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman and his colleague Amos Tversky in the 1980s. They presented participants with a scenario describing a woman named Linda, who is highly educated, socially conscious, and politically active. Participants were then asked to decide whether it was more probable that Linda was a bank teller, or a bank teller active in the feminist movement. Most chose the latter option, despite the fact that it is logically less probable.



This error in reasoning is thought to arise from the use of mental shortcuts, or heuristics, when estimating the likelihood of an event. In the case of the Linda problem, participants may have relied on the representativeness heuristic, assessing how similar the event is to a mental model they already have in their minds. This cognitive process, believed to be unique to humans, involves a combination of memory, imagination, and reasoning.



However, the recent study from UCLA challenges the idea that the conjunction fallacy is exclusive to humans. Valeria González, a postdoctoral psychology researcher at UCLA and the study's first author, explains: "The classical research has all been done with humans, so the usual explanation for the effect attributes it to a departure from rationality distinct to humans. Our work shows that maybe there is a more general mechanism shared between humans and rats."



The discovery that rats, like humans, are susceptible to the conjunction fallacy has significant implications for the field of psychology. If rats indeed share this cognitive bias with humans, they could potentially serve as useful models for studying psychopathological conditions characterized by false beliefs or the perception of nonexistent events, such as schizophrenia and certain anxiety disorders.



The conjunction fallacy occurs when people believe that the combination of two events is more likely than just one of those events occurring. Some researchers have argued that this fallacy arises due to language, particularly people's uncertainty about the meaning of words like "likely" and "probability." Others have attributed the fallacy to the influence of detailed backstories on decision-making. Additionally, previous research has indicated that humans are prone to conjunction fallacies when performing physical tasks.



To investigate whether the fallacy is necessarily tied to language and whether it is unique to humans, González and psychology professor Aaron Blaisdell designed an experiment involving rats in a physical, rather than social, task. The rats were trained in two scenarios where they had to judge the likelihood of a sound being present or both a light and sound being present in order to receive a food reward.



In the first scenario, the rats received sugar pellets if they pressed a lever when a tone played and a steady light was on. If the tone played but the light was off, they received no food. In the second scenario, the rats received pellets if they pressed a lever while a white noise played and a flashing light was off. However, they received nothing if they pressed the lever when the noise played and the flashing light was on.



The researchers then played the different sounds, a tone or white noise, with the light bulb unobscured but turned off. The rats reacted accordingly, tending to avoid pressing the lever in response to the tone and pressing it in response to the white noise. However, when the researchers obscured the light bulb with a piece of metal and played the sounds, the rats were forced to predict whether the light was on or off in hopes of receiving the food reward.



Interestingly, the rats were much more likely to predict that the obscured light was on, regardless of whether the light had previously signaled the presence or absence of food when accompanying the sound. This tendency to overestimate the likelihood that both sound and light were present, even if it meant no reward, demonstrates that rats, like humans, can exhibit the conjunction fallacy.



"Until now, researchers said this is unique to human cognition only because we haven't looked for it in animals," Blaisdell said. "If humans and other animals consider alternative states of the world during ambiguous situations to help decision-making, we might expect systematic biases such as the conjunction fallacy to show a broader distribution in the animal kingdom."



By demonstrating that the conjunction fallacy is not solely the province of humans, the UCLA researchers have opened up new avenues for investigation and potential treatments for these disorders. Furthermore, this study serves as a reminder that even in the realm of cognitive biases and heuristics, humans may not be as unique as previously thought.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Rats have the same cognitive biases as humans

New research from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-heading-for-a-tipping-point-as-antarctic-ice-sheets-melt/">ice sheets</a> can retreat at an astonishing rate of up to 600 meters per day during periods of climate warming. The experts used high-resolution seafloor imagery to map more than 7,600 small-scale landforms called “corrugation ridges” to reveal the speed at which a former ice sheet that extended from Norway retreated about 20,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age.



These ridges, less than 2.5 meters high and spaced between about 25 and 300 meters apart, were formed when the ice sheet’s retreating margin moved up and down with the tides, pushing seafloor sediments into a ridge at every low tide. 



By calculating the rate at which the ridges were produced, the researchers found that the former ice sheet underwent pulses of rapid retreat at a speed of 50 to 600 meters per day - 20 times faster than the highest rate of retreat previously measured. This is much faster than any ice sheet retreat rate observed from satellites or inferred from similar landforms in Antarctica.



These findings could inform computer simulations that predict future ice-sheet and sea-level change, by showing how rates of ice-sheet retreat averaged over several years or longer can conceal shorter episodes of more rapid retreat. “It is important that computer simulations are able to reproduce this ‘pulsed’ ice-sheet behavior,” said study co-author Professor Julian Dowdeswell, a glaciologist at the University of Cambridge.



The seafloor landforms also provide insight into the mechanism by which such rapid retreat can occur. The analysis revealed that the former ice sheet had retreated fastest across the flattest parts of its bed, where less melting was required to thin the overlying ice to the point where it starts to float. According to the scientists, pulses of similarly rapid retreat could soon be observed in parts of Antarctica, including at West Antarctica’s vast Thwaites Glacier, which has recently retreated close to a flat area of its bed.



“Our findings suggest that present-day rates of melting are sufficient to cause short pulses of rapid retreat across flat-bedded areas of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, including at Thwaites,” said study lead author Christine Batchelor, a physical geographer at Newcastle. “Satellites may well detect this style of ice-sheet retreat in the near-future, especially if we continue our current trend of climate warming.”



“Our research provides a warning from the past about the speeds that ice sheets are physically capable of retreating at. Our results show that pulses of rapid retreat can be far quicker than anything we’ve seen so far,” she concluded.



About ice sheets



Ice sheets are enormous masses of ice that cover large areas of land. These ice sheets are found mostly in Antarctica and Greenland.



Ice sheets form when snow that falls on the land does not melt, but instead piles up over time. As more snow falls, the weight of the snow on top compresses the snow underneath. This compression causes the snow to turn into ice, and over time, the ice can become thousands of meters thick.



Ice sheets are important because they play a critical role in regulating the Earth's climate. They reflect sunlight back into space, which helps to cool the planet. They also store massive amounts of freshwater, which can affect ocean currents and sea level.



Unfortunately, ice sheets are also at risk due to climate change. As the Earth's temperature rises, the ice sheets are melting at an alarming rate. This melting can lead to rising sea levels, which can have devastating effects on coastal communities.



Scientists are studying ice sheets to better understand how they work and how they are changing. By studying ice sheets, we can better predict the impacts of climate change and take steps to mitigate its effects.



Ice sheets are fascinating and important features of our planet. While they are at risk due to climate change, we can work together to better understand them and protect them for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05876-1.">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: ©NASA/USGS, processed by Dr. Frazer Christie, Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ice sheets can retreat much faster than previously thought

According to a new study led by Newcastle University, ice...

The next full moon, also known as the Pink Moon, is set to shine brightly on Thursday morning, April 6, 2023, appearing opposite the Sun in Earth-based longitude shortly after midnight at 12:35 a.m. EDT. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/longest-full-moon-of-the-year-will-peak-saturday/">moon</a> will appear full for three days, from Tuesday evening to Friday morning. During this time, the bright star Spica will be approximately eight degrees to the lower left of the moon. 



The Maine Farmers' Almanac first published "Indian" names for full moons in the 1930s, and these names have now become widely known and used. The Pink Moon in April is named after the herb moss pink, also known as creeping phlox, moss phlox, or mountain phlox. This plant, which is native to the eastern United States, is one of the earliest widespread flowers of spring. Other names for this moon include the Sprouting Grass Moon, the Egg Moon, and among coastal tribes, the Fish Moon, as this is when shad swim upstream to spawn.



In addition to its various names, this full moon is also known as the Pesach or Passover Moon. Pesach or Passover begins at sundown on Wednesday, April 5, and ends at nightfall on Thursday, April 13, 2023. The Seder feasts are on the first two evenings of Passover.



In the Christian ecclesiastical calendar, this is the Paschal Moon, from which the date of Easter is calculated. Paschal is the Latinized version of Pesach. Typically, the Christian holiday of Easter, also called Pascha, is celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring.



However, there are differences between the times of these astronomical events and the calendars used by the Eastern and Western churches. This year, Western Christianity will celebrate Easter on Sunday, April 9, 2023, the Sunday after this first full moon of spring. Eastern Orthodox Easter will be a week later on Sunday, April 16.



This full moon also corresponds with the Hanuman Jayanti festival for many followers of the Hindu lunisolar calendar. The celebration of the birth of Lord Hanuman is held in most areas on the full moon day of the Hindu lunar month of Chaitra.



For Buddhists, especially in Sri Lanka, this full moon is Bak Poya, which commemorates when the Buddha visited Sri Lanka and settled a dispute between chiefs, avoiding a war.



The impact of the moon on human health has been a topic of fascination for centuries. Early folklore suggested that the moon could influence human health, with common beliefs linking the full moon to increased sleep problems and seizures. While there is little scientific evidence to support these beliefs, recent studies have suggested a connection between the moon and sleep.



In 2021, scientists at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale</a> and the University of Washington conducted a study to investigate the impact of the moon on sleep. The study found that people generally fall asleep less on nights prior to a full moon, with lighting intensity differences preventing sleep initiation in the early hours of the night.&nbsp;



The study suggests that "moonlight available during the first hours of the night is more likely to drive changes in the onset of sleep. In contrast, moonlight late in the night, when most individuals are typically asleep, should have little influence on sleep onset or duration."



It is estimated that a full moon may bring 250 times more luminance than a moonless night, and 25 times more than when a half-moon is visible. However, the impact of this was largely explored in the context of communities that live without electricity, so it remains unclear if this holds true for the general population.



Dr. David Cunnington, a sleep specialist at <a href="http://www.msdc.com.au/MSDC/Home.html">Melbourne Sleep Disorders Centre</a>, suggests that the connection between the moon and sleep may be due to our evolutionary history. "We evolved to be in tune with our environment, and the moon is a big part of that environment. The theory is that if we were still living in caves, the moon would have been a very good way to keep track of time."



Despite the findings of the 2021 study, there are other studies that contradict the idea that the moon impacts human sleep. In 2015, a study of over 2,000 people found no link between sleep and lunar cycles. This suggests that while the moon may impact sleep in some individuals, it is not a universal phenomenon.



While the connection between the moon and sleep remains somewhat mysterious, it is clear that further research is needed to fully understand this complex relationship. In the meantime, it may be worth paying attention to the moon's phases and seeing if they have any impact on your own sleep patterns.



For generations, there has been a belief that full moons are linked to anxiety and even violent behavior, with Aristotle proposing that water in the brain makes humans susceptible to lunar phases. However, new scientific evidence suggests that this is not the case, and that the influence of the moon on human behavior may be limited in more urban environments.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> believe that the effect of moonlight on human behavior is probably minor in modern urban societies where most people are surrounded by an abundance of artificial light and spend evenings and nights mostly indoors. The experts say the effect may be greater in rural areas without artificial lighting, but the effect size is unknown.



The prevailing scientific evidence also contradicts the notion that full moons are linked to violent behavior. One study even found a drop in homicide rates during a full moon. Furthermore, an analysis of 17,966 medical records showed no link between psychiatric patient admissions or hospital stay times and lunar cycles.



So, what causes the Pink Moon? "Like Earth, the Moon has a day side and a night side, which change as the Moon rotates," explains <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>. "The Sun always illuminates half of the Moon while the other half remains dark, but how much we are able to see of that illuminated half changes as the Moon travels through its orbit."



During a full moon, the sun illuminates the entire day side of the moon, making it appear full and bright in the night sky. "The moon is opposite the sun, as viewed from Earth, revealing the moon's dayside," says NASA. "A full moon rises around sunset and sets around sunrise."



While the Pink Moon won't actually turn pink, it may appear to have an orange or yellow hue as part of a rare blood moon event. Very rarely, the moon can even appear blue if it's being viewed through a haze of dust such as volcanic ash, according to Royal Museums Greenwich.



As we enjoy the sight of the Pink Moon, it's important to remember that any influence it may have on human behavior is likely to be limited in urban environments, and that the prevailing scientific evidence suggests that the moon has no link to violent behavior or psychiatric admissions.



The Pink Moon is a fascinating celestial event that is rich in tradition and significance across many cultures and religions. Regardless of your beliefs, it is a beautiful sight to behold. Enjoy!



—



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pink Moon will shine brightly in the skies tonight

The next full moon, also known as the Pink Moon,...

Alien life may indeed possess compasses, as recent scientific discoveries have led to the detection of coherent radio signals emanating from a distant exoplanet. Researchers believe that these signals could be evidence of a magnetic field on this far-off world.&nbsp;



Magnetic fields are crucial for habitability since they shield planets from harmful cosmic radiation and charged particles, which can be detrimental to any potential life forms.



Scientists from the US <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) have picked up these intriguing radio signals from YZ Ceti b, a rocky planet situated 12 light years away from Earth. YZ Ceti b orbits a small red dwarf star known as YZ Ceti.&nbsp;



Researchers theorize that the signals likely result from an interaction between the planet's magnetic field and the star it orbits, a phenomenon comparable to Earth's aurora borealis, or Northern Lights.



Joe Pesce, NSF's program director for the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, emphasizes the importance of these findings: "The search for potentially habitable or life-bearing worlds in other solar systems depends in part on being able to determine if rocky, Earth-like exoplanets actually have magnetic fields. This research shows not only that this particular rocky exoplanet likely has a magnetic field but provides a promising method to find more."



Magnetic fields, like Earth's, are generated by the movement of superheated, swirling liquid iron within a planet's outer core, which lies approximately 1,900 miles (3,000 km) beneath its surface. The heat escaping from the inner core creates convection currents, causing the iron to move and generate powerful electrical currents. The rotation of the planet on its axis then forms a magnetic field.



Magnetic fields not only enable compasses to function, but they also protect planets by deflecting charged particles known as "solar wind" and cosmic radiation from outer space. Without this vital protective layer, these particles could strip away the ozone layer, our primary defense against harmful UV radiation.



Sebastian Pineda, an astrophysicist at the University of Colorado, underlines the importance of magnetic fields for a planet's habitability: "Whether a planet survives with an atmosphere or not can depend on whether the planet has a strong magnetic field or not."



When scientists detected a repeating radio signal coming from the exoplanet YZ Ceti b, it raised hopes that the celestial body could potentially sustain life. Using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array telescope, the researchers found that the signal was strong enough to be detected from a considerable distance, indicating the presence of a powerful magnetic field on the planet.



Jesse Pineda, one of the researchers involved in the study, said, "This is telling us new information about the environment around stars."



To better understand the significance of this finding, it is important to consider the role of Earth's magnetic field. Our planet's magnetic field attracts charged particles from the sun, causing them to collide with atoms in the upper atmosphere, such as oxygen and nitrogen.&nbsp;



These collisions release energy in the form of green-blue light, known as the Northern Lights or aurora borealis. This phenomenon is the only visual representation of Earth's magnetic field, which is otherwise invisible.



The researchers' recent study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/">Nature Astronomy</a>, refers to the detected signals as "auroral radio emissions." The scientists believe that these radio waves result from interactions similar to those of aurora borealis. When charged particles are released from YZ Ceti, some rebound off the magnetic field of YZ Ceti b and interact with the star's magnetic field. This interaction produces an aurora on the star itself, generating the radio waves detected on Earth.



"There should also be aurora on the planet if it has its own atmosphere," said Jackie Villadsen, an astronomer at Bucknell University. The close proximity of YZ Ceti b to its star - completing a full orbit in just two days - means that these interactions and resulting radio waves occur quite frequently.



"These planets are way too close to their stars to be somewhere you could live, but because they are so close the planet is kind of plowing through a bunch of stuff coming off the star," Villadsen said. "If the planet has a magnetic field and it plows through enough star stuff, it will cause the star to emit bright radio waves."



This discovery provides researchers with a valuable opportunity to determine whether magnetic fields on distant planets can indeed be detected from Earth. Since magnetic fields are invisible, they are notoriously difficult to identify, making it challenging to determine the habitability of the planets they surround.



YZ Ceti b, with its potential magnetic field, emerges as a strong candidate for a habitable exoplanet due to its rocky composition and Earth-like size. Although the research team has achieved a result that "no one has seen happen before," they are still awaiting a "really strong confirmation of radio waves caused by a planet."



Pineda remains optimistic about the future of this research. "There are a lot of new radio facilities coming online and planned for the future. Once we show that this is really happening, we'll be able to do it more systematically. We're at the beginning of it," said Pineda.



These recent findings have not only provided new insights into the habitability of distant worlds, but they have also offered researchers a promising new method for identifying other potentially habitable planets with magnetic fields. The search for alien life continues, and with these discoveries, scientists are one step closer to understanding the conditions necessary for life to thrive on other worlds.



At this time, there is no definitive proof of extraterrestrial life. However, the search for life beyond Earth is an active area of research, and scientists have made significant progress in recent years.



One of the most promising areas of research is the study of exoplanets, like YZ Ceti b, which are planets that orbit stars other than our Sun. Scientists have discovered thousands of exoplanets, and some of them are located in the habitable zone, which is the region around a star where conditions may be suitable for liquid water to exist on the surface.



In addition to searching for exoplanets, scientists are also studying the potential for life in our own Solar System. For example, there is evidence that liquid water may exist beneath the icy surface of Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Enceladus.



While we have not yet found definitive proof of extraterrestrial life, the search is ongoing, and advancements in technology and new discoveries continue to bring us closer to the answer.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Radio signal from nearby planet could mean alien life is present

Alien life may indeed possess compasses, as recent scientific discoveries...

As climate change continues to intensify, urban planners are constantly seeking innovative ways to prevent flooding caused by heavy downpours. Techniques such as planting rain gardens and installing green roofs have been implemented in various cities.&nbsp;



However, a recent study conducted by <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> geography students in collaboration with the Hamilton County Conservation District suggests that a simple hole in the ground, known as a detention basin, can be just as effective.



Man Qi, a doctoral student at the UC College of Arts and Sciences, led the study. She explained that cities are constantly developing new ways to trap rainwater and direct it where it is most needed, especially during droughts. These methods, called low-impact development practices, include innovations like permeable pavement, which allows rainwater to seep into the ground instead of being diverted elsewhere.&nbsp;



Another such innovation is the bioretention cell, which consists of ornamental or landscaping plants atop soil designed to drain quickly, spread over a thick bed of gravel for optimal absorption. These cells can soak up large volumes of rain without creating standing pools of water.



Urban planners must consider how to prevent rainwater from spilling onto neighboring properties or roads when designing commercial or housing developments. Hard surfaces like buildings and parking lots cannot absorb heavy rains, necessitating the collection or diversion of water to avoid property damage.&nbsp;



"A detention pond is a common practice. It temporarily stores the water and releases it into the air or the groundwater or nearby streams at a low rate to reduce the risk of flooding. It also provides some ecological benefits," said Qi.



Working with the Hamilton County conservation district, the researchers assessed the effectiveness of flood-prevention techniques such as detention basins and bioretention cells under five different scenarios. The results were presented at the annual American Association of Geographers' conference in Denver.&nbsp;



Qi explained that in residential areas where the impervious area is less than 40 percent, low-impact development practices are better. "But if 70 percent or more of the ground surface is impervious, it's best to put in detention basins. The flood risk can be greatly reduced."



Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of rainstorms, making deliberate drainage planning even more crucial for cities. Professor Lin Liu, a study co-author and co-director of UC's Joint Center of GIS and Spatial Analysis, elaborated on this issue: "Global warming and urban sprawl have contributed to extreme weather. Coupled with the urban heat island effect, many metropolitan cities have experienced more extreme precipitation events. As a result, urban flooding has become an increasing threat to the loss of human life and property damage in many cities around the globe."



'Intense, heavy rains could inundate networks designed to prevent flooding, and the capacity of drainage networks could fail because they simply can't hold that much stormwater," said Qi, who experienced the reality of urban flooding firsthand in 2021 when her sister's home was flooded in China's Zhengzhou City. The disaster affected more than 10 million people, killing nearly 400 and causing $10 billion in property damage.



Urban flooding disproportionately impacts lower-income residents who lack the resources to recover quickly from disasters. Flood insurers create maps based on once-in-a-century disasters, but due to climate change, these events are becoming more frequent.&nbsp;



Qi emphasized the widespread consequences of flooding, noting that it "affects roads and infrastructure and interrupts society. Schools are closed. Businesses are closed. The impacts are widespread."



As climate change exacerbates the risk of urban flooding, it is essential for planners to consider innovative and effective strategies like detention basins to protect lives, property, and the environment.



Climate change and sea level rise will have significant impacts on cities, especially those located in coastal areas. Some of the primary consequences include:



<ol>
<li>Flooding: As sea levels rise, low-lying coastal cities will experience more frequent and severe flooding. This will lead to disruptions in transportation, damage to infrastructure, and potential loss of life and property. Inland cities may also face increased flooding due to more intense precipitation events caused by climate change.</li>



<li>Infrastructure damage: Rising sea levels and storm surges can erode coastlines and damage critical infrastructure, such as bridges, roads, ports, and power plants. This damage can disrupt essential services, leading to economic losses and potentially impacting public health and safety.</li>



<li>Saltwater intrusion: As sea levels rise, saltwater can infiltrate freshwater sources, including rivers, aquifers, and wells, making them unsuitable for drinking, agriculture, and industrial use. This could exacerbate water scarcity issues in many cities, especially those already struggling with water management.</li>



<li>Loss of land: Coastal cities may experience a loss of land due to erosion, submersion, and permanent inundation as sea levels rise. This can lead to displacement of residents, loss of property, and shrinking tax bases, putting additional pressure on city budgets.</li>



<li>Human displacement and migration: As climate change and sea level rise make certain areas uninhabitable, people will be forced to relocate, leading to increased migration and potential conflicts over resources in receiving communities. This will put additional strain on social services, housing, and infrastructure in the cities where these migrants relocate.</li>



<li>Public health risks: Warmer temperatures associated with climate change can exacerbate air pollution and facilitate the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever. Additionally, extreme heat events can lead to heat stress, dehydration, and heat-related illnesses, especially among vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children, and those with pre-existing health conditions.</li>



<li>Economic impacts: Climate change and sea level rise can negatively affect a city's economy through disruptions in trade, tourism, and industry. Damage to infrastructure and property, along with increased insurance costs, can also strain local economies.</li>



<li>Ecosystem disruption: Climate change and sea level rise can disrupt coastal ecosystems, leading to the loss of essential habitats and services, such as natural flood protection from wetlands and storm surge buffering from barrier islands.</li>
</ol>



To mitigate these impacts, cities need to develop and implement comprehensive adaptation and resilience strategies, including improving infrastructure, implementing nature-based solutions, promoting sustainable urban planning, and investing in early warning systems and disaster risk reduction measures.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Seeking ways to prevent flooding caused by climate change

As climate change continues to intensify, urban planners are constantly...

Antarctica, the Earth's southernmost continent, holds a staggering 60 percent of the world's fresh water in its ice sheets. This amounts to 30 million cubic kilometers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-is-approaching-a-critical-tipping-point/">ice</a>, a figure that is often difficult to comprehend. If all of the ice in Antarctica were to melt, global sea levels would rise by an average of 58 meters, wreaking havoc on coastal communities and dramatically altering our planet's landscape.



Irina Rogozhina, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU), explained the potential consequences of ice sheet melting in East Antarctica: “The ice sheet in East Antarctica stores enormous amounts of water. This means that this is the biggest possible source of future sea level rise – up to 53 meters if all of the East Antarctic ice melts – and is seen as the largest source of uncertainties in the future sea level adaptation planning.”



Antarctica's ice loss occurs primarily through ocean-driven melting of ice shelves and ice calving. These processes accelerate the movement of ice streams on land, which discharge more ice into the ocean where it is eventually lost to melting and calving. Professor Rogozhina noted that this phenomenon was likely responsible for more significant ice loss during the Earth's warmer periods. In Greenland, for example, these two processes account for approximately 65 percent of all ice loss.



However, it is important to understand that the entire ice sheet does not need to melt for significant consequences to occur. Researchers from NTNU, including Rogozhina's group, recently examined the ice in Queen Maud Land in East Antarctica. They discovered that the ice sheet in this region has experienced significant variation over time. This research is crucial in improving our understanding of the Earth's climate and how it is changing.



The team analyzed the East Antarctic ice sheet and a meltdown that occurred several thousand years ago. Their findings have been published in the Nature journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00673-6">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



The distribution of ice in Antarctica is not uniform. In the west, large portions of the ice sheet lie below sea level, reaching depths of up to 2,500 meters, making them highly vulnerable to ocean warming. In contrast, much of the ice sheet in the east is located on land above sea level, rendering it less susceptible to the ocean's influence.



The researchers found that the East Antarctic ice sheet was thinner in the past, particularly following the end of the last ice age, when massive ice sheets covered North America, northern Europe, and southern South America. As these ice sheets melted, sea levels rose by over 100 meters.



Rogozhina explained the team's findings: “From the evidence we presented in our study, we concluded that the East Antarctic ice sheet in Queen Maud Land also melted rapidly along its margins between 9,000 to 5,000 years ago, in a period we call the mid-Holocene. At this time, many parts of the world experienced warmer-than-present summers.”



The rapid response of the East Antarctic ice sheet to warmer conditions during the Holocene epoch is alarming, as Rogozhina said, "it is still difficult and worrisome to believe that the sluggish East Antarctic ice sheet can change so rapidly."



Determining the exact timing of the melting and finding a simple explanation for this behavior has proven challenging due to the inhospitable conditions in Antarctica. However, the researchers have begun to unravel this mystery, which will undoubtedly contribute to our understanding of the planet's climate and inform future adaptation strategies to cope with rising sea levels.



The research group, led by Professor Ola Fredin, focused on analyzing rock samples from various nunataks in Queen Maud Land for evidence of exposure to cosmic radiation. Nunataks are mountains that protrude through ice sheets.&nbsp;



The researchers then analyzed different isotopes or variants of elements such as chlorine, aluminum, beryllium, and neon in the rocks from the nunataks. Through the study of cosmogenic isotopes, they were able to determine how high the ice was over geological time in Queen Maud Land. Professor Fredin likens this process to "using a dipstick to measure the level of engine oil in your car."



By determining how long the rocks have been exposed to cosmic radiation, the researchers could also estimate the duration since the rocks were last covered by a protective layer of ice, which shielded them from cosmic radiation exposure. This was achieved by utilizing data from different areas and running various computer simulations.



The study also shed light on a possible explanation for the rapid thinning of the ice sheet sector in East Antarctica following the last ice age.&nbsp;



"We believe that the ice sheet became less stable due to higher, regional sea levels and warmer water rising from the ocean depths in the polar regions, penetrating under the ice margins and melting them from below," explained Professor Rogozhina.&nbsp;



This process led to the break-up of large icebergs and accelerated the movement of ice from land to ocean, consequently thinning the inland section of the ice sheet. Rogozhina likens this to "when a house on a hill slope loses its supporting foundation and starts sliding downhill."



The researchers also used cosmic radiation to determine how frequently ice has covered certain areas. Their findings indicated that it is most common for the ice in Queen Maud Land to be thick along the coast, but not further inland, where mountain peaks protrude through the ice and land elevations can reach several thousand meters.



According to Professor Fredin, the land masses along the coast of Queen Maud Land have been covered by ice between 75 and 97 percent of the time during the last one million years. By contrast, mountain summits further inland have been ice-covered as little as 20 percent of the time.&nbsp;



This suggests that the ice sheet thickness and movement speed vary significantly over longer periods, and the mountain range further inland serves as a critical division between the dynamic coast and the ice sheet closer to the South Pole, which experiences less variation in thickness.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

What happened when Antarctic ice melted in the past?

Antarctica, the Earth's southernmost continent, holds a staggering 60 percent...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...