A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable of learning - a behavior once thought exclusive to organisms with brains and complex nervous systems. 



The research, led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.crg.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Genomic Regulation</a> (CRG) in Barcelona and <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> in Boston, challenges long-standing assumptions about the fundamental capabilities of cells.



“Rather than following pre-programmed genetic instructions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> are elevated to entities equipped with a very basic form of decision making based on learning from their environments,” explained study co-author Jeremy Gunawardena, an associate professor of systems biology at Harvard Medical School. 



The findings, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, could transform our understanding of life at its most basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habituation-learning-without-a-brain">Habituation: Learning without a brain</h2>



The researchers focused on habituation, a simple form of learning where an organism gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus - like how humans tune out the ticking of a clock or flashing lights.&nbsp;



While habituation has been extensively studied in animals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a>, whether similar behavior exists at the cellular level has been a contentious question.



Early experiments in the 20th century observed behavior resembling learning in the single-celled ciliate Stentor roeselii, but the findings were largely dismissed. In the 1970s and 1980s, more evidence of habituation emerged in other ciliates, and modern experiments have continued to build on these insights.



“These creatures are so different from animals with brains,” said Rosa Martinez, a co-author of the study and researcher at the CRG.



“To learn would mean they use internal molecular networks that somehow perform functions similar to those carried out by networks of neurons in brains. Nobody knows how they are able to do this, so we thought it is a question that needed to be explored.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-simulations-to-decode-cellular-learning">Using simulations to decode cellular “learning”</h2>



Instead of working with cells directly in the lab, the researchers turned to computer simulations to track the biochemical reactions that cells rely on to process information.&nbsp;



By simulating how molecular interactions change when exposed to repeated stimuli, the team uncovered evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>-like behavior.



The study focused on two common molecular circuits: negative feedback loops and incoherent feedforward loops.&nbsp;



Negative feedback is like a thermostat - it regulates processes by turning them off when a certain threshold is reached.&nbsp;



Incoherent feedforward loops act like a motion-activated light with a timer, triggering a process and its inhibitor simultaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-formed-at-the-cellular-level">Memories formed at the cellular level</h2>



Simulations revealed that cells use these circuits to fine-tune their responses to repeated stimuli, replicating hallmark features of habituation seen in animals.&nbsp;



A critical discovery was the role of “timescale separation,” where some biochemical reactions occur much faster than others.



“We think this could be a type of ‘memory’ at the cellular level, enabling cells to both react immediately and influence a future response,” Martinez explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-neuroscience-and-cognitive-science">Bridging neuroscience and cognitive science</h2>



The findings also offer new insights into a long-standing debate between neuroscientists and cognitive researchers about habituation.&nbsp;



Neuroscientists argue that stronger habituation occurs with more frequent or less intense stimuli, while cognitive scientists emphasize internal changes, finding habituation stronger with less frequent or more intense stimuli.



The study showed that both perspectives are valid. During habituation, cells respond less to frequent or weak stimuli, but after habituation, their response to similar stimuli is stronger.&nbsp;



“Neuroscientists and cognitive scientists have been studying processes which are basically two sides of the same coin,” Gunawardena said. “We believe that single cells could emerge as a powerful tool to study the fundamentals of learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ability-of-cells-to-learn-and-remember-nbsp">The ability of cells to learn and remember&nbsp;</h2>



If confirmed through real-world experiments, these findings could have profound implications.&nbsp;



The ability of cells to “remember” might explain phenomena like cancer cells developing resistance to chemotherapy or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> becoming resistant to antibiotics. Both involve cells appearing to “learn” from their environment to survive.



The researchers used mathematical models to test various scenarios quickly, identifying those worth exploring in laboratory settings. This approach could save time and resources while accelerating discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-computational-approach-to-biology">A computational approach to biology</h2>



“The moonshot in computational biology is to make life as programmable as a computer, but lab experiments can be costly and time-consuming,” Martinez said.&nbsp;



Her team works at the <a href="https://barcelonacollaboratorium.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barcelona Collaboratorium</a>, a joint initiative designed to use mathematical modeling to tackle big biological questions.



“Our approach can help us prioritize which experiments are most likely to yield valuable results, saving time and resources and leading to new breakthroughs,” noted Martinez. “We think it can be useful to address many other fundamental questions.”



This research marks a significant step toward understanding learning and memory at the cellular level, potentially reshaping our view of what individual cells are capable of and opening new doors for medical and scientific exploration.



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Biological breakthrough: Cells can ‘learn’ like brains

A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable of learning - a behavior once thought exclusive to organisms with brains and complex nervous systems.  The research, led by scientists at the Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG) in Barcelona and Harvard Medical School in Boston, challenges long-standing assumptions about the fundamental capabilities of cells. “Rather than following pre-programmed genetic instructions, cells are elevated to entities equipped with a very basic form of decision making based on learning from their environments,” explained study co-author Jeremy Gunawardena, an...

Whether you call them comfort foods or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-allergies-junk-food/">junk foods</a>, a new poll shows that many older Americans have an unhealthy relationship with them. According to the National Poll on Healthy Aging, 13 percent of people aged 50 to 80 showed signs of addiction to junk foods and unhealthy beverages.



The survey revealed that food addiction is more prevalent among women in their 50s and early 60s. It was also higher in older adults who say they are overweight, lonely, or have poorer physical or mental health.



The poll is based at the U-M <a href="https://ihpi.umich.edu/">Institute for Healthcare Policy and Innovation</a> where psychologist Ashley Gearhardt used 13 questions to measure how older adults experienced food addiction. The addiction indicators include cravings, an inability to cut down on intake, and signs of withdrawal.



Gearhardt suggests that these standard questions be asked by doctors’ to help patients with addictive eating habits through referrals to nutrition programs that address addictive eating.



“The word addiction may seem strong when it comes to food, but research has shown that our brains respond as strongly to highly processed foods, especially those highest in sugar, simple starches, and fat, as they do to tobacco, alcohol and other addictive substances,” said Gearhardt.



“Just as with smoking or drinking, we need to identify and reach out to those who have entered unhealthy patterns of use and support them in developing a healthier relationship with food.”



To meet the addiction criteria, adults had to report at least two of 11 symptoms and significant eating-related distress or life problems multiple times a week. These criteria are also used to diagnose addiction-related problems with alcohol and tobacco.



Based on these criteria, addiction to highly processed foods was seen in:



<ul><li>17% of adults age 50 to 64, and 8% of adults age 65-80</li><li>22% of women age 50 to 64 and 18% of women age 50 to 80,</li><li>32% of women and 14% of men who say their physical health is fair or poor – more than twice as those who say their physical health is excellent, very good or good</li><li>45% of women and 23% of men who say their mental health is fair or poor – three times as high as those who say their mental health is excellent, very good or good</li><li>17% of men and 34% of women who self-report they are overweight</li><li>51% of women who say they often feel isolated and 26% of men who say the same</li></ul>



The most commonly reported symptom was intense cravings. Almost 1 in 4 (24%) said that at least once a week they had such a strong food craving that they couldn’t think of anything else.&nbsp;



In addition, 19% said that at least 2 to 3 times a week they had tried and failed to cut down on, or stop eating, these kinds of foods. Furthermore, 12% percent reported that their eating behavior caused them distress 2 to 3 times a week or more.



“Clinicians need a better understanding of how food addiction and problematic eating intertwines with their patients’ physical and mental health, including chronic conditions such as diabetes, heart disease and certain types of cancer,” said poll director Dr. Jeffrey Kullgren.



Food cravings and behaviors are often genetic, and some people may need more help than others.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Many older Americans show signs of food addiction

Whether you call them comfort foods or junk foods, a...

Rapid climate change is forcing many species to evolve and adapt quickly enough to avoid extinction, particularly those that do not tolerate a large degree of environmental variation, such as species from cooler high-elevation habitats, which often lack the genetic diversity that is crucial for adapting to global warming.



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-among-wild-baboons-comes-with-hidden-costs/">hybridization</a> – the process of mixing different species – could potentially help the most vulnerable ones adapt and rapidly exploit novel genetic diversity from species that are already adapted to warmer environments. This concept is similar to how the historic mixing between our ancestors and Neanderthals seems to have improved the fitness of some modern human populations.



To test this hypothesis, the scientists traveled to the Wet Tropics region of northeastern Australia to collect samples of five species of tropical rainbowfish along an elevation gradient. Genetic analysis of the samples revealed both pure and hybrid populations of rainbowfish, and helped the researchers identify genes that enable rainbowfish populations to adapt to climate variation.



More specifically, the populations of cool-adapted upland species that have hybridized with a warm-adapted lowland species showed reduced vulnerability to future warming scenarios. “These mixed populations contain more diversity at genes we think are important for climate adaptation, and are therefore more likely to persist in warmer environments,” explained study lead author Chris Brauer, a research fellow in Landscape Genomics at Flinders University.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the underappreciated conservation value of hybrid populations, suggesting that hybridization may facilitate rapid adaptation to climate change. “Our findings are good news for biodiversity. They indicate that genetic mixing is an important tool for conservation that can contribute to natural evolutionary rescue of species threatened by climate change,” concluded senior author Luciano Beheregaray, a professor of Biodiversity Genomics at Flinders.



The study published in the journal <a href="about:blank">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hybridization reduces vulnerability to climate change

Rapid climate change is forcing many species to evolve and...

Fleeing is not the only way in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-have-some-impressive-cognitive-skills/">songbirds</a> protect themselves from predators. Many species are known to engage in mobbing too, a phenomenon where they gather aggressively around a predator, flying rapidly while producing loud vocalizations and stereotypic movements. Such a behavior is risky for both prey and predator, with some birds getting attacked and even injured by their mobbers.



Now, a team of researchers from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has found that songbirds can tell when the risk of predation by a common predator is higher, depending on season and geographical features, and increase the frequency of mobbing behavior. By contrast, when the risk is minimal, they are more likely to avoid or ignore the predator.



“Mobbing must be energetically costly, because we find that its rare during winter, when food is scarce but there are still plenty of songbirds around,” said study co-author W Douglas Robinson, an ornithologist at OSU.



“On top of this effect, the likelihood of mobbing also increased as the number of songbirds present increased, diluting the risk to each mobber. Thus, songbirds can assess when the risk of predation from northern pygmy owls is highest and when there is safety in numbers.”



The experts studied mobbing of northern pygmy owls (Glaucidium gnoma) – a small, diurnal own species that usually attacks small mammals and songbirds by ambushing them from a hidden location - in western Oregon.&nbsp;



“The proportion of small birds relative to small mammals in the diet of the northern pygmy owl almost doubles from spring to summer, making birds the primary food source in summer. This is presumably because of the increasing availability of fledged offspring birds,” explained study lead author Madeleine Scott, a graduate student in Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation at OSU.



In 2020 and 2021, the scientist played back hundreds of recordings of an advertising call of the northern pygmy owl at a variety of locations to provoke mobbing. Before and after each playback, they recorded the number of species of songbirds present within 50 meters from the speaker.&nbsp;



While overall, mobbing was observed in 8.1 percent of the trials, the behavior peaked (up to 23 percent) in late summer and autumn when the owls prey mostly on young birds, and was quite rare in spring and winter (one percent), when they usually hunt small mammals. Moreover, the probability of mobbing also decreased with altitude, correlating with the lower owl density at higher altitudes. Twenty-four species of songbirds engaged in mobbing, the most frequent ones being chickadees, red-breasted nuthatches, Pacific wrens, and dark-eyed juncos.



According to the researchers, songbirds only mob if the threat is real and there are enough songbirds around to dilute the risk.



“Future research questions should study how the energetic cost of mobbing impacts the frequency of the behavior. For example, examining seasonal food availability and supplementing with additional feeders could reveal the how energetic considerations influence mobbing behavior,” Scott concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1092323">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Songbirds use mobbing behavior to deter predatory owls

Fleeing is not the only way in which songbirds protect...

Underwater,Funny,Photo,Of,Golden,Labrador,Retriever,Puppy,In,Swimming

Scientists have long known that playing sports can be highly beneficial for mental well-being in humans. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> and the <a href="https://www.centerforcaninebehaviorstudies.org/">Center for Canine Behavior Studies</a> in Connecticut has discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-more-aware-of-actions-than-objects/">dogs</a>’ anxiety levels can be lowered by social exercising too. The study revealed that canines suffering from generalized anxiety disorders which took part in sporting activities were more likely to get better.



The researchers examined a cohort of 1,308 dogs with at least one type of fearful or anxious behavior. Of these, 273 were diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder, a condition in which dogs – as well as other animals, including humans – exhibit constant or near-constant anxiety regardless of the context, a phenomenon significantly impairing their quality of life.



According to Nicholas Dodman, an expert in Animal Behavior at Tufts, dogs “especially benefit from activities that feed into their natural instincts.” For instance, a sheepdog suffering from anxiety disorders was significantly helped after starting sheep-herding classes. “The dog was a nervous wreck. I suggested to the owner to take him to sheep-herding classes. After several trials herding real sheep he settled right down. His anxious behavior was gone,” Professor Dodman reported.



Other sporting activities that were found to be beneficial for anxious dogs included Flyball (a type of relay race with teams of dogs), agility courses, and “canine freestyle,” in which dogs are taught to dance to choreographed routines with their owners.



“Dog-sporting activities were highly effective for treating generally anxious dogs, with just over three times the odds of improvement,” the researchers wrote.&nbsp;“The reason for the beneficial effect of engaging in sporting activities may be because of the physiological benefits of mobilization but also the psychological aspects of social integration, accomplishment and enjoyment.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-veterinary-behavior">Journal of Veterinary Behavior</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Anxious dogs can benefit from sporting activities

Scientists have long known that playing sports can be highly...

The UK’s 14 Overseas Territories – many of them small, remote islands like St. Helena – are home to a variety of plant and animal species found nowhere else in the world. This makes them highly vulnerable to biological invasions that could lead to the extinction of their endemic species and irrevocably change their unique ecosystems.



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Center for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> (UKCEH) and <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/homepage/">Durham University</a>, together with communities on the Overseas Territories, has assessed thousands of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive species</a> in order to estimate which are most likely to arrive and pose threats to the Territories within the next decade. Their findings could guide authorities, conservation ecologists, and the wider public to prevent these species from becoming established and causing ecological and economic damage.



“These Territories are exceptionally biodiverse. St Helena, for example, has over 400 invertebrates found nowhere else in world – it is simply unique. We hope that this study draws attention to these Overseas Territories and the inspiring people on them who are working so hard to protect their incredible wildlife and habitats,” said study senior author Helen Roy, an ecologist at UKCEH.



The analysis revealed that Gibraltar and St. Helena are threatened by biological invasion from the greatest number of species. While St. Helena is most at risk from invasion of plant species, the Falkland Islands and Tristan da Cunha are endangered by the most marine species. One of the species that could pose a threat to many of the Overseas Territories is the green mussel (Perna viridis), which can travel around the world on boats and ships, and form dense colonies in places where it establishes, outcompeting native species by reducing levels of phytoplankton. Other invasive species that pose a significant threat to many Territories include the little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), and the mesquite tree (Prosopis juliflora).



“Preventing the introduction of invasive non-native species is key, because management of species that have established and spread is often extremely expensive and, in some cases, there are no options available. We hope that this list will help inform action, including supporting biosecurity activities, to safeguard the wildlife in these precious places,” Roy concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/conl.12928">Conservation Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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UK territories threatened by a variety of invasive species

The UK’s 14 Overseas Territories – many of them small,...

There is a special relationship between the local net-casting fishers and a group of wild Lahille’s bottlenose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-may-also-suffer-from-alzheimers-disease/">dolphins</a> (Tursiops truncatus gephyreus) that inhabit the coastal region around the city of Laguna, on the south Atlantic coast of Brazil. This association dates back generations and involves dolphins that enter the bay and help drive schools of mullet towards fishers that wait eagerly on the shore with their throw-nets. Although it is well known that the fishers benefit from this help, the reason why the dolphins behave in this way had not been scientifically tested.



However, the results of a long-term study by researchers on this unusual alliance have now been published in the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/journal/procnatiacadscie">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. The researchers collected data on the co-operative fishing that takes place in the bay by combining drones, hydrophones and underwater cameras to capture the details of the partnership. They also conducted long-term demographic surveys of the dolphins and interviewed and observed the fishers.&nbsp;



The study was led by Mauricio Cantor of the Marine Mammal Institute at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. “We knew that the fishers were observing the dolphins’ behavior to determine when to cast their nets, but we didn’t know if the dolphins were actively coordinating their behavior with the fishers,” said Cantor.



“Using drones and underwater imaging, we could observe the behaviors of fishers and dolphins with unprecedented detail and found that they catch more fish by working in synchrony. This shows that this is a mutually beneficial interaction between the humans and the dolphins.”



The traditional, net-casting fishers and the dolphins are both after the same fish for food - shiny, fat mullet. The fishers don’t even bother to throw their nets if there are no dolphins present; instead, they simply stand in the shallows, waiting for dolphins to arrive. The fishers recognize each dolphin and refer to it by name. The dolphins drive the mullet closer to the waiting fishers and, when a group of mullet is close enough, the dolphins signal – with a slap of the tail or a specific dive – and the fishers cast their nets.&nbsp;



Catches of mullet in this bay are far bigger than in other areas where dolphins do not help. Furthermore, the researchers found that the dolphins benefit because, as a net hits the surface, the fish respond by turning away from it, dashing to escape it - straight into the mouths of the waiting dolphins. In this way, dolphins in this group catch more fish and shown a 13 percent increase in survival rates, when compared to populations of non-cooperative dolphins.



Synchronous fishing, between these two top predators, is thus beneficial to both parties. The practice is considered a cultural tradition in the city of Laguna, where it has occurred for more than 140 years and has been passed down through generations of fishers and dolphins. The cooperative fishing relationship is specific to this population of dolphins is not a genetic trait in the animals, but is learned, Cantor said.



“From the fishers’ perspective, this practice is part of the culture of the community in all kinds of ways,” Cantor explained. “They acquire skills passed down from other fishers, and knowledge is spread through social learning. They also feel connected to this place and have a sense of belonging to the community.”



Sadly, the practice is in decline and may well cease to exist if populations of mullet decrease, or future generations of fishers lose interest in learning the art of this unique fishing practice. There are historical and recent accounts of similar behaviors in a handful of locations elsewhere in the world, but the practice is becoming less common or has disappeared completely in most places. The rare nature of the practice is one reason it is being considered for a cultural heritage designation in Brazil, he said.



Predictive models run as part of the study show that the future of the practice could be threatened in the Laguna area as well, if fish populations decline. “The practice is unlikely to continue if either the dolphins or the fishers no longer benefit from it,” said co-author Professor Damien Farine of the University of Zurich and the Australian National University.



Professor Fábio Daura-Jorge of the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil said researchers are already seeing early signs of decline in the practice. “If we take steps to document and conserve the knowledge and the culture of the practice, we can indirectly and positively impact the biological aspects, as well."



The experts suggest that conservation action is needed to ensure the future of the practice. Both the dolphins and the fishers are reliant on a strong and healthy fish population for the cooperative relationship to succeed. In recent years, the region has seen reduced availability of fish. There is also reduced interest in learning the tradition, said Daura-Jorge, who has been monitoring this population for the past 15 years.&nbsp;



“We don’t know what is going to happen in the future, but our best guess, using our best data and best models, is that if things keep going the way they are right now, there will be a time when the interaction will no longer be of interest by at least one of the predators - the dolphins or the fishers,” said Daura-Jorge. &nbsp;



The researchers noted that several conservation measures may be necessary to secure the future of the practice. The first is to try to identify the source of the mullet decline and take measures to better manage that species, such as reducing use of illegal nets through law enforcement, said Daura-Jorge.



Second, the researchers recommend steps to work with current and future artisanal fishers, stressing the cultural and economic importance of the net-casting practice. That might include offering incentives to encourage the traditional practice, such as setting a premium price for fish caught with this method.



“This phenomenon of mutually-beneficial interaction between wildlife and humans is getting more and more rare, and seems to be at global risk,” said Cantor. “The cultural value and the biological diversity are important, and it’s important to preserve it.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Brazilian fishers and dolphins benefit from fishing together

There is a special relationship between the local net-casting fishers...

Aging female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/">monkeys</a> cut down on socializing to prioritize their closest relationships, according to an international study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The experts found that female monkeys “actively reduce” their social networks as they get older to focus on family and close friends.&nbsp;



"In humans, aging individuals have been shown to become more selective in partner choice as they age and to proactively focus on meaningful relationships, such as close friends and relatives. Intriguingly, social selectivity in older individuals may not be limited to humans. Several species of nonhuman primates have been suggested to show patterns of social aging that might indicate greater selectivity in social partners in later life," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Evidence for social selectivity in some of our closest living relatives could hint at deep evolutionary origins behind this phenomenon and may suggest that selectivity is an adaptive strategy that individuals use to cope with the physical and physiological limitations they face as they age."



The research was focused on female macaques on an island off the coast of Puerto Rico known as Monkey Island, or Cayo Santiago. The experts analyzed eight years of data on more than 200 macaques to observe how the social lives of each individual changed. The results of the study confirmed that female macaques become increasingly selective as they age.&nbsp;



"Females spent similar amounts of time socializing as they aged, suggesting that network shrinkage does not result from lack of motivation or ability to engage, nor was this narrowing driven by the deaths of social partners. Furthermore, females remained attractive companions and were not isolated by withdrawal of social partners," wrote the researchers.



Professor Lauren Brent said this pattern of narrowing social networks with age is common in humans. “Our study offers the most conclusive evidence to date that social selectivity is not unique to humans, and therefore might have deeper evolutionary underpinnings.”



According to Dr. Erin Siracusa, there are many possible reasons why macaques become more socially selective with age. “For example, the benefits of social interactions might change with time. Young macaques might benefit from a wide social group that can help them explore and find potential mates."



“For older macaques, it might be easier and safer - in terms of everything from conflict to disease transmission - to stick with family and existing friends. New relationships also require more mental effort, so while we see no decline in time spent socializing, older macaques might save mental energy by shrinking their network.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2209180119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aging monkeys focus more on meaningful relationships

Aging female monkeys cut down on socializing to prioritize their...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1143.93601">ZooKeys</a> has recently described five new species of tree-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/">snakes</a> in the jungles of Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama. Famous environmental activists such as Leonardo DiCaprio and Brian Sheth,&nbsp;along with organizations like <a href="https://www.rewild.org/">Re:wild</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.natureandculture.org/">Nature and Culture International</a>,&nbsp;chose the names for three of these species in honor of loved ones, while raising public awareness about rainforest destruction caused by (often illegal) open-pit mining operations.&nbsp;



The mountainous regions of the upper-Amazon rainforest and the Chocó-Darién jungles are home to a huge diversity of snake species. Unfortunately, during the Covid-19 pandemic, the proliferation of illegal open-pit gold and copper mining has reached critical levels and is now significantly threatening tree-dwelling snake populations.



Since neotropical snail-eating snakes such as those belonging to the genera Sibon and Dipsas are arboreal and cannot survive in areas devoid of vegetation, they are particularly prone to the negative effects of open-pit mining. Moreover, because they feed exclusively on snails and slugs - a type of prey occurring mostly along rivers and streams that is currently threatened by water pollution - they livelihood is even more endangered.



“When I first explored the rainforests of Nangaritza River in 2014, I remember thinking the place was an undiscovered and unspoiled paradise,” said study lead author Alejandro Arteaga, a researcher at the Biodiversity Field Lab in Ecuador. “In fact, the place is called Nuevo Paraíso in Spanish, but it is a paradise no more. Hundreds of illegal gold miners using backhoe loaders have currently taken possession of the river margins, which are now destroyed and turned into rubble.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Since illegal miners are proliferating, ignoring landowner rights and even threatening anyone opposed to the extraction of gold or copper, the presence of conservation areas is no longer sufficient to help protecting endangered species. However, even when the mining operations are legal, such as in Panama, large-scale copper mining is critically affecting the habitat of two snake species (Sibon irmelindicaprioae&nbsp;and&nbsp;S. canopy).



“Both legal and illegal open-pit mines are uninhabitable for the snail-eating snakes, but the legal mines may be the lesser of two evils. At the very least they respect the limit of nearby protected areas, answer to a higher authority, and are presumably unlikely to enact violence on park rangers, researchers, and conservationists,” Arteaga explained.



“These new species of snake are just the tip of the iceberg in terms of new species discoveries in this region, but if illegal mining continues at this rate, there may not be an opportunity to make any future discoveries.”



Fortunately, three NGOs in Ecuador and Panama (Khamai, Nature and Culture International, and Adopta Bosque) have already started actions to safeguard the snakes’ habitat from mining operations. Since their quest for urgent land protection seems to be the only method of saving these snakes from extinction, providing international support for these organizations is vital.



Image Credit: Alejandro Arteaga



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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South American snakes threatened by mining activities

A new study published in the journal ZooKeys has recently...

While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-earth-data/">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) traditionally stems from human brain dynamics, brain learning is known to be restricted in several significant aspects compared to deep learning (DL). For instance, efficient DL wiring structures consist of tens of consecutive, or “feedforward” layers, while brain dynamics consists of only a few of them. Moreover, deep learning architectures also have many consecutive filter layers, which are crucial for identifying input classes.&nbsp;



If the input is a car, for example, the first filter identifies its wheels, the second one its doors, the third one its lights, and so on, until it becomes clear what the input is. By contrast, brain dynamics contain just a single filter close to the retina. Finally, the mathematical complexity underlying DL training is clearly far beyond biological realization.



Nevertheless, the human brain remains much better than deep learning structures at performing a wide variety of tasks. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en">Bar-Ilan University</a> in Israel has investigated why this is the case, and proposed new methods of building AI systems inspired by brain dynamics.



“We’ve shown that efficient learning on an artificial&nbsp;tree&nbsp;architecture, where each weight has a single route to an output unit, can achieve better classification success rates than previously achieved by DL architectures consisting of more layers and filters. This finding paves the way for efficient, biologically-inspired new AI hardware and algorithms,” explained study senior author Ido Kanter, an expert in Physics and Computer Science at Bar-Ilan.



“Highly pruned tree architectures represent a step toward a plausible biological realization of efficient <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10466-8">dendritic tree learning</a> by a single or several neurons, with reduced complexity and energy consumption, and biological realization of backpropagation mechanisms, which is currently the central technique in AI,” added lead author Yuval Meir, a PhD student at the same university.



The efficient implementation of these ideas requires a new type of hardware that is different from current and emerging GPUs, which are better fitted to current DL approaches. Further research is needed to clarify how to build and program such machines.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-27986-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Does the human brain outperform artificial intelligence?

While artificial intelligence (AI) traditionally stems from human brain dynamics,...

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swans-sacrifice-rest-to-defend-their-foraging-areas/">food</a> and wondered whether there is method in its movements? Probably not. But this is exactly what Stefan Popp and Anna Dornhaus, both from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>, did when trying to understand how ants search their environments efficiently.&nbsp;



Most people assume that when ants need to find food that is in an unknown location, their best option would be to search in a random manner. Ants spend much of their lives searching for resources, but they must also stay close to their nest or colony, in case they need to return quickly. If they search randomly, they will be relatively efficient at locating resources, but will run the risk of returning to areas they have already searched. Alternatively, if they search in a non-random pattern, like a spiral or a left-to-right meander, they will not cross their path again but will be thrown by obstacles that obstruct their pathway and may end up deviating in a manner that takes them over territory they have already searched.&nbsp;



In order to find out which patterns rock ants (Temnothorax rugatulus) use when searching for food, the researchers transplanted five entire colonies into the lab, where they could track all ants automatically and under constant conditions. They gave the ants a large (2 x 3 m), empty arena and left them to search around for food for 5 hours. After video recording almost 5 km of ant tracks, which was equivalent to 1,384 individual tracks, they used statistical means to compare the ants’ movements with computer-generated random walk patterns.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We wanted to make sure that we are not just seeing patterns where there are none,” Popp said. “We then used a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;statistical method of detecting regularity in movement tracks to get a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;answer.”



The results, published in the online journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105916">iScience</a>, showed that the ants used a mixture of distinctly systematic movements, along with random elements. A total of 78 percent of the ants systematically turned the direction of their search roughly every 10 mm. This means that a turn in one direction was usually followed by a turn in the opposite direction after roughly three ant body lengths. The researchers termed this regular movement “meandering.”&nbsp;



“Previously, researchers in the field assumed that ants move in a pure random walk when searching for targets of which they don't know their location,” said Popp. “We found that rock ants, show a striking, regular meandering pattern when exploring the area around their nests. This means that the ants smoothly alternate left and right turns on a relatively regular length scale of roughly three body lengths.”



The regular meandering movements are also interspersed with random elements. The researchers state that the ant tracks 1) cross themselves less often than random walks would, and 2) sometimes disperse more than random walks. This means that ants cover the search area more efficiently than if their movements were simply random, because they don’t waste time searching areas they have already covered. In addition, their systematic meandering takes them away from the nest rapidly, to areas that have not been searched as thoroughly. Thus, the movement system of the ants is more efficient than if they walked around randomly. Popp says he was most intrigued by the extreme forms the ants’ patterns could take from these simple principles.



“Parts of some tracks look like the curled threads&nbsp;one can pull out of a piece of clothing, and in some it looks like the meandering path meanders itself,” he said, “creating a seemingly fractal structure. It reminds me of some space-filling curves we know from math!”



The new study is the first to find evidence for efficient search through regular meandering in a freely searching animal, the researchers report. It also adds another complex behavior for ants, suggesting that there’s still more to learn.



Popp says he’s most fascinated in questions about the rules in an ant’s mind that allow such complex search patterns to emerge. He notes also that the ants have solved a problem of collective search over the course of evolution in a way that might find application for designing autonomous swarms of search robots or drones for use in disaster areas or unexplored landscapes.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Meandering ants have a method to their madness

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search...

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of greenhouse gases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/">oceans</a> become warmer. This means that, ideally, if we wish to understand how much Earth’s climate has changed, we need to look at the warming of the oceans. The oceans have a massive thermal inertia (are slow to heat up) and have been able to absorb around 90 percent of the Earth’s increasing heat load, but they have been warming inexorably for many decades. The implications of this change in ocean heat content, which is unlikely to stop any time soon, are likely to be devastating to natural systems and to all living creatures.&nbsp;



In a new review published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00345-1">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>, an international team of scientists has analyzed temperature data from the world’s oceans in order to put together a clear picture of the extent of global ocean heat change since the 1950s. Using this information, the researchers are able to predict likely trends in ocean warming going forward, and to assess the potential consequences. This study is important because it motivates us to take actions to mitigate and respond to climate change. It shows what will happen if we don't take urgent action to slow global warming.



The study involved scientists from leading institutions in France, USA, Australia, the UK, and China, including the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a>. The team collected temperature information from past studies of the world’s oceans that made use of a variety of different temperature sensors. Some of these sensors are manually placed in the oceans by researchers, others are deployed by cargo vessels, and many are autonomous devices that float in the ocean or are tethered, like a buoy or mooring. By combining many thousands of temperature measurements spread across the globe and over the years, the scientists were able to piece together a clear picture of global ocean heat content change back to the 1950s.



Analysis of the data showed that the upper 2000m of ocean began warming, unequivocally, at least in the 1950s. The warming has continued since then and has been driven, mostly by the heat uptake at the ocean surface, and the transport of this warmed water by currents, mixing and stirring in the ocean interior.&nbsp;This has meant that heat has not been equally distributed between the world’s oceans; some, such as the southern Atlantic and Southern Oceans, have warmed more than others due to the effects of current movements.



Now, the upper 2000m of ocean is warming at a rapidly accelerating rate that has more than doubled (from &lt;5 to 10 ZJ per year.&nbsp; A ZJ is 1021 Joules of energy, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules) between the 1960s and the 2010s. To put this in perspective, the annual energy consumption for the USA is approximately 0.1 ZJ. In addition, this overall warming pattern is now driven less by ocean current mixing, and more by the passive uptake of added heat by surface waters, as the Earth becomes warmer and warmer.&nbsp;



A massive temperature data set like the one used in the current review is key to understanding both our past and our future, in terms of ocean heat content. The researchers describe the heat content changes between 1950 and 2019 in all the world’s oceans and this enables them to predict what will happen to the oceans in the coming decades. The most important finding is that the future of the oceans is in our hands.&nbsp;



The authors stress that if significant cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are made (i.e., if the target of the Paris Agreement of limiting global surface temperature increase to 2°C above the pre-industrial level can be achieved), the acceleration of ocean warming will stop at around 2030. However, if we don’t take action, the predictions are quite dire. The rate of warming will skyrocket throughout the 21st&nbsp;century: by the 2090s, the rate of ocean warming is projected to be four times larger than the current level.



Some of the potential consequences of this unabated ocean warming are described by the researchers. By 2100, all regions of the ocean will exhibit warming, although the Southern and Atlantic Oceans will have warmed the most. This will lead to continued melting of ice sheets and glaciers and a consequent increase in sea levels worldwide. This, in turn, will cause coastal erosion, displacement of people, flooding and damage to coastal infrastructures. Ocean warming also affects the cycling of carbon, oxygen and nutrients in the ocean, affecting food chains that support the ocean’s living creatures.&nbsp;



In addition, ocean warming intensifies tropical cyclones and changes the paths of storms. It leads to marine heat waves that bleach corals, change phytoplankton blooms and kill kelp forests and sea grasses. This can lead to the mass mortality of benthic organisms, declines in fish and seabird populations and a shortage of food for humans. Weather patterns also change as a consequence of a warm ocean, with some areas receiving more rain and flooding while others become drier with more heat waves and droughts.&nbsp;



Continued monitoring of ocean temperatures is critical, say the authors, along with enhanced understanding and adaptation to the effects of warmer waters. However, they stress that the future of ocean warming is in our hands. Low greenhouse gas emissions would be likely to lead to a detectable and lasting reduction in ocean warming rate, with noticeable reductions in climate-change impacts. But if these emissions continue unabated, the consequences will be very severe. We have already experienced a wide range of climate disasters during 2022: heat waves, flooding, heavy rainfalls, and strong hurricanes. If the current weather is wild, just wait for the coming decades … we haven't seen anything yet.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ocean warming could be devastating to all living creatures

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of...

On Monday January 30, 2023 the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) decided that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-covid-wave-currently-unfolding-across-china/">Covid-19</a> remains a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC). However, due to currently high levels of both natural and vaccine-induced immunity, as well as the relative mildness of the Omicron variants compared to previous ones, the experts agreed that the pandemic is at a “transition point.”



A PHEIC has the benefit of creating an agreement among countries to abide by WHO’s recommendations for managing the pandemic, while each country in its turn can declare its own public health emergency, allowing them to legally waive rules and marshal resources for mitigating the impact of such health crises. Although the world is much better equipped to manage the pandemic than it was in the previous three years, many nations around the world are still experiencing a high – and, in some cases, even rising - number of infections and deaths, an aspect clearly showing that the pandemic is far from over.



“Achieving higher levels of population immunity globally, either through infection and/or vaccination, may limit the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on morbidity and mortality, but there is little doubt that this virus will remain a permanently established pathogen in humans and animals for the foreseeable future. As such, long-term public health action is critically needed,” WHO’s International Health Regulations Emergency Committee&nbsp;recently stated.



“While eliminating this virus from human and animal reservoirs is highly unlikely, mitigation of its devastating impact on morbidity and mortality is achievable and should continue to be a prioritized goal.”



In a list of temporary recommendations, WHO advised that countries should continue vaccinating people and incorporate Covid vaccines into routine health care, while improving disease surveillance, continuing to fight misinformation, adjusting international travel requirements and recommendations based on comprehensive risk assessment, and maintaining a strong healthcare system to a avoid a “panic-neglect cycle” that characterized many of the previous pandemics.



“My message is clear: Do not underestimate this virus. It has and will continue to surprise us, and it will continue to kill unless we do more to get health tools to people that need them and to comprehensively tackle misinformation,” WHO’s Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Covid-19 remains a global health emergency

On Monday January 30, 2023 the World Health Organization (WHO)...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...