Galaxies often collide and interact over vast timescales, reshaping their structures in unpredictable ways. Some merge, others drift past one another, but few experience a direct impact through the core. 



Recently, the Bullseye galaxy, officially known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bullseye-galaxy_LEDA-1313424_9-rings_hubble_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LEDA 1313424</a>, has revealed a stunning cosmic event.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> captured this rare phenomenon, showing the Bullseye galaxy marked by nine distinct rings. 



This discovery changes how astronomers view galaxy interactions, providing a rare glimpse into the rippling effects of a high-speed collision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dive-through-the-bullseye-galaxy">A dive through the Bullseye galaxy</h2>



A much smaller blue dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-spots-a-supernova-in-the-constellation-gemini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> pierced straight through the Bullseye’s heart, leaving behind an intricate pattern of expanding rings. These rings, filled with newborn stars, resemble ripples in a pond. 



While previous studies of ring galaxies identified only two or three rings at most, this system has shattered that record.



The process behind this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-years-ago-edwin-hubble-proved-the-milky-way-is-not-the-only-galaxy-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraordinary formation</a> mirrors events found in nature. Consider the Northern Gannet, a seabird known for its high-speed dives into the ocean. 



From as high as 100 feet, it plummets into the water in pursuit of fish. Its pointed beak and tightly folded wings reduce splash, but the impact still sends tiny ripples outward. Now, scale that scenario to galactic proportions.



Instead of a bird, imagine a tiny galaxy plunging into a much larger one. Instead of water, envision a vast galactic disk filled with stars, gas, and dust. 



Fifty million years ago, when the blue dwarf galaxy passed through the core of the Bullseye, the cosmic ripples left in its wake pushed material both inward and outward, shaping the structure of the larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-a-blue-lurker-multi-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-in-the-bullseye-galaxy">Rings in the Bullseye galaxy</h2>



Seeing such a phenomenon in detail is rare. Both the Hubble Space Telescope and the <a href="https://keckobservatory.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">W. M. Keck Observatory</a> in Hawaii confirmed the existence of nine rings in the Bullseye galaxy. 



This is more than double the number seen in any other known ring galaxy. Hubble also identified the intruding galaxy, which now sits to the left of the Bullseye.



"This was a serendipitous discovery," said Imad Pasha, the lead researcher and a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>. "I was looking at a ground-based imaging survey and when I saw a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-the-violent-history-of-our-closest-cosmic-neighbor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> with several clear rings, I was immediately drawn to it. I had to stop to investigate it."



The name "Bullseye" perfectly describes the galaxy’s appearance, with each ring resembling a mark left by a cosmic arrow. 



The rings are not merely decorative features; they represent powerful waves of star formation triggered by the dwarf galaxy’s high-speed passage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brief-moment-in-history">A brief moment in history </h2>



The researchers believe that this moment in the Bullseye galaxy’s history is brief.



"We’re catching the Bullseye at a very special moment in time. There's a very narrow window after the impact when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> like this would have so many rings," noted study co-author Pieter G. van Dokkum, a professor at Yale.



Galactic interactions are common, but a direct hit through the center is rare. The smaller galaxy’s straight trajectory caused material in the Bullseye to shift dramatically, creating the distinct concentric rings. Each ring marks a wave of compressed gas, leading to the birth of new stars.



For perspective, the Milky Way spans about 100,000 light-years across. The Bullseye galaxy, at 250,000 light-years in diameter, is more than twice as large. Its massive size makes the rings even more striking, as they continue expanding outward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-ninth-ring">Confirming the ninth ring</h2>



Hubble’s crisp imaging allowed researchers to pinpoint most of the rings, many of which are clustered near the center. 



"This would have been impossible without Hubble," Pasha explained. The telescope’s high resolution provided an unparalleled look at the Bullseye’s structure, revealing intricate details invisible to ground-based observatories.



The Keck Observatory in Hawaii played a crucial role in confirming one additional ring, bringing the total to nine. Researchers believe a tenth ring may have once existed but has since faded beyond detectability. 



If this lost ring still remains in some form, it would be located three times farther than the outermost ring captured by Hubble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-theories-about-ring-formation">Confirming theories about ring formation</h2>



The Bullseye galaxy aligns almost perfectly with long-standing theories about ring formation. Models predict that a galaxy hit in this way should produce a series of outward-moving rings, and this is exactly what astronomers observed.



"That theory was developed for the day that someone saw so many rings," van Dokkum said. "It is immensely gratifying to confirm this long-standing prediction with the Bullseye galaxy."



Hubble’s image provides an angled view of the rings, making them appear unevenly spaced. If seen directly from above, they would form nearly perfect circles - with the innermost rings packed closely together and the outermost ones more widely spaced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-ripple-effect-in-space">A ripple effect in space</h2>



To understand how these rings formed, imagine a pebble dropped into a pond. The first ripple spreads out widest, while others follow at regular intervals. 



In the Bullseye galaxy, the first two rings likely formed rapidly and expanded outward. Later rings appeared in sequence, slightly offset by the continued movement of gas and dust.



The passage of the blue dwarf galaxy affected the earliest rings the most, triggering a chain reaction that lasted millions of years. 



While individual stars remained largely undisturbed, entire groups of stars piled up to form the visible rings.



Meanwhile, gas was carried outward and mixed with dust, fueling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-is-expanding-faster-than-science-can-explain-hubble-tension-physics-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creation</a> of new stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-bullseye-galaxy">Evolution of the Bullseye galaxy </h2>



Despite the clarity of this discovery, many questions remain. Astronomers want to determine which stars existed before the dwarf galaxy’s arrival and which formed afterward. 



This will help refine models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> evolution and provide insight into the long-term fate of the Bullseye.



Over time, some of the rings will fade as stars move out of alignment. However, the larger structure of the Bullseye will persist for millions of years, giving astronomers plenty of time to study its evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-galactic-interactions">Insights into galactic interactions</h2>



Although this discovery was unexpected, it sets the stage for more findings in the future. Advanced telescopes will soon provide even greater insights into galactic interactions. 



"Once NASA's Nancy Grace <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a> begins science operations, interesting objects will pop out much more easily," said van Dokkum. "We will learn how rare these spectacular events really are."



The research not only confirms theories about ring formation but also raises new questions about the physics of galactic collisions. .



The team's findings were published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9f5c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, Imad Pasha (Yale), Pieter van Dokkum (Yale)



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Bullseye galaxy reveals stunning rings after galactic impact

Galaxies often collide and interact over vast timescales, reshaping their structures in unpredictable ways. Some merge, others drift past one another, but few experience a direct impact through the core. Recently, the Bullseye galaxy, officially known as LEDA 1313424, has revealed a stunning cosmic event. NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope captured this rare phenomenon, showing the Bullseye galaxy marked by nine distinct rings. This discovery changes how astronomers view galaxy interactions, providing a rare glimpse into the rippling effects of a high-speed collision. A dive through the Bullseye...

3d,Medical,Animation,With,Teeth,Pain

When you look at the jawbones of a blue whale, a hyena, or even a human, you'll notice something interesting. Each one, regardless of its size or purpose, consists of a pair of lower jawbones.



This structure is a hallmark of mammals. It gives us everything from the blue whale's 20-foot-long filter-feeding jaw, to the bone-crushing prowess of the hyena, and our own delicate human chin bones.



Yet, it might seem like a disadvantage at first. After all, why would having a single bone on each side of the head, forming a stiff lower jaw or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-denisovans-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mandible</a>, be a good thing?



<h2 id="h-is-there-an-advantage-to-having-just-one-lower-jawbone">Is there an advantage to having just one lower jawbone?</h2>



Other vertebrates such as crocodiles and snakes have between two and 11 bones in their lower jaws. This shows that a jaw with multiple bones can be advantageous.



For instance, despite having about five bones on each side of their jaws, crocodiles have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dogs-crush-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bite strength</a> relative to their size that's more powerful than a hyena's.



Snakes, on the other hand, can open their mouths wider than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlocking-the-secrets-of-whales-through-their-mouths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baleen whales</a> relative to their size. This is due to their lower jaws' unique structure with around four bones. This feature even allows snakes to dislocate their jaws to swallow prey larger than their heads.



So what's the benefit of having two single jawbones. These are fused at the chin into one solid mandible in humans and other primates?



That's the question paleontologist Jack Tseng, an assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, aimed to answer.



<h2>How the jawbone study was conducted</h2>



He built a database of over 1,000 vertebrate jaws. This represented just a small fraction of the approximately 66,000 jawed vertebrate species on Earth.



His goal? To determine if the mammalian jaw structure was an evolutionary improvement over the multi-boned jaws of fish, lizards, snakes, and other non-mammals. To do this, Tseng even created 3D models of many lower jaws to test their durability.



<h2>What the research team learned about lower jawbones</h2>



The answer he found was surprising. As it turns out, having a single lower jawbone on each side doesn't provide a significant advantage over a jaw with multiple bones.



"Should we interpret the innovation of the mammalian jaw as a pure adaptation that enabled, in all ways, mammals to be more successful after the dinosaurs went extinct? I think the answer is no," Tseng said.



Instead, he found that multiple jawbones actually give animals an advantage when it comes to biting. These bones work together, providing more flexibility and speed. On the other hand, the single bone per side in mammals actually restricts their evolutionary options.



Interestingly, despite this limitation, mammals have managed to adapt and consume a wide variety of foods. They rival the dietary diversity of vertebrates with more than one bone in their jaw.



"There's this idea of a trade-off between the additional flexibility and maybe additional speed that you could achieve with multiple bones in a jaw — which essentially compounds or enlarges movement — and the increased stiffness or increased bite strength when you have a single bone in the jaw," Tseng explained.



"That sort of dichotomy between mammals and non-mammals supposedly enabled mammals to essentially become eaters of all things."



<h2>Tseng's research is into jawbones is groundbreaking</h2>



"Nobody's tried to combine information from all of these groups of jawed vertebrates to ask general questions about how jaw shape and function are related," he noted.



He concluded that the structure of the jaw isn't as linked to its function in vertebrates as one might assume. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-fossil-mammals-swallow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammal jaws</a>, despite being more diverse in shape, are more constrained in their biomechanical characteristics compared to non-mammals.



"Mammal jaws can take, on average, more different shapes compared to non-mammal jaws, but those different shapes have narrower range of different mechanical properties than non-mammals," Tseng observed.



"This is a new observation that could potentially open up different ways of looking at mammal jaw biomechanics."



"The main finding was that, yes, indeed, mammals, given their single-boned lower jaw, have significantly higher strength or stiffness on average compared to any non-mammal jaw," Tseng said.



"This is true overall, regardless of what specific mammals are doing — it doesn't matter if you are a carnivore or an herbivore. Stiffness is not a predator trait or herbivore trait, it's a mammalian trait, a signature of the mammal jaw."



So, why do mammals have fewer bones in their lower jaw? They didn't lose them. Those extra bones evolved into the mammalian inner ear. This potentially gave mammals superior hearing compared to their vertebrate relatives.



"A solid, stiff jaw in mammals is thought to be a side effect of establishing a uniquely mammalian hearing system," Tseng added.



<h2>Examining the jawbone through an engineering lens</h2>



This transition from a complex jaw to a simpler one, but with a complex inner ear, has been primarily studied concerning the ear. 



Tseng has a background in studying bone-crushing animals like hyenas. He wanted to explore this transition from the jaw's perspective and through an engineering lens.



He digitized two-dimensional jaw shapes from over 1,000 vertebrate species. Next, he established the key characteristics of these jaws. Finally, he simulated their mechanical performance, including shapes not seen in nature.



This research revealed how mammalian and non-mammalian jaws compare in terms of strength and function. Both groups spanned the range. 



This indicated a similar potential for adaptation. However, mammalian jaws tend to be stiffer than non-mammalian jaws.



<h2>More research planned for lower jawbone evolution</h2>



Tseng plans to <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2022.0091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expand his research</a> by adding more vertebrate species to his database and incorporating 3D scans of jawbones for a more accurate biomechanical assessment of stiffness and strength.



He hopes that other researchers will further investigate the role of genetics in the evolution of mammals' complex ear structure and simple jawbone structure. 



He's interested in understanding the consequences of this transition for mammalian evolution and why this trait seems to have become permanently fixed in mammals.



"We hope our findings prompt some people to search for genetic bases for why this is a one-way street," Tseng concluded.



This study was published last month in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. It could lead to a greater understanding of how this characteristic separation of structure and function in mammals helped them adapt to new environments during key geological times.



These include the extinction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-birds-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-avian dinosaurs</a> and the emergence of land bridges connecting continents. Both enabled the mixing of different ecological communities.



Along with Tseng, the study's co-authors include Sergio Garcia-Lara and Emily Holmes of UC Berkeley, John Flynn from the American Museum of Natural History in New York, Timothy Rowe of the University of Texas at Austin, and Blake Dickson from Duke University in North Carolina.



<h2>More about jawbones</h2>



Jawbones, also known as mandibles, play a critical role in a variety of creatures, from mammals and reptiles to birds and fish. They are part of the body's skeletal structure. Thus, they are instrumental in eating and communication. Here are some key aspects about jawbones:



<h3>Structure and Function</h3>



In humans and many other animals, the jawbone is a horseshoe-shaped bone. It is the only bone in the human skull that can move and is responsible for the up and down movement of the mouth. The jawbone holds the lower teeth in place and works with the upper jaw to help in chewing food and in the articulation of speech.



In mammals, the mandible is typically made of a single bone on each side, which is a unique characteristic among vertebrates. Other vertebrates, like fish, reptiles, and birds, usually have complex, multipart jaws.



<h3>Evolution</h3>



The evolution of the jawbone is a fascinating topic in the field of evolutionary biology. Jawbones have evolved significantly over millions of years. 



The first jawed animals appeared during the Silurian period (approximately 440 million years ago). These early jawed vertebrates, or gnathostomes, included both fish and amphibians.



The evolution of jawbones in mammals is particularly interesting. Early mammalian ancestors, or synapsids, started with a jaw composed of several bones.



However, over time, these bones simplified and eventually, mammals ended up with a single bone on each side of the jaw. Some of the other bones migrated to the ear, forming the auditory ossicles. This is a significant evolutionary change that possibly enhanced hearing in mammals.



<h3>Variation Across Species</h3>



Jawbones differ considerably among various animal species, not only in size and shape but also in terms of strength and the number of constituent bones.



For example, the blue whale, the largest creature on Earth, has massive jawbones that enable filter feeding. Crocodiles have incredibly strong and powerful jaws, and snakes have highly flexible jaws that can dislocate to swallow large prey.



<h3>Health and Disease</h3>



The jawbone can also be affected by various health conditions. Disorders like temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJ) can cause pain in the jawbone and the muscles controlling jaw movement.



Other conditions, like osteonecrosis, can cause damage to the jawbone itself. In dentistry, maintaining the health of the jawbone is crucial. 



This is especially true for procedures like dental implants, where the implant must fuse with the jawbone to provide a sturdy foundation for artificial teeth.



<h3>Fossil Records and Anthropology</h3>



Jawbones are crucial in the field of anthropology and paleontology. They can provide a wealth of information about extinct species, including their diet, age, and size.



Jawbones can even offer hints about social structures and mating habits. In human evolution, changes in jawbone size and structure are linked with dietary shifts. These include the transition from raw to cooked food, and the advent of farming.



In summary, jawbones are fascinating from many perspectives, including biology, evolution, health, and anthropology. They're critical for various life functions and hold many secrets about our evolutionary past and the diversity of life on Earth.

Evolutionary mystery: Why are mammals the only vertebrates to have only one lower jawbone?

When you look at the jawbones of a blue whale,...

Farm,Salmon,Fishing,In,Norway,Aerial,Fpv,Drone,Photography.

The world's biggest producers of aquatic foods and the aquaculture industry are under a significant threat. Environmental changes triggered by human activities have placed over 90% of the world’s aquaculture facilities under significant threat.



Countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa with the highest risk are reportedly least equipped to adapt to these changes.



Over 90% of worldwide 'blue' food production is facing substantial risk from environmental alterations. This covers both captured fisheries and aquaculture systems.



Key players like several Asian nations and the United States are predicted to face the most significant challenges to their production capabilities.



The <a href="https://bluefood.earth/science/vulnerability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundbreaking paper</a> presents the first global analysis of environmental stressors influencing the quantity and safety of blue foods.



<h2 id="h-how-the-aquaculture-and-blue-foods-study-was-conducted">How the aquaculture and blue foods study was conducted</h2>



A total of 17 stressors, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-arctic-warming-sets-the-stage-for-dangerous-algae-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algal blooms</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-sea-level-rise-found-along-u-s-coasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, fluctuating temperatures, and pesticide exposure, were assessed. Based on their exposure to these key stressors, countries were ranked for the first time.



"Environmental stressors do not care about national borders," observed Ben Halpern, co-lead author of the study and professor at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a>.



According to him, stressors are moved by air, water, species, and humans, connecting lands to seas and ecosystems to ecosystems.



The study was published by Nature Sustainability under the title "Vulnerability of Blue Foods to Human-induced Environmental Change."



It is one of seven scientific papers released by the <a href="https://bluefood.earth/what-we-do/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Food Assessment (BFA)</a>. These papers were published in a global effort to enhance the understanding of future aquatic food sustainability.



Climate change is not the only problem. The report underscores that highly vulnerable blue food production systems exist worldwide.



These include major producers such as Norway, China, and the U.S. The study emphasizes the need to better understand the complex stressors causing environmental change.



<h2>Understanding how environmental stressors impact aquaculture</h2>



Ling Cao is the co-lead author and professor at the <a href="https://mel2.xmu.edu.cn/melwebold/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science at Xiamen University</a> He says we've merely "scratched the surface in our understanding of how environmental stressors are connected and how they can negatively impact the production and safety of blue foods."



Grasping the intricacies of these stressors and their cascading effects is crucial for devising effective adaptation and mitigation strategies.



In the U.S., the main threats to blue food production include species invasion, inland eutrophication or algal blooms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-could-be-devastating-to-all-living-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, and sea level rise.



Freshwater and marine fisheries are at particularly large risk. Meanwhile, China's freshwater aquaculture, being the largest blue food producer, is also under threat from inland eutrophication and severe weather events.



The authors point out that we should particularly focus on countries like Bangladesh, Eswatini, Guatemala, Honduras, and Uganda. They are highly exposed to environmental change but lack the capacity for adaptation.



<h2>What the researchers learned about aquaculture and blue food</h2>



According to the report, marine fisheries are more vulnerable to climate-related stressors, particularly temperature rise and acidification. In contrast, aquaculture is more likely to suffer from diseases and hypoxia or low oxygen levels.



Rebecca Short, co-lead author and researcher at the <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm Resilience Centre</a>, warns that although we've made progress on climate change, our strategies for blue food systems facing environmental change need urgent attention.



The study strongly suggests transboundary collaboration and adaptation strategies that consider the interconnectedness of ecosystems. Environmental change in one area can significantly impact other regions.



Diversifying blue food production in high-risk countries is recommended unless adequate mitigation and adaptation strategies are adopted. Additionally, it's essential to engage stakeholders more actively in understanding, monitoring, and mitigating pressures on blue food production systems.



The researchers believe that indigenous knowledge will play a vital role in strategic planning and policies. Such knowledge is particularly critical for artisanal fisheries and heavily marine fisheries-dependent countries, like Small Island Developing States (SIDS).



The research also provides an extended dataset ranking countries based on the exposure of their blue food production systems to environmental stressors.



<h2>More about aquaculture and blue food production</h2>



Aquaculture, sometimes referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafree-new-technology-turns-waste-from-fish-farming-into-seaweed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish farming</a> or shellfish farming, is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. These include fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants.



It involves the farming of species that live in the water (both saltwater and freshwater) under controlled conditions.



Aquaculture plays a critical role in meeting the world's increasing demand for protein. It does so by providing a substantial share of the fish consumed globally.



Blue food refers to all types of aquatic foods. These include both those from aquaculture and wild capture fisheries. Blue foods can range from fish and shellfish to seaweed and other aquatic plants.



Blue food is an essential component of global food systems. It provides not only protein but also essential micronutrients and fatty acids that are beneficial to human health.



Here are some key points about aquaculture and blue food production:



<h3>Diversity of Species</h3>



Aquaculture involves a broad array of species, including finfish like salmon and tilapia, shellfish such as oysters and clams, and even seaweed. The choice of species depends on several factors, including market demand, local environmental conditions, and available technology.



<h3>Types of Systems</h3>



Aquaculture systems can be very diverse and are generally categorized into extensive or intensive systems. Extensive systems tend to rely on natural productivity, while intensive systems often require external inputs. 



These include feed, aeration, and pest control. The systems can also be classified based on the type of water used. For instance, freshwater, brackish, or marine.



<h3>Sustainability Issues</h3>



While aquaculture has the potential to provide a sustainable source of protein, it faces several sustainability challenges. These include water pollution, habitat destruction, disease transmission, and the use of wild-caught fish as feed in some types of aquaculture. These factors can have significant environmental impacts.



<h3>Role in Food Security</h3>



Blue food plays a crucial role in global food security. It provides essential nutrients for billions of people and is an important source of livelihood for millions of people, particularly in developing countries.



<h3>Innovation and Technological Advances</h3>



New technologies and practices are continually being developed to improve the sustainability of aquaculture. These include more efficient feeding practices, closed-loop systems that recycle water, and the use of non-fish feed ingredients to reduce reliance on wild-caught fish.



<h3>Regulation and Management</h3>



Aquaculture is subject to a range of regulations and management practices intended to ensure its sustainability. These regulations can cover a variety of aspects, from water quality and disease management to animal welfare and labor rights.



<h3>Challenges from Climate Change</h3>



Like all food production systems, blue food production is vulnerable to climate change. Rising sea levels, increasing temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events can all pose significant challenges to both aquaculture and wild capture fisheries. Adapting to these changes will be a significant challenge in the coming decades.



Overall, aquaculture and blue food production are essential components of the global food system. They offer the potential to provide sustainable, nutritious food for a growing global population but also present significant environmental and management challenges that must be addressed.

90% of the world’s aquaculture faces substantial risk from human-induced environmental changes

The world's biggest producers of aquatic foods and the aquaculture...

Understanding how our climate will change in the future, and how the stratosphere is involved, is a monumental challenge. Scientists around the world are grappling with this problem.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia (UEA)</a> just made a major breakthrough. Their research brings new insights about a significant source of uncertainty related to climate change.



<h2 id="h-how-does-water-vapor-in-the-stratosphere-impact-earth-s-climate">How does water vapor in the stratosphere impact Earth’s climate?</h2>



For those who don't know, the stratosphere is a super-dry region of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-is-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our atmosphere</a>. It's positioned 15–50 km above the Earth's surface.



When water vapor increases in this region, climate change may accelerate. This rise in water vapor can also slow down the recovery of the ozone layer, the protective blanket that shields us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays.



Professor Peer Nowack, who was once part of the Climatic Research Unit at UEA, led this game-changing research. Along with an international team, Nowack developed a new statistical learning method. It combines satellite observations and top-notch climate model data.



The goal? To better understand how much water vapor we can expect in the stratosphere in the future.



<h2>How the stratosphere study was conducted</h2>



The study, freshly published in the prestigious journal Nature Geoscience, brought out some comforting results. Thankfully, it ruled out the scariest scenarios.



One such terrifying scenario suggested water vapor could go up by more than 25% for every degree of global warming. This new approach brought down the uncertainty by half.



Professor Nowack, currently at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany, explained the importance of their study.



He said, “Human-made climate change affects Earth’s atmosphere in many important and often surprising ways. Since water vapor is central to the stratosphere's physics and chemistry, we needed a new approach to address this longstanding uncertainty factor."



In his words, the new method "exploits machine learning ideas" and "makes highly effective use of Earth observations to reduce this uncertainty."



Dr. Sean Davis, a Research Scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the U.S., who co-authored the study, supported Nowack's sentiment.



He said, "With this approach, we were able to show that many climate model projections of very large stratospheric water vapor changes are now inconsistent with observational evidence."



<h2>Climate feedbacks and how they relate to the stratosphere</h2>



Understanding stratospheric water vapor trends under global warming has always been a complicated task. It's even trickier because of climate feedbacks.



Climate feedbacks can either magnify or reduce global warming. They lead to a wide range of possible future temperature increases.



One such feedback involves the amount of water vapor in the stratosphere. While climate models predicted its increase, the extent of the increase was uncertain.



If the stratosphere held too much water vapor due to climate change, it could harm the ozone layer's recovery. It could also harm the Antarctic ozone hole over this century.



&nbsp;But Professor Manoj Joshi, a Climate Dynamics professor at UEA and a co-author of the study, brings a sigh of relief.



He said, "Our research implies that while stratospheric water vapour concentrations are likely to increase with global warming, the large changes that could substantially delay ozone recovery are highly unlikely."



This groundbreaking research was made possible thanks to funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council through the ML4CLOUDS project. It’s a huge step towards better understanding, predicting, and ultimately combating climate change.



<h2>More about the stratosphere</h2>



The stratosphere is one of the major layers of Earth's atmosphere. It's situated above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. Here are some key details about it:



<h3>Location and Thickness</h3>



The stratosphere starts roughly around 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) above Earth's surface at the equator, but at about 8 kilometers (around 5 miles) at the poles. It stretches upwards to about 50 kilometers (31 miles) high.



<h3>Temperature Gradient</h3>



Unlike the troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, the stratosphere sees an increase in temperature with height. This is due to the presence of the ozone layer which absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, converting it into heat.



<h3>Ozone Layer</h3>



The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which is about 20 to 30 kilometers (12 to 19 miles) above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer plays a crucial role in absorbing most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause skin cancer and cataracts, harm ecosystems, and damage certain types of plastics.



<h3>Weather and Clouds</h3>



The stratosphere is generally stable and calm with few weather disturbances, unlike the turbulent troposphere below it. This is because the temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere, reducing the amount of convection, or upward air movement.



There are, however, some cloud types that can form in the stratosphere under specific conditions, like nacreous (mother-of-pearl) and noctilucent clouds.



<h3>Air Traffic</h3>



The stratosphere's stability is one reason it's used for commercial jet flight. The lack of weather disturbances and turbulence makes for smoother flights.



<h3>Life</h3>



The stratosphere isn't very hospitable to life as we know it, due to the low temperatures, low pressure, and intense solar radiation. However, some resilient bacteria and spores can survive there.



<h3>Stratospheric Cooling</h3>



While global warming heats up the Earth's surface and the troposphere, it's causing the stratosphere to cool. This is because increased levels of greenhouse gases in the troposphere trap more heat, leaving less to reach the stratosphere.



<h3>Stratospheric Water Vapor</h3>



Changes in the amount of water vapor in the stratosphere can affect the climate. More water vapor can trap more heat, leading to surface warming. It can also impact the ozone layer's chemistry.



Remember, our understanding of the stratosphere and other atmospheric layers continues to evolve as we develop more advanced observational technologies and models.

New study of Earth’s stratosphere has important implications for life on Earth

Understanding how our climate will change in the future, and...

Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered an ancient mosasaur fossil. Further analysis revealed it to be a new species, Sarabosaurus dahli. They found it in the rugged gray shale badlands of the National Park Service Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.



This recent archaeological breakthrough in southern Utah has brought a 94-million-year-old secret to the surface. Dr. Barry Albright is a faculty member at the <a href="https://www.unf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Florida</a>. He made this fascinating discovery, along with a research team from the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bureau of Land Management (BLM)</a>.



<h2 id="h-mosasaurs-were-originally-land-dwelling-creatures">Mosasaurs were originally land dwelling creatures</h2>



Mosasaurs were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terrifying-mosasaur-dominated-the-ocean-66-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique creatures</a>. They were reptiles adapted entirely for marine life. Mosasaurs roamed the oceans while their dinosaur cousins reigned on land.



The genesis of this discovery traces back about 11 years. Scott Richardson, a dedicated volunteer trained under Dr. Albright.



He tirelessly scoured the land for remnants of organisms that once inhabited the vast seaway spanning across the heart of North America. This was during the Late Cretaceous Period, approximately 84 to 95 million years ago.



In March 2012, Richardson stumbled upon a treasure trove of ancient history. Small skull fragments and vertebrae, the vestiges of an early mosasaur, lay scattered across a large shale slope.



As Dr. Albright elucidates, "During the time the Tropic Shale was being deposited, about 94 million years ago, mosasaurs were still very small, primitive, and in the early evolutionary stages of becoming fully marine adapted. For these reasons, their fossils are extremely rare and difficult to find."



<h2>How Sarabosaurus dahli was discovered</h2>



Over the next two field seasons, a joint team from the BLM and the National Park Service painstakingly recovered nearly half of the specimen. This amount proved sufficient to identify the ancient creature.



The research team, captained by BLM Paria River District paleontologist Dr. Alan Titus, consisted of BLM staff and volunteers. Among them was volunteer Steve Dahl. 



His dedication to the project led to his being immortalized in the species name, Sarabosaurus dahli. This name translates to "Dahl’s reptile of the mirage".



The name encapsulates both the bygone seaway this creature swam through, and the desert mirages associated with the region's intense summer heat.



<h2>New mosasaur, Sarabosaurus dahli, is a monumental discovery</h2>



"Mosasaurs from younger rocks are relatively abundant, but mosasaurs are extremely rare in rocks older than about 90 million years," explained Dr. Titus. "Finding one that preserves so much informative data, especially one of this age, is truly a significant discovery."



These oldest mosasaurs were diminutive, just about 3 feet long. Yet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-mosasaur-species-discovered-with-strange-screwdriver-like-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they evolved into massive, lizard-like marine predators</a>. Mosasaurs ruled the oceans during the later stages of the dinosaur era.



Originally, their land-bound ancestors resembled the present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/all-about-the-mysterious-komodo-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo Dragon</a>. However, over time, their sea-faring descendants developed sleek bodies, fin-like limbs, and tails designed for swift navigation through water.



In contrast to its primitive predecessors, Sarabosaurus boasted a significant evolutionary advancement. It had developed a new system to pump blood into its brain.



According to Dr. Michael J. Polcyn of the University of Utrecht, Netherlands, and Southern Methodist University, Dallas, "Sarabosaurus sheds light on long-standing questions regarding the relationship of some early branching mosasaurid species, but also provides new insights into the evolution and antiquity of a novel cranial blood supply seen in a particular group of mosasaurs."



This pivotal discovery propels our understanding of the mysterious past. It also sheds light on the intriguing world of these ancient marine reptiles. This is truly a giant leap forward for science.



The results of this transformative research have been freshly published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667123001490">Cretaceous Research</a>. Image credit: ANDREY ATUCHIN



<h2>More about mosasaurs</h2>



Mosasaurs were large, carnivorous marine reptiles that lived during the Late Cretaceous period. This period spanned from around 92 to 66 million years ago.



These fascinating creatures are known for their adaptation to marine life. They evolved from land-dwelling, lizard-like ancestors. Here's what we know about them:



<h3>Size and Appearance</h3>



The size of mosasaurs varied, with the smallest species measuring about 3 feet long and the largest, such as Mosasaurus hoffmannii, reaching lengths of up to 50 feet or more.



Mosasaurs had elongated, streamlined bodies with powerful, paddle-like limbs and a long, strong tail that helped them navigate and accelerate in the water. They also had large, robust skulls equipped with strong jaws and sharp teeth, perfect for their predatory lifestyle.



<h3>Adaptations</h3>



Mosasaurs exhibited a number of fascinating adaptations for life in the sea. They had a double-hinged jaw and a flexible skull (similar to snakes), which allowed them to swallow their prey whole. Some mosasaurs also had a second set of teeth on the roofs of their mouths.



&nbsp;These creatures evolved from land-dwelling lizards and, over time, their limbs transformed into flippers, their tails became more like those of sharks, and they developed the ability to give live birth in the water.



<h3>Diet and Hunting</h3>



Mosasaurs were apex predators in their oceanic ecosystems, preying on a variety of marine life, including fish, squid, and other marine reptiles. Some larger species may have also fed on smaller species of mosasaurs.



Their hunting techniques are believed to have been similar to those of modern-day killer whales, isolating a member of a school of fish or a pod of squids and attacking with speed and power.



<h3>Distribution and Habitat</h3>



Mosasaurs were a global species, with fossils found on every continent, indicating that they inhabited a wide range of marine environments, from shallow nearshore waters to the open ocean.



<h3>Discovery and Extinction</h3>



The first mosasaur fossils were discovered in the Netherlands in the late 18th century, and they have since been found worldwide.



Mosasaurs went extinct during the K-T event (the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event) about 66 million years ago, which is also well-known for causing the demise of the dinosaurs.



<h3>Relation to Modern Animals</h3>



Mosasaurs are not dinosaurs but are more closely related to modern-day monitor lizards and snakes. Their closest living relatives are thought to be the Komodo dragon and the closely-related Gila monster.



Overall, mosasaurs were fascinating, well-adapted creatures that dominated the oceans of the Late Cretaceous period. Their fossils continue to provide valuable insights into life on Earth millions of years ago.

Sarabosaurus dahli: A newly discovered mosasaur species provides incredible evolutionary insights

Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered...

Portrait,Of,Beautiful,Woman,With,Her,Retreiver,Dog,Playing,Near

Have you ever noticed how different dog breeds seem to be better at social learning, from observing humans, than others?



A recent study from the <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University</a> has shed some intriguing light on this subject. Their research findings suggest that some breeds of dogs may have more of an edge when it comes to gleaning insights from observing human actions.



A question that often pops up when debating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-dogs-howl-but-others-dont/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog behavior</a> is whether the breed of the dog has any influence on the results of such studies. And, if so, why or why not?



There are hundreds of distinct dog breeds out there. Each breed varies not just in their looks, but also in their behaviors. It's quite common to assume that a terrier might act differently than a Husky. Or, similarly, that a Border Collie might exhibit different tendencies than a pointer.



<h2 id="h-differences-in-social-learning-ability-across-dog-breeds">Differences in social learning ability across dog breeds </h2>



Ethologists have indeed found significant breed differences in many experiments. However, when it came to social learning, breed difference seemed a bit elusive. Social learning is the ability to learn by watching others' actions.



Over the last two decades, regardless of breed, dogs have shown an uncanny ability to learn from other dogs. Also, and even more impressively, they can also learn from watching humans.



But this new study, published in the journal 'Animals', has brought a fresh perspective. The researchers have shown that certain dog breeds might have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-dogs-more-intelligent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharper inclination</a> towards human behavior.



This tendency can be a real game-changer when dogs face a tricky spatial problem-solving task. An example of this would be finding a detour around an obstacle.



<h2>How the new social learning study was conducted</h2>



The researchers behind this compelling study are Dr. Péter Pongrácz, a pioneer in social learning experiments with dogs. Also, his partner, Petra Dobos, an undergraduate student with tremendous potential.



Dobos's bachelor thesis aimed to unearth breed-related differences that could explain variations in dogs' social learning skills.



The dynamic duo employed a novel approach by grouping dog breeds into two functional groups. First were the cooperative working dogs. These include herding dogs, pointers, and retrievers who work closely with their human handlers.



Second are independent working dogs. This group includes terriers, sighthounds, spitz type breeds and livestock guarding dogs. They function mostly without continuous human guidance.



<h2>Testing dog breeds with the 'V-shaped fence detour' test</h2>



In the study, nearly 100 dogs were subjected to the renowned <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/dogs_detour-with-me_credit-Peter-Pongracz_1big.png">'V-shaped fence detour' test</a>. This task involves the dog finding a reward placed behind a transparent wire-mesh fence. This is a feat that many dogs struggle to accomplish within the standard one-minute trial duration.



Each dog underwent three consecutive trials. Each trial had a control group receiving no additional help. 



The other group, however, got a leg up by observing humans. Petra walked around the fence before the second and third trials. This demonstrated the correct path to the reward.



As they dove into the data, the researchers found that both independent and cooperative breeds had a similar success rate in the control condition. This was to be expected considering the inherent difficulty of the detour task for dogs.



<h2>What the researchers discovered</h2>



Interestingly, when the dogs were given the chance to observe a human demonstrator navigate the detour, the cooperative working dog breeds clearly had the upper hand. 



Unlike the independent dogs, cooperative dogs significantly improved their detour time compared to their initial trial, even though both groups observed the same human demonstration.



Dr. Pongrácz, the supervisor of the research program, reflected on the study's findings. “The beauty of this finding lays in the fact that we did not find any specific dog breed to be especially talented in social learning,” he said. 



The groups consisted of unrelated dog breeds, positioned at distant branches on the genetic ‘tree’ of dogs. This highlights the role of functional breed selection that possibly focuses on enhancing dogs' attention and interest towards human behavior.



<h2>More research planned on dog breeds and social learning</h2>



The research duo has plans to delve deeper into these breed differences in future studies. Petra voiced the team's ambition. 



“We won’t stop here of course. There are so many things still to discover. For example, whether the cooperative and independent dogs would equally regard our attention calling words interesting. Or, would we find the cooperative breeds as being more attracted to human encouragement?”



In conclusion, this study has taken a significant stride in understanding the nuanced ways in which breed differences may influence a dog's ability to learn from human actions. It paves the way for more fascinating discoveries in the world of ethology.



<h2>More about relationship between dogs and humans</h2>



Dogs and humans have shared a unique bond for thousands of years. These bonds have spanned different cultures, regions, and societies.



This human/dog relationship is marked by mutual companionship, assistance, and love. In fact, dogs were the first species to be domesticated by humans. This occured somewhere between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago. Here's a deeper look into this special connection:



<h3>Domestication</h3>



Wolves, the ancestors of all modern dogs, were likely first attracted to human settlements due to the availability of food scraps. Over time, wolves that were more tolerant of humans and human behavior likely had an advantage. This led to a process of self-domestication.



Humans, in turn, found value in these animals. Dogs were used not only as sources of food and fur, but also as guards, hunters, and companions.



<h3>Co-Evolution</h3>



Humans and dogs have co-evolved. This means that as humans have shaped dogs through selective breeding, dogs have also influenced human evolution.



Some theories suggest that the collaboration between dogs and early humans allowed the latter to hunt more efficiently and have a more regular source of nutrients. These nutrients might have contributed to the development of our large brains.



<h3>Communication</h3>



Dogs have developed a unique ability to understand human signals, gestures, and speech. They can read our body language and vocal cues. They respond to our commands. Most dogs can even interpret our emotions.



This capacity for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-can-read-dogs-emotions-from-their-expressions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding and communication</a> far exceeds that of any other animal species. It is a testament to the deep connection between dogs and humans.



<h3>Emotional Bonding</h3>



Dogs and humans have the capacity to form deep emotional bonds. Dogs are known for their loyalty and are often considered members of the family.



Research has found that interacting with dogs can release the hormone oxytocin, known as the "love hormone", in both the human and the dog. Oxytocin further reinforces this human/dog bond.



<h3>Assistance Roles</h3>



Dogs play many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighborhoods-with-more-dogs-have-less-crime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crucial roles in human society</a> beyond companionship. They can be trained as service dogs to assist people with disabilities, as therapy dogs to provide emotional support, and as working dogs in various professions. These include search and rescue, law enforcement, and herding livestock.



<h3>Health Benefits</h3>



Interacting with dogs has been shown to provide numerous health benefits for humans. These include lower stress levels, reduced blood pressure, increased physical activity, and improved mental health.



Some studies have also shown that children who grow up with dogs have a lower risk of developing allergies and asthma.



<h3>Cultural Significance</h3>



Dogs hold significant cultural importance in many societies. They are often featured in art, literature, and mythology. In some cultures, dogs are revered and considered sacred, while in others, they are cherished pets and family members.



The relationship between humans and dogs continues to evolve as we learn more about these remarkable animals. While the form of the relationship can vary from place to place and person to person, the mutual respect and love that form its foundation remain constant.

Some dog breeds are better at learning by observing humans than others

Have you ever noticed how different dog breeds seem to...

Megalodon,Scene,3d,Illustration

The enormous megalodon was the most formidable marine predator that ever graced our oceans. It was indeed a killer, but not the cold-blooded kind.



Environmental scientists from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>, <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Merced</a>, and <a href="https://www.wpunj.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">William Paterson University</a> have completed an exciting research analysis about the megalodon.



The study provides new insight into the warm-blooded nature of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Megalodon_shark_credit-Alex-Boersma_1big-scaled.jpg">ancient shark</a>. The insights derived could potentially explain the reasons behind the megalodon's extinction.



The ancient megalodon, which went extinct roughly 3.6 million years ago, once dominated the seas. The researchers analyzed isotopes in the tooth enamel of these monstrous creatures.



They concluded that megalodons maintained a body temperature of approximately 13 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 7 degrees Celsius). This was warmer than the water in which they swam.



<h2 id="h-megalodon-was-a-warm-blooded-creature">Megalodon was a warm-blooded creature</h2>



This significant temperature difference sets the megalodon apart from other sharks that coexisted during its era. It's enough evidence to categorize the megalodon as a warm-blooded creature. This finding was reported in their paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



The study also posits that the energy the megalodon used to maintain its warm body temperature could have contributed to its eventual extinction. This offers a valuable perspective for understanding current and future environmental shifts.



“Studying the driving factors behind the extinction of a highly successful predatory shark like the megalodon can provide insight into the vulnerability of large marine predators in modern ocean ecosystems experiencing the effects of ongoing climate change,” commented lead researcher Robert Eagle. He is an assistant professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences at UCLA. He’s also a member of the UCLA Institute of the Environment and Sustainability.



<h2>Megalodon was part of a group known as mackerel sharks</h2>



Believed to have grown up to 50 feet in length, megalodons were part of a group of sharks known as mackerel sharks. This category includes modern-day creatures such as the great white and thresher sharks.



Most fish are cold-blooded, with body temperatures that match their surroundings. Mackerel sharks, however, can keep parts of their bodies warmer than the surrounding water. This unique trait is known as mesothermy and regional endothermy.



Sharks are distinct from fully warm-blooded or endothermic animals like mammals. This is because they store heat generated by their muscles. In mammals, body temperature is regulated by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.



Evidence has suggested that the megalodon may have been mesothermic. However, until now, there was no data to support this theory.



Without evidence from soft tissues that influence body temperature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-may-have-sped-up-megalodon-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern sharks</a>, it has been challenging to determine if, or to what extent, the megalodon was endothermic.



<h2>Studying the megalodon’s teeth to find answers</h2>



In their pioneering study, the scientists sought answers in the most abundant fossil remains of the megalodon: its teeth. Teeth are primarily composed of a mineral called apatite.



Apatite contains atoms of carbon and oxygen. These atoms can appear in "light" or "heavy" forms, known as isotopes. The ratio of light to heavy isotopes in apatite can depend on a range of environmental factors.



“The isotopes preserved in the minerals that make up teeth can be seen as a kind of thermometer, but one whose reading can be preserved for millions of years,” explained Randy Flores, a UCLA doctoral student who worked on the study.



“Because teeth form in the tissue of an animal when it’s alive, we can measure the isotopic composition of fossil teeth to estimate the temperature at which they formed. That gives us the approximate body temperature of the animal in life.”



Most ancient and modern sharks cannot maintain body temperatures significantly higher than the surrounding seawater. Thus, the isotopes in their teeth reflect temperatures close to that of the ocean.



However, in warm-blooded animals, the isotopes in their teeth document the effect of body heat. This gives an indication of temperatures warmer than the surrounding water.



The researchers hypothesized that any difference between the isotope values of the megalodon and those of other sharks from the same period would reveal the megalodon's ability to warm its body.



They collected teeth from megalodon and other contemporary sharks from five global locations. The research team then analyzed them using mass spectrometers.



They found that megalodons' teeth consistently yielded average temperatures. This indicated an impressive ability to regulate body temperature.



<h2>Being warm-blooded probably resulted in megalodon’s extinction</h2>



This warm body temperature allowed the megalodon to move faster. It could also survive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-grew-larger-in-cold-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colder waters</a> and spread around the world. Ironically, this evolutionary advantage may have contributed to the species' downfall.



The megalodon thrived during the Pliocene Epoch, from 5.33 million years ago until 2.58 million years ago. Global cooling during this period triggered sea level changes and ecological shifts that the megalodon could not survive.



“Maintaining an energy level that would allow for the megalodon’s elevated body temperature would require a voracious appetite. This appetite may not have been sustainable in a time of changing marine ecosystem balances when it may have even had to compete against newcomers like the great white shark,” Flores said.



Looking to the future, project co-leader Aradhna Tripati, a UCLA professor of Earth, planetary, and space sciences, mentioned that the team plans to use the same methodology to study other species.



“Having established endothermy in the megalodon, the question arises of how frequently it is found in apex marine predators throughout geologic history,” she added.



<h2>More about megalodon</h2>



The megalodon, whose name translates from Greek to "big tooth," is one of the most famous extinct species of shark, known for its enormous size and powerful build. Here's everything we knew about the megalodon:



<h3>Size and Appearance</h3>



The megalodon is considered one of the largest predatory marine animals in the history of our planet. Although the exact size is debated, most scientists agree that megalodons likely reached lengths of 50 to 60 feet.



As for its appearance, due to the lack of a complete megalodon skeleton (shark skeletons, made of cartilage, do not fossilize well), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-appearance-still-remains-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much of what we know</a> comes from the size and structure of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-a-giant-megalodon-tooth-to-split/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remaining teeth</a> and vertebrae.



Scientists also use comparisons with contemporary sharks. It likely resembled a significantly larger, bulkier version of today's great white shark.



<h3>Diet and Hunting Style</h3>



The megalodon was a top-level predator and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-devoured-huge-prey-up-to-eight-meters-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">could take down large marine mammals like whales</a> and seals. The megalodon's powerful jaws, lined with serrated, heart-shaped teeth, could exert an incredible bite force. It was perhaps one of the strongest among all known animals.



The exact hunting strategies are not known. They may have involved attacking the soft underbelly or fins of their prey to immobilize them. This is a similar strategy to that of modern great white sharks.



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



Megalodon fossils have been found all over the world. This suggests that these giant sharks were cosmopolitan. They lived in a variety of marine environments, from shallow coastal waters to deeper oceans. They were likely more prevalent in warmer waters.



<h3>Reproduction</h3>



Little is known about megalodon's reproductive habits. It is possible they gave live birth like modern sharks. It's also likely that, similar to some shark species today, they practiced intrauterine cannibalism. This is where the larger, stronger pups consume their siblings in the womb.



<h3>Extinction</h3>



The megalodon went extinct around 3.6 million years ago. This was likely due to a combination of climate change, a decline in their food supply, and competition with other apex predators like the great white shark.



As the Earth entered an ice age, the seas cooled and sea levels dropped. This may have impacted the megalodon's preferred warm, coastal habitats. It would have also reduced the populations of the marine mammals they hunted.



<h3>Legacy and Influence</h3>



Today, the megalodon continues to capture public interest. It has made appearances in pop culture, movies, and video games, often portrayed (somewhat inaccuratively) as a monster of the deep. 



Scientifically, studying megalodon and its ecology can provide important insights into marine ecosystems' past and present dynamics.

Megalodon was a truly vicious killer, but not a cold-blooded one

The enormous megalodon was the most formidable marine predator that...

Due to human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions, our planet is rapidly warming. This is already causing devastating consequences for all living beings. 



An increasing corpus of scientific articles dealing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-reporting-can-change-climate-change-beliefs/">climate change</a> and its impacts have recently been published. Parts of it are covered by a variety of popular media outlets. 



But how does media select and relay research related to these issues to larger audiences? 



To answer this question, a team of geoscientists and psychologists led by the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html">University of Lausanne</a> (UNIL) in Switzerland has recently examined how a collection of over 50,000 scientific articles about climate change from 2020 made its way into the mainstream media.



The analysis revealed that most of the research selected by the media was biased to the natural sciences. They were focused mainly on large-scale climate projections that will occur in the future. They also focused on a narrow range of threats, such as droughts, storms, or melting glaciers, while discarding the social, economic, technological, and local aspects of climate change research. 



<h2 id="h-pushing-the-wrong-buttons">Pushing the wrong buttons</h2>



According to the experts, these types of narratives often fail to activate psychological mechanisms that might give rise to pro-environmental behaviors in their readers and may thus potentially backfire, leading to denial and avoidance.



“The individuals exposed to these facts, not feeling directly concerned by them, will tend towards a peripheral, superficial, and distracted treatment of the information,” said senior author Fabrizio Butera, a professor of Psychology at UNIL. “Only a central, deep, and attentive consideration will allow the public to transform what they know into mechanisms of action and commitment.”



“If the goal of mediating research is to have a societal impact, then it seems that we are pushing all the buttons that don’t work,” added lead author Marie-Elodie Perga, an associate professor of Earth Surface Dynamics at the same university.



<h2 id="h-presenting-problems-without-solutions">Presenting problems without solutions&nbsp;</h2>



Although large-scale threats such as those typically covered by mainstream media can create fear and potentially lead to behavioral changes in individuals and groups, such changes can only occur if the problems presented are also accompanied by solutions.&nbsp;



By contrast, faced with purely descriptive articles emphasizing highly selected elements of climate change, readers may tend to ignore the problem, search for less anxiety-provoking information, and surround themselves with networks presenting more reassuring scenarios.



<h2 id="h-more-engagement-is-needed">More engagement is needed</h2>



According to Perga, in order to communicate in a more effective way that could encourage society to engage more widely in climate action, “the treatment of environmental issues in a transversal and solution-oriented way would be useful. It would show that climate change has direct consequences on our lifestyles, our immediate environment or our finances, for example.”



Such an approach requires fundamental changes in the behavior of communication managers in research institutions, publishers, and media. “For the time being, the most renowned scientific publications favor end-of-century studies,” Perga explained. 



”Journalists then give very wide coverage to the publications of these journals, which are the most highly rated. Instead, in France, for example, a group of journalists has drawn up a charter advocating the adaptation of media coverage of these issues, and calling for more cross-disciplinarity.”



“With news usefulness defined as the ability to engage society in climate actions - through the publication and mediatization of more solution-oriented, interdisciplinary outputs that take into account the public’s resistance to change - both researchers and news professionals may move from being the&nbsp;whistleblowers&nbsp;of the problem to being part of the solution,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102675">Global Environmental Change</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Media coverage of climate change fails to inspire action

Due to human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions, our...

Researchers have discovered that even mild cases of COVID-19 can affect a man's semen quality months after infection. This revelation was part of a study presented at the 39th annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.eshre.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology</a> (ESHRE) on Monday.



The study found that men who had mild COVID-19 infections had fewer and less active sperm cells. This continued over three months after their recovery. These findings were surprising since sperm cells should regenerate within this period.



Professor Rocio Núñez-Calonge, a scientific advisor at UR International Group at the <a href="https://www.comunidad.madrid/en/hospital/lapaz/profesionales/hospital-materno-infantil/unidad-reproducion-asistida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reproduction Unit in Madrid</a>, led the research team.



She expressed her team's surprise over these findings. She stated, "We assumed that semen quality would improve once new sperm were being generated, but this was not the case. We do not know how long it might take for semen quality to be restored and it may be the case that COVID has caused permanent damage, even in men who suffered only a mild infection."



<h2 id="h-how-the-team-studied-semen-quality-after-covid-19">How the team studied semen quality after COVID-19</h2>



Núñez-Calonge and her team started the study after noticing that some men who attended reproductive clinics in Spain had worse semen quality after recovering from mild COVID-19 infections.



Given that it takes about 78 days to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-sperm-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new sperm</a>, the team found it appropriate to evaluate semen quality at least three months after recovery.



For their research, they recruited 45 men from six reproductive clinics in Spain between February 2020 and October 2022. All participants had recovered from mild COVID-19 infections. The team had access to the men's semen samples taken before and after their infections.



The scientists made alarming discoveries when they analyzed the samples. They discovered that every aspect of semen quality was impacted, even after an average of 100 days post-infection.



Semen volume was down by 20%, sperm concentration had fallen by 26.5%, total sperm count had reduced by 37.5%, and total motility was down 9.1%. The number of live sperm had also decreased by 5%.



<h2>The connection between COVID-19 and semen quality</h2>



The researchers' findings suggest that mild COVID-19 infections could cause permanent damage to semen quality. This is a concern that Núñez-Calonge wants clinicians to take seriously.



She noted, "It is particularly interesting that this decrease in semen quality occurs in patients with mild COVID infection, which means that the virus can affect male fertility without the men showing any clinical symptoms of the disease.”



Núñez-Calonge and her team are not yet sure why COVID-19 affects sperm cells in this way. However, they suspect that inflammation and damage to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-lingering-immune-system-effects-of-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune system</a> could be factors. 



These are often seen in patients with long COVID. They plan to continue studying the participants to track semen quality and hormonal status over time.



Commenting on the study, the chair of ESHRE, Professor Carlos Calhaz-Jorge, not involved in the research, said, "This is interesting research by Prof. Núñez-Calonge and her colleagues and shows the importance of long-term follow-up of fertility patients after a COVID infection, even if it’s a mild infection. However, it’s important to note that the semen quality in these patients after a COVID infection is still within the World Health Organization’s criteria for ‘normal’ semen and sperm. So, it is unclear whether these reductions in semen quality after a COVID infection translate into impaired fertility and this should be the subject of further research.”



The findings of this study have opened up a new area of COVID-19 research. It could impact our understanding of the virus's long-term effects on human fertility. 



It underlines the importance of further studies to determine whether these changes in semen quality after a COVID-19 infection could indeed lead to impaired fertility.



<h2>Tell me more about long-term COVID-19 symptoms</h2>



There are many long-term symptoms of COVID-19, often referred to as "long COVID." These can affect patients weeks or even months after they recover from the acute phase of the illness.



Researchers are continuing to study long COVID, but they have already identified several common symptoms.



<h3>Fatigue</h3>



Many individuals with long COVID report prolonged fatigue that doesn't improve with rest. This isn't just a general tiredness but a debilitating exhaustion that can impact daily activities.



<h3>Shortness of breath</h3>



Some individuals experience continued difficulty with breathing or shortness of breath long after their initial recovery.



<h3>Cognitive difficulties</h3>



Often referred to as "brain fog," these symptoms can include difficulties with concentration and memory, confusion, and problems with sleep.



<h3>Mental health problems</h3>



Anxiety, depression, and other mental health disorders can develop or worsen in people with long COVID.



<h3>Heart issues</h3>



Some individuals may experience symptoms such as palpitations or fast-beating heart, and in some severe cases, inflammation of the heart muscle.



<h3>Pain</h3>



This can be in the form of headaches, joint pain, or muscle aches that persist for extended periods.



<h3>Long-term loss of taste and smell</h3>



While loss of taste and smell is a well-known symptom of acute COVID-19, some individuals find these senses do not return to normal for weeks or months.



<h3>Gastrointestinal issues</h3>



People have reported persistent symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and nausea.



<h3>Other symptoms</h3>



These can include fever, cough, and skin rashes.



Factors such as the severity of the initial infection, the patient's age, and pre-existing health conditions can influence who is likely to experience long COVID.



However, even people with mild cases of COVID-19 can experience these long-term symptoms. Also worth noting is that we need more research to fully understand the virus's long-term impact, so this list of potential long-term symptoms isn't exhaustive.



Please consult with a healthcare professional if you or someone you know is experiencing any long-term symptoms following a COVID-19 infection. They can provide the most up-to-date and relevant advice and treatments.

Men infected with even mild COVID cases experience long-term decline in semen quality

Researchers have discovered that even mild cases of COVID-19 can...

A shocking new study has found evidence that ancient humans butchered and likely ate their ancestral relatives. If both parties were from the same species, this would be considered cannibalism. The research team has unveiled the earliest and most conclusive evidence to date.



Our close evolutionary relatives engaged in behavior that might seem unthinkable today. They were butchering and possibly even consuming one another.



Published today, June 26, in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-35702-7">Scientific Reports</a>, the new study is turning heads. The leading author is Briana Pobiner. She is a paleoanthropologist at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Natural History</a>.



Together with her co-authors, they examined a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/hominin-tibia-bite-marks_Credit-Jennifer-Clark-scaled.jpg">left shin bone</a> that dates back approximately 1.45 million years. Unearthed in northern Kenya, this bone once belonged to a relative of Homo sapiens.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-on-ancient-humans-and-cannibalism-was-done">How the study on ancient humans and cannibalism was done</h2>



Their investigative process involved an in-depth analysis of 3D models of the fossil’s surface. The results were startling.



They discovered nine distinctive cut marks that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-made-the-earliest-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> would likely have caused. This astonishing find marks the earliest known evidence of such behavior with an incredibly high degree of certainty.



In Pobiner’s words, "The information we have tells us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hominin-fossils-are-a-million-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a> were likely eating other hominins at least 1.45 million years ago."



This revelation suggests that our evolutionary cousins might have had to consume each other for survival.



The journey to this groundbreaking discovery started innocently enough. Pobiner initially discovered the fossilized tibia while perusing the collections at Kenya’s Nairobi National Museum.



Equipped with a handheld magnifying lens, she meticulously examined the bone for any signs of bites from extinct creatures. But to her surprise, she found what appeared to be evidence of butchery instead.



<h2>Confirming suspicions of cannibalism from ancient humans</h2>



To confirm her suspicion, Pobiner created molds of the cuts. They created the molds with dental impression material. She then sent the molds to her co-author, Michael Pante of <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>.



She gave Pante no context or information about the specimen. Pobiner just gave him a simple request to determine the source of the marks.



Pante used cutting-edge 3D scanning technology to examine the molds. He then compared these results with a comprehensive database. His database contained 898 different tooth, butchery, and trample marks from controlled experiments.



They identified nine out of the eleven marks as clear matches for damage that stone tools caused. The remaining two marks were likely left by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-american-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large predatory cat</a>. They assumed this to be from a lion because it was the closest match.



The presence of these cut marks suggests the shin bone's owner might have become someone’s meal. As Pobiner pointed out, the cut marks were located where a calf muscle attaches to the bone.



This would be an optimal place to cut if the goal was to obtain a substantial chunk of meat. The consistent orientation of the cut marks indicates that a stone tool could have made them in rapid succession.



"These cut marks look very similar to what I’ve seen on animal fossils that were being processed for consumption," Pobiner said. "It seems most likely that the meat from this leg was eaten and that it was eaten for nutrition as opposed to for a ritual."



<h2>Not “technically” cannibalism?</h2>



However, it's crucial to clarify that this might not technically be a case of cannibalism. Cannibalism requires that both the eater and the eaten hail from the same species. In this instance, the shin bone's original owner's exact species is unknown.



Researchers initially identified the specimen as Australopithecus boisei and later reclassified it as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-human-footprints-ever-found-are-believed-to-be-300000-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo erectus</a> in 1990. However, experts now agree that there's insufficient information to definitively link the bone to a specific hominin species.



The use of stone tools also doesn't help narrow it down. Recent research from the museum’s Peter Buck Chair of Human Origins, Rick Potts, is skeptical. He has challenged the long-standing assumption that only the Homo genus used stone tools.



This discovery leaves us with a tantalizing possibility. This could be an instance of prehistoric cannibalism. Or perhaps an ancient case of one species dining on its evolutionary cousin.



Determining the exact sequence of events is tricky. None of the stone-tool cut marks overlap with the suspected bite marks from a big cat.



The big cat could have scavenged the remains after hominins removed most of the meat. Alternatively, the big cat might have made the kill and hominins might have chased it away before taking over opportunistically.



<h2>Not the first time ancient humans linked to cannibalism</h2>



This isn't the first time that researchers have debated potential cases of ancient hominins butchering each other. A fossilized skull, found in South Africa in 1976 and estimated to be between 1.5 to 2.6 million years old, has been the center of such discussions.



Two separate studies have disagreed on the origin of marks found below the skull’s right cheek bone. One study attributing them to stone tools and the other to sharp-edged stone blocks.



Pobiner expressed a desire to reexamine the South African skull using the same techniques applied in the current study. This new discovery, she explained, underlines the invaluable role of museum collections.



"You can make some pretty amazing discoveries by going back into museum collections and taking a second look at fossils," Pobiner said.



"Not everyone sees everything the first time around. It takes a community of scientists coming in with different questions and techniques to keep expanding our knowledge of the world."



This research was supported by the Smithsonian, the Peter Buck Fund for Human Origins Research, and Colorado State University.



<h2>More about humans and our ancient relatives</h2>



Human evolution is a complex field of study that spans millions of years and involves various species, not just our direct ancestors. There were many instances where different hominin species coexisted and interacted with each other.



These interactions encompassed not only competition but also cooperation, interbreeding, and even possible instances of violence or cannibalism.



<h3>Hominin Interactions and Interbreeding</h3>



There is genetic evidence that Homo sapiens, or modern humans, interbred with other hominins. These were most likely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-have-co-existed-for-many-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and Denisovans. These interactions had lasting effects on our genetic makeup.



Around 2% of the DNA of non-African modern humans comes from Neanderthals. Some Melanesian populations have up to 6% Denisovan DNA. This shows that our ancient human ancestors didn't just compete with other hominin species. They also had intimate interactions with them.



<h3>Cooperation and Competition</h3>



Early hominins likely lived in groups, just as modern humans do. Living in groups allows for cooperation. This occurs through hunting, gathering, or child-rearing. However, competition would also have been a part of their lives. Competition for resources, mates, and territory. It's likely that inter-group conflicts occurred.



<h3>Tool Use and Cultural Transmission</h3>



Evidence of stone tool use dates back millions of years. Early hominins like Homo habilis are known to have used stone tools. Even earlier species might have as well.



This ability to use and make tools would have been a crucial cultural element passed down through generations, suggesting some form of teaching and learning within these early hominin societies.



<h3>Cannibalism and Violence</h3>



As controversial as it is, there's archaeological evidence suggesting that violence and even cannibalism were part of some prehistoric hominin interactions. Ancient bones with cut marks resembling butchery have been found. 



This indicates that hominins may have sometimes resorted to cannibalism. However, the reasons for this are still unknown. It could have been due to social rituals, warfare, or survival during hard times.



<h3>Symbolic Behavior and Art</h3>



Neanderthals, a close relative of modern humans, were capable of symbolic thought. This is shown by their use of pigments and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisovans-drawing-symbolic-imagery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creation of art</a>. They also intentionally buried their dead. 



This suggests some form of ritual or symbolic behavior. It also means that interactions between individuals and groups were probably more complex than we might assume. This probably derived from a purely survival-oriented perspective.



<h3>Migration and Interaction</h3>



Fossil and genetic evidence indicates that our ancestors migrated out of Africa in multiple waves over hundreds of thousands of years. Different populations of hominins would have encountered each other. 



This would have lead to a variety of interactions. These could have ranged from the exchange of ideas and technology to conflict and competition.



To sum up, our ancient human ancestors likely led complex social lives with a wide range of interactions with each other. These interactions included cooperation and conflict, learning and teaching, symbolic behavior. 



Even interbreeding with other hominin species. Understanding these dynamics helps shed light on our own evolution and the deep roots of human behavior.

Ancient humans used to butcher and likely eat their ancestral relatives, possibly practicing cannibalism

A shocking new study has found evidence that ancient humans...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) and the <a href="https://udelar.edu.uy/portal/">University of the Republic of Uruguay</a> has recently analyzed data from a large cohort of&nbsp; people aged 40 to 69 and found a causal link between regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daytime-napping-may-boost-literacy-skills-in-preschoolers/">daytime napping</a> and larger total brain volume – a well-known marker of brain health leading to a lower risk of dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases. This surprising finding suggests that habitual napping may help preserve brain health by slowing the rate at which our brains shrink as we age.



“Our findings suggest that, for some people, short daytime naps may be a part of the puzzle that could help preserve the health of the brain as we get older,” said study senior author Victoria Garfield, an expert in Genetic Epidemiology at UCL.



Although previous research has found that daytime napping has significant cognitive benefits – with people who had a short nap performing better in cognitive tests in the hours after the nap than those who stayed awake – this study is the first to identify a causal relationship between naps and brain health.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To determine people’s likelihood of habitual napping, the scientists used a technique called Mendelian randomization to examine 97 snippets of DNA. This statistical method is generally used in Epidemiology and Genetics to investigate the causal relationship between an exposure or risk factor and an outcome or disease. The technique is focused on sets of genetic variants that are randomly assigned at conception and are not influenced by environmental and confounding factors.&nbsp;



Then, by using data from 378,932 participants from the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/">UK Biobank</a>, they compared measures of brain health and cognition of people who were more genetically prone to nap with counterparts without these genetic variants. The genetic variants influencing our likelihood to nap were identified in an earlier study (based on data from 452,633 UK Biobank participants) through self-reported napping combined with objective measurements of physical activity recorded by wrist-worn accelerometers.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that participants predetermined to nap had a larger total brain volume, with the average difference in volume between people “programmed” to be habitual nappers and those who were not being equivalent to between 2.5 to 6.5 years of aging. Although the researchers did not have information on nap duration, earlier studies suggest that short naps (of half an hour or less) provide the best cognitive benefits, while napping earlier in the day is less likely to disrupt night-time sleep.



“This is the first study to attempt to untangle the causal relationship between habitual daytime napping and cognitive and structural brain outcomes. By looking at genes set at birth, Mendelian randomization avoids confounding factors occurring throughout life that may influence associations between napping and health outcomes. Our study points to a causal link between habitual napping and larger total brain volume,” said lead author Valentina Paz, an assistant professor of Psychology at the University of the Republic of Uruguay.



“I hope studies such as this one showing the health benefits of short naps can help to reduce any stigma that still exists around daytime napping,” Garfield added.



However, since all the participants were of white European ancestry, the findings might not be immediately generalizable to other ethnicities. In addition, further research is needed to assess how habitual nappers perform on three other important measures of brain health and cognition (hippocampal volume, reaction time, and visual processing). The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2023.05.002">Sleep Health</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-napping-and-health">More about napping and health</h2>



Napping can be beneficial to your health in several ways, but like many things, it's all about balance and moderation. Here are some ways that naps can be good for your health:



<h3 id="h-increased-alertness">Increased alertness</h3>



A quick nap, also known as a "power nap," can help improve your alertness and motor learning skills. This is particularly true if you are very tired or are in need of an alertness boost.



<h3 id="h-improved-memory-and-learning">Improved memory and learning</h3>



Naps can enhance your memory and cognitive ability. Some studies suggest that napping can improve creative problem-solving and verbal memory, as well as perceptual learning.



<h3 id="h-mood-enhancement">Mood enhancement</h3>



Napping can also help uplift your mood. Sleep, in general, has a significant influence on your mood, and a brief nap can serve as a quick mood booster during a stressful day.



<h3 id="h-reduced-fatigue">Reduced fatigue</h3>



Daytime naps can help reduce fatigue, increase wakefulness, and enhance performance and learning.



<h3 id="h-potential-downsides-of-napping">Potential downsides of napping</h3>



<h4 id="h-sleep-inertia">Sleep inertia</h4>



This is a term for the groggy, disoriented feeling that can come after waking up from a deep sleep. If you take a longer nap, you can wake up in the middle of a sleep cycle, which can lead to sleep inertia.



<h4 id="h-nighttime-sleep-problems">Nighttime sleep problems</h4>



Regular, lengthy napping during the day can interfere with nighttime sleep - especially if you're struggling with insomnia or poor sleep quality at night.



<h4 id="h-underlying-health-issues">Underlying health issues</h4>



Excessive daytime sleepiness, including the desire to take frequent or very long naps, can be a sign of an underlying health condition, like sleep apnea or depression.



<h3 id="h-tips-for-effective-napping">Tips for effective napping</h3>



<h4 id="h-keep-it-short">Keep it short</h4>



Aim to nap for only 10-20 minutes. The longer you nap, the more likely you are to feel groggy afterward.



<h4 id="h-choose-the-right-time">Choose the right time</h4>



The optimal time for napping tends to be in the middle of the afternoon, around 2 or 3 p.m. This helps because it's often a natural point of drowsiness in the circadian rhythm, and it's less likely to interfere with nighttime sleep.



<h4 id="h-create-a-restful-environment">Create a restful environment</h4>



Nap in a dark, quiet place with a comfortable room temperature and few distractions.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Regular daytime napping increases brain health

A team of researchers led by University College London (UCL)...

A recent study suggests that about 16.5 million Americans could be putting themselves at an increased risk of stroke due to intense physical exercise. The individuals at risk are those living with a condition known as carotid artery stenosis, which affects approximately five percent of the adult population in the United States.



Carotid artery stenosis is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-deer-are-protected-from-deadly-disease-by-genetics/">disease</a> characterized by the build-up of plaques within the carotid arteries, the crucial blood vessels running through the neck that are tasked with delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to the brain and parts of the face. The accumulation of plaque narrows these arteries, potentially compromising their function.



Alarmingly, regular physical activities such as brisk walking, swimming, or high-energy exercise could pose a significant threat to these individuals. According to the researchers, strenuous exercises can dislodge the plaque in the major arteries, which then travels to the brain and obstructs a blood vessel, leading to a stroke.



<h2 id="h-five-percent-of-americans-are-at-risk">Five percent of Americans are at risk</h2>



The prevalence of carotid artery stenosis has seen a dramatic increase over the past two decades. Data from the early 2000s suggested that about two million Americans suffered from this condition. However, recent figures from the Cleveland Clinic indicate that the number has jumped to approximately 16.5 million, which accounts for about five percent of all adults in the country.



Risk factors for carotid artery stenosis include obesity, a sedentary lifestyle, diabetes, and smoking. Consequently, those affected may need to reconsider the intensity of their workout routines to mitigate the risk of suffering a stroke.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The groundbreaking study, which was recently published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/pof">Physics of Fluids</a>, was conducted by building a computer simulation of a carotid artery. Three different carotid arteries were modeled, representing a healthy artery, one with a 'mild' 30 percent blockage, and one with a 'severe' 50 percent blockage.



Each model was then subjected to various heart rates corresponding to different levels of physical activity, including resting (67bpm), moderate exercise (100bpm), and strenuous exercise (140bpm). The latter heart rate can be achieved through brisk walking, cycling, or Zumba among other activities, especially in obese individuals.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that exercise proved beneficial for the health of the carotid arteries that were either healthy or mildly blocked. However, for those with severe blockage, the results were characterized as "concerning."



The simulation demonstrated increased stress on the severely blocked area, elevating the risk of rupture and subsequent dislodging of plaque into the bloodstream. This dislodged plaque could then travel to the brain, obstruct a blood vessel, and trigger a stroke.



"Intense exercise shows adverse effects on patients with moderate or higher stenosis levels," explained Dr. Somnath Roy, a mechanical engineer at the <a href="https://www.iitkgp.ac.in/">Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur</a> and the study's lead author. "It substantially increases the shear stress at the stenosis zone, which may cause the stenosis to rupture."



This disrupted plaque, Dr. Roy added, could then potentially journey to the brain, interrupt its blood supply, and cause an ischemic stroke.



The researchers made clear that while intense exercise can improve the cardiac performance of healthy individuals, it could have severe consequences for patients with significant arterial blockages, particularly at elevated heart rates due to extensive physical activities.



<h2 id="h-risk-of-stroke-doubles-post-exercise">Risk of stroke doubles post-exercise&nbsp;</h2>



Further supporting this discovery, prior research, including an analysis of stroke patients from 2010 and a meta-analysis of 13,000 strokes in 2021 in Europe, indicates that the risk of stroke doubles post-exercise. These studies also linked acute anger, emotional upset, and heavy physical exertion to an elevated risk of stroke, primarily due to their impact on heart rate.



The findings demonstrate that various forms of stress, whether physical, such as intense exercise, or emotional, like acute anger or emotional upset, can result in a boosted heart rate. This increase can potentially dislodge plaque, subsequently leading to a stroke.



Dr. Andrew Smyth, an epidemiologist at the National University of Ireland, Galway, sheds light on the intricate connection between these trigger events and the risk of stroke. "We believe that these trigger events may increase the heart rate, increase blood pressure and lead to hormonal changes that alter blood flows in vascular beds such as the brain, which may increase the risk of stroke," he told TODAY.



Nevertheless, Dr. Smyth was quick to reassure that not every stressful incident directly translates to a stroke. "That being said, not every episode of anger or emotional upset or heavy physical exertion leads to a stroke. Similarly, not every individual who has a high burden of cardiovascular risk factors will have a stroke."



These revelations highlight the importance of understanding the individual and cumulative effects of various risk factors on the likelihood of a stroke, especially in populations already at risk due to conditions like carotid artery stenosis. The findings also underscore the need for personalized approaches to exercise, particularly for individuals with significant arterial blockages.&nbsp;



The research adds another layer of complexity to the balance between the benefits of exercise and the potential risks for certain individuals, encouraging a nuanced conversation about the best ways to promote health and longevity.



—--



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Millions of Americans are at risk of a stroke from intense exercise

A recent study suggests that about 16.5 million Americans could...

In a revolutionary new study from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, researchers have found that not only do warmer temperatures make turtle eggs more likely to hatch as females, but these females may also be better equipped to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-have-a-secret-weapon-to-slow-down-aging/">reproduce</a>.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.06.008">Current Biology</a>, hint at why many animals have temperature-dependent sex determination, despite the inherent risks of such a strategy in the face of fluctuating climates. Moreover, these findings could also predict the future of these species in a rapidly warming world.



<h2 id="h-intriguing-results">Intriguing results</h2>



The study was led by senior author Professor Blanche Capel and postdoctoral researcher Boris Tezak. According to the results, the number of "germ cells" or pre-eggs that an embryo carries is heightened by higher incubation temperatures. Intriguingly, the researchers discovered that these germ cells themselves contribute to the embryo's feminization.



"Sex determination by temperature isn’t just one mechanism," explained Professor Capel. “Higher temperatures seem to affect sex determination in incremental ways through multiple cell types in the embryo.”



These germ cells, in their increased numbers, appear to fuel the feminization process, explained Tezak. “The temperatures that produce females are also the temperatures that increase germ cell number,” he said.



This process isn't limited to turtles, either. Professor Capel pointed out that higher numbers of germ cells also govern female development in fish. To validate their theory that a larger number of germ cells leads to female turtles, the researchers removed some germ cells from red-eared slider embryos incubated at a temperature expected to produce equal proportions of males and females. The result was a surprising increase in male hatchlings.



<h2 id="h-temperature-dependent-sex-development">Temperature-dependent sex development</h2>



The enigma of temperature-dependent sex development, known to scientists for decades and apparent across various parts of the tree of life, is thought to have evolved in diverse ways. "It popped up everywhere," said Tezak. The question then arises: "Why would this seemingly risky strategy, especially in the context of weather variations and climate change, persist?”



The Duke team believes the answer lies in the reproductive advantage this system provides. "A female that hatches with more germ cells is presumably more reproductively fit - it increases her reproductive potential to carry more eggs,” said Tezak.&nbsp;



“We’ve linked the female pathway to the increased number of germ cells, and if that does make her more reproductively fit, that would go a long way toward explaining why temperature-dependent sex development persists."



As global warming continues to escalate, concerns emerge about the fate of turtles and other temperature-sensitive breeders. Tezak expressed the need to evaluate the effects of further temperature increases on the pool of germ cells. "Will it produce less-fit females?"&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



To investigate, Tezak nurtured clutches of red-eared slider eggs in a controlled environment. Each clutch, sourced from a Louisiana breeder, was incubated in a plastic box filled with moist medium and maintained at a constant temperature.&nbsp;



An interesting phenomenon emerged when eggs incubated at different temperatures were compared. The embryos incubated at higher temperatures (31 degrees Celsius, optimal for female production) were noticeably larger and more active than those incubated at a cooler 26 degrees Celsius, which yields more males.



“We are hypothesizing that there’s a temperature ‘sweet-spot,’” said Professor Capel. “There is a short range where you get a large number of germ cells, and beyond that you start to see declines."



This theory was further underscored by Tezak, who reported peculiar results when eggs were incubated at 33.5 degrees Celsius, only a mere two and a half degrees higher than the optimal temperature for females. "It created some really wonky embryos – there were cyclops and two-headed embryos. We haven’t counted their germ cells yet."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



To expand their research, the Capel lab is gearing up to receive a delivery of alligator eggs. Notably, alligators exhibit a different pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination compared to the red-eared slider turtle. They produce females at low temperatures and males at high ones.&nbsp;



Intriguingly, the low temperature in alligators aligns with the high temperature in turtles, leading both species to produce females at 31 degrees Celsius.



—-



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Warming temperatures could make female turtles better mothers

In a revolutionary new study from Duke University, researchers have...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...