Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered.



This fossil find from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaurs-the-basics">Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics</h2>



These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. 



Unlike birds or bats, pterosaurs had a unique wing structure formed by a membrane of skin and muscle that stretched from an elongated fourth finger to their body. This created a lightweight and flexible flying apparatus that allowed them to soar and glide.



Different pterosaur species came in an astonishing range of sizes, from tiny creatures the size of sparrows to massive pterosaurs with wingspans around 33 feet wide. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny &quot;flaplings&quot; no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954862"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny "flaplings" no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Some had long, spear-like beaks perfect for fishing, while others sported elaborate head crests that might have been used for display, communication, or even temperature regulation. 



Their bones were incredibly lightweight and hollow, similar to modern bird bones, which helped them achieve flight with minimal energy expenditure.



Pterosaurs were incredibly successful and adaptable creatures that survived for an impressive 160 million years before finally going extinct along with the dinosaurs during the catastrophic asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period. 



Their fossils have been discovered on every continent, revealing that they occupied diverse environments from coastal regions to inland areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-pterosaur-discovery">First pterosaur discovery</h2>



Almost 250 years ago, a fossil unearthed in a Bavarian quarry introduced the world to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-new-species-named-abfab-had-wings-wide-as-car/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a>. 



This fossil, named&nbsp;Pterodactylus, offered the first glimpse into the Mesozoic skies, where these creatures soared above the dinosaurs.



Though the first specimen was modest in size - comparable to a turtle dove - it revolutionized our understanding of prehistoric life and showcased the extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flying reptiles</a>.



Over time, however,&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;faded from public attention, overshadowed by its larger and flashier relatives, such as&nbsp;Pteranodon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus. 



Yet, among scientists,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus genus remained a vital subject of study that played a central role in shaping our understanding of pterosaur anatomy, flight, diet, and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-pterodactylus-family">Finding Pterodactylus family</h2>



Despite its significance, confusion has long surrounded&nbsp;Pterodactylus. 



Fossils attributed to this genus were often mixed with other species, making it challenging to determine which truly belonged to&nbsp;Pterodactylus. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ambiguity</a> persisted for centuries - until now.



Using UV fluorescence, paleontologists Robert Smyth and Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> conducted a meticulous analysis of&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils housed in museums across Europe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954860"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



By shining powerful UV light on fossilized bones, they illuminated previously invisible features that distinguish the&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;family from other pterosaurs. Their work revealed dozens of misclassified fossils, including over 40 specimens that were reidentified as&nbsp;Pterodactylus.



“By examining lots of fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to reidentify more than forty specimens as&nbsp;Pterodactylus,” said lead author Robert Smyth. 



“UV stimulated fluorescence is astonishing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden were glowing in plain sight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-face-of-nbsp-pterodactylus">New face of&nbsp;Pterodactylus</h2>



This discovery has profoundly altered the scientific understanding of&nbsp;the genus Pterodactylus. Previously thought to be a rare find, nearly 50 specimens have now been confirmed.



This expanded collection allows researchers to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pivotal pterosaur</a>. 



Remarkably, soft tissues are preserved in over 20 of the specimens, which provides unprecedented insights into a range of features.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954857"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



“We can now construct a complete and highly detailed skeletal anatomy for this key pterosaur,” explained co-author Dr. Dave Unwin. “Soft tissues are fossilised in more than twenty examples so we can also reconstruct head crests, body shape, foot webs, and even the wings.”



The result is akin to a family portrait, showcasing Pterodactylus at every stage of its life. The smallest hatchlings, endearingly called “flaplings,” were robin-sized. 



These grew into “teenage” forms before reaching adulthood, where they boasted raven-sized bodies and wingspans of up to ten times their body length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-technique">A revolutionary technique</h2>



The study highlights the transformative potential of UV fluorescence in paleontology. 



While the technique is well-known, the combination of advanced light sources and a systematic approach has yielded groundbreaking results in this case.



“UV stimulated fluorescence is a well-known technique,” Dr. Unwin noted. 



“But the difference in this case is that we have been able to combine new, high-quality light sources with a systematic "catch-all" approach, and it's going to have a revolutionary impact on our understanding of pterosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterodactylus-family-and-future-study">Pterodactylus family and future study</h2>



This discovery not only redefines&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;but also highlights the value of revisiting and reexamining existing collections of fossils.



With nearly 50 examples now identified, researchers have an unprecedented opportunity to explore the life history of one of the most important pterosaurs. 



From its early days as a tiny flapling to its commanding presence in the skies,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils provide a vivid window into the Mesozoic era.



As families come together this festive season, paleontologists celebrate their own remarkable reunion - a long-lost family, brought back to light after 150 million years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



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Pterodactylus: New pterosaur family members discovered that lived 150 million years ago

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered. This fossil find from the University of Leicester allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood. Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic...

As the Arctic continues to warm and lose its sea ice, the increase in trans-Arctic shipping has significantly reduced travel time and costs for international trade.&nbsp;Yet, a new study reveals that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-ocean-was-filled-with-freshwater-at-least-twice-in-history/">Arctic Ocean</a> is becoming foggier as a result of disappearing ice, leading to reduced visibility and costly delays for ships that must slow down to avoid hitting dangerous sea ice.



The study, published in the AGU journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL102395">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, examined the impact of climate change on fog conditions along Arctic shipping routes and how these conditions might change throughout the 21st century.&nbsp;



The researchers used data on Arctic fog collected between 1979 and 2018, along with climate projections from the Fifth Phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project. By analyzing this information, the researchers were able to model alternate routes that could minimize foggy days during transit.



For decades, Arctic sea ice has been shrinking, opening up shipping channels in the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route. This has allowed even non-icebreaker vessels to bypass the time-consuming Panama and Suez Canals farther south.&nbsp;



However, as ice recedes, cold air is exposed to more warm water, causing warm vapor to condense into fog in these newly opened passages. Hidden chunks of ice already present significant risks to vessels navigating through foggy, low-visibility routes.



"The future of shipping in the Arctic is unclear, but fog could pose a significant challenge," said Xianyao Chen, a physical oceanographer at the <a href="http://eweb.ouc.edu.cn/">Ocean University of China</a>. "When designing shipping routes across the Arctic, we need to consider the impact of fog."



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The study's findings indicate that ships crossing the Northwest Passage are more likely to encounter fog than those in the Northern Sea Route. Fog in the Northwest Passage, which avoids the Panama Canal, is more frequent and persistent, potentially increasing sailing time by up to three days.&nbsp;



In comparison, the sailing time for the less-foggy Northern Sea Route, which avoids the Suez Canal, is projected to be no more than one day longer. The researchers suggest that both proposed passages would encounter less fog if the routes were shifted farther away from the sea ice edge.



Fog is already impacting the time saved by taking shorter Arctic routes, as shipping speeds on foggy days are slower than on clear days, according to Chen's findings.&nbsp;



If the Arctic continues to become foggier, shipping could slow even further unless routes are adjusted. With daily operating costs for large container ships typically ranging from $50,000 to $150,000, a multi-day delay due to fog could quickly increase the costs of a trans-Arctic crossing.



"Avoiding ice is critical," said Scott Stephenson, a physical scientist at the RAND Corporation who was not affiliated with the study. "This study did a good job at identifying the risks of fog - an important environmental constraint in the Arctic, and one that has largely been ignored."&nbsp;



As the Arctic continues to warm and sea ice disappears, understanding and addressing the challenges posed by fog will become increasingly vital for the future of shipping in the region.



<h2 id="h-more-about-arctic-sea-ice-reduction">More about Arctic sea ice reduction</h2>



The loss of Arctic sea ice has significant implications for both the environment and human populations. As the Earth's climate continues to warm, the Arctic region has been experiencing a more rapid rate of warming, leading to a decline in the extent and thickness of sea ice. This phenomenon, known as Arctic amplification, is causing profound changes to the region's ecosystems, global weather patterns, and human activities.



<h3 id="h-environmental-impacts">Environmental impacts:</h3>



<h4 id="h-albedo-effect">Albedo effect</h4>



Sea ice has a high albedo, meaning it reflects a large portion of incoming sunlight back into space, helping to regulate the Earth's temperature. As sea ice disappears, the darker ocean surface absorbs more solar radiation, further accelerating the warming process.



<h4 id="h-ecosystems">Ecosystems</h4>



The decline of sea ice disrupts the Arctic's delicate ecosystems. Sea ice provides a habitat for various species, such as polar bears, walruses, and seals. As ice diminishes, these animals struggle to find suitable hunting grounds and resting places, putting their survival at risk. Additionally, the loss of sea ice affects the base of the marine food chain, impacting the availability of food for fish and other marine organisms.



<h4 id="h-methane-release">Methane release</h4>



The Arctic region contains vast stores of methane in the form of frozen hydrates on the seabed and within the permafrost. As the region warms and sea ice melts, these methane deposits can become destabilized, releasing potent greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and further exacerbating climate change.



<h4 id="h-ocean-circulation">Ocean circulation</h4>



Melting sea ice contributes to the freshening of the Arctic Ocean's surface waters, which can disrupt the global ocean circulation system. This alteration could lead to significant changes in global weather patterns and climate.



<h3 id="h-human-impacts">Human impacts:</h3>



<h4 id="h-coastal-communities">Coastal communities</h4>



The loss of Arctic sea ice contributes to rising sea levels, putting low-lying coastal communities around the world at risk of flooding and erosion. Indigenous communities in the Arctic also face challenges to their traditional ways of life, as the changing environment impacts their hunting, fishing, and travel practices.



<h4 id="h-shipping-routes">Shipping routes</h4>



The decline in sea ice has opened up new shipping routes in the Arctic, such as the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route. While these routes can potentially reduce travel time and costs for international trade, they also present challenges in the form of increased fog, as mentioned in the previous article, and navigational hazards from hidden ice.



<h4 id="h-geopolitical-tensions">Geopolitical tensions</h4>



The opening of new shipping lanes, as well as the potential for resource extraction in the Arctic, has led to geopolitical tensions among countries with interests in the region. Nations are vying for influence and control over these newly accessible areas, which could contribute to international conflicts.



<h4 id="h-resource-extraction">Resource extraction</h4>



The melting of sea ice has made the Arctic's vast reserves of oil, natural gas, and minerals more accessible. While this presents economic opportunities, it also raises concerns about the environmental impacts of increased resource extraction in the region.



The loss of Arctic sea ice has far-reaching consequences for both the environment and humanity. As the world grapples with the challenges of climate change, understanding and addressing the complex interplay between Arctic sea ice loss and its cascading effects is critical for the well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.



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Arctic Ocean is getting foggy as ice disappears

As the Arctic continues to warm and lose its sea...

Ants, often considered a nuisance in our gardens, may be significantly more important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-biodiversity-affect-species-interactions/">biodiversity</a> than previously thought, according to a recent study conducted by Rikke Reisner Hansen and colleagues from the Department of Ecoscience at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a>. The researchers studied ant mounds on Danish heathlands to understand their impact on other insects and plants.



"The ants drag dead animals back to the ant mound, and this adds carbon and other important nutrients to the surrounding soil," explained Hansen. "The ant mound moreover warms up the surrounding ground, and in springtime, adders, lizards and beetles like to rest near ant mounds for warmth. The heat and the nutrients create unique conditions that allow certain plant species that don’t otherwise thrive on heathland to thrive on the ant mound."



To investigate the role of ant mounds in heathland wildlife, Hansen went to the heath and looked for two types of ant mounds: those belonging to the narrow-headed ant and those belonging to the yellow meadow ant. She dug deep holes next to the ant mounds, enabling her to study how the mounds affected the soil, roots, and wildlife both above and below the mound. She also measured the temperature on top of the ant mound and examined the soil around and underneath it to determine the soil nutrients.



Hansen found that the top part of the ant mound acts like a "miniature Costa del Sol for insects and reptiles. The animals exploit the excess heat from the ants for warmth in early spring and on chilly mornings." She added that plants growing on an ant mound would blossom or come into leaf faster than the same species growing in the surrounding heathland soil. This is a significant advantage for insects that feed on pollen and nectar, as the ant mounds introduce an extra flowering season.



The Alcon blue butterfly, which lives only on heathland where ants are present, has developed a method to trick ants into believing its caterpillar is the ant queen.&nbsp;



“The Alcon blue lays its eggs on the rare marsh gentian plant," said Hansen. "The caterpillar feeds on marsh gentian seeds during the first three stages of its life. When it has grown big enough, it falls to the ground and begins to emit a smell and a sound identical to those of a queen ant larva." Worker ants then drag the caterpillar into the nest, sometimes neglecting their own offspring, which can lead to the colony's demise.



Denmark is home to 12 species of gossamer-winged butterflies, with 11 of these species thriving best in places where ants also live. A handful of these species depend on ants to complete their life cycle. Protecting ant mounds can thus be a crucial step in mitigating the biodiversity crisis.



The world, including Denmark, is experiencing a biodiversity crisis, with the loss of species accelerating as important habitats are destroyed through deforestation, heathland cultivation, and bog drainage. In Denmark alone, 1,844 species of animals, plants, and fungi are under threat of extinction. The Alcon blue butterfly, for example, has lost more than 15 percent of its habitat in Denmark within the past 40 years.



Hansen suggests that the way we manage our heathlands could be contributing to this decline. "We tend to manage our heathlands as a homogenous landscape. We often apply the same management method throughout a heathland to preserve it as an open landscape. For example, we allow too many animals to graze the land. Or we use large machines to cut the vegetation. Unfortunately, this destroys the ant mounds."



"To ensure many different plants and animals on the heath, we need to rewild the landscape, or at least return it to the way it was before machinery took over from traditional management systems,”



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-biodiversity-crisis">More about the biodiversity crisis</h2>



The biodiversity crisis, often referred to as the sixth mass extinction, represents a rapid loss of biodiversity on Earth. Biodiversity, which is the variety of life in a particular habitat or ecosystem, is crucial for the stability of ecosystems and the services they provide, including food production, clean water, and carbon sequestration.



Unfortunately, species are disappearing at an alarming rate, much higher than the natural background rate of extinction. It's estimated that dozens of species are going extinct every day. This loss of biodiversity is largely driven by human activities.



Key factors contributing to the biodiversity crisis include:



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-degradation">Habitat Loss and Degradation</h3>



Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and industrial agriculture lead to destruction of natural habitats, which is the primary cause of the current biodiversity crisis. When habitats are destroyed, the species that live there are often pushed to extinction.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, as well as increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, can disrupt ecosystems and make it difficult for many species to survive.



<h3 id="h-overexploitation">Overexploitation</h3>



This refers to the unsustainable use of species for resources, such as overfishing or hunting a species to the point where its survival is threatened.



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



Various forms of pollution, including air, water, and soil pollution, can have devastating effects on biodiversity. For example, pesticides can harm non-target species, and plastic waste can injure or kill marine animals.



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive Species</h3>



These are non-native species that are introduced to new environments, often by human activities, where they outcompete native species for resources and can cause them to go extinct.



The biodiversity crisis is not just an environmental issue but also a developmental, economic, security, social and moral issue as well. The loss of biodiversity threatens our food supplies, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and sources of wood, medicines and energy. It also interferes with essential ecological functions.



Addressing the biodiversity crisis requires global cooperation. This includes measures to protect and restore habitats, combat climate change, transition to sustainable agricultural practices, and regulate hunting and fishing. Additionally, it involves concerted efforts in scientific research, education, and policy-making to create sustainable solutions for biodiversity conservation.



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Ant mounds play a critical role in sustaining biodiversity

Ants, often considered a nuisance in our gardens, may be...

Aliens may contact Earth by 2029, according to a group of scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California Los Angeles</a> who have been studying a NASA probe traveling through space, currently 27 light years away. The researchers speculate that extraterrestrials might have intercepted a signal sent to the probe in 2002 and subsequently returned a signal expected to reach Earth by 2029.



In 2002, as part of a routine procedure to transmit data and establish communication, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> sent a radio wave transmission to the Pioneer 12 probe. This signal also reached a star located approximately 27 light-years from Earth, as transmissions tend to spread out upon contacting an object. 



The scientists are hopeful that this signal was intercepted by extraterrestrial lifeforms who have chosen to respond, meaning that humans will have alien contact.



"This is a famous idea from Carl Sagan, who used it as a plot theme in the movie Contact," said study co-author Howard Isaacson, an astronomer at the University of California, Berkeley, when speaking to PopSci. The 1997 film Contact tells the story of a SETI scientist who discovers evidence of extraterrestrial life on a distant planet 26 light-years away and opts to make first contact using radio wave signals.



The team of researchers examined signals sent from Earth to the Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons spacecraft. They created a map illustrating where the signals may have spread upon being released into the universe. 



These spacecraft have been communicating with the Deep Station Network (DSN) radio antennas, downloading scientific and telemetry data. The DSN is NASA's international network of massive radio antennas that support interplanetary spacecraft missions as well as a few Earth-orbiting satellites.



According to the study, published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/publications-of-the-astronomical-society-of-australia">Publications of the Astronomical Society</a>, the researchers found that transmissions sent to Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, and Pioneer 11 have already come into contact with at least one star. 



Pioneer 10's transmissions encountered a white dwarf star in 2002, and the team estimates that the earliest returned transmission, or alien contact, could arrive by 2029. By 2313, Pioneer 10's transmissions will have encountered 222 stars, while signals sent to Voyager 1 and New Horizons are expected to make contact with their first stars in the near future.



The researchers calculated the data transmissions to stars by considering that light covers one parsec every 3.26 years. Using this measurement, they determined the time it would take for transmissions to reach each star, such as those sent to Voyager 1, which have not yet made contact with any stars. 



"The earliest we can expect to receive a returned transmission from potential intelligent extraterrestrial life encountered by Voyager 1's transmissions is 2109," they wrote.



Voyager 2's transmissions have made contact with two objects, both in 2007. By 2336, all 272 nearby stars will have been reached, and scientists anticipate a response from aliens by 2033. Signals sent to Pioneer reached a dwarf star in 2018, but researchers believe all 386 stars will have received a signal by 2317.



New Horizons' transmissions have not yet encountered a star, but they are expected to contact one in 2119 and 139 stars by 2338. The earliest possible returned transmission is predicted for 2232. 



"Transmissions to New Horizons will not encounter a star until 75 years after the transmissions of any other spacecraft," the researchers explained.



Study lead author Reilly Derrick, an engineering student at UCLA, told PopSci that this research could help the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) by providing a narrower group of stars for researchers to focus on. If aliens make contact, this would be an incredible moment in human history, to say the least.



<h2 id="h-signs-of-extraterrestrial-life">Signs of extraterrestrial life</h2>



The search for extraterrestrial life has been a significant part of space exploration for many decades. While there is no direct evidence of life beyond Earth, there are several signs that scientists look for when investigating the possibility of extraterrestrial life.



<h3 id="h-water">Water</h3>



The presence of water, especially in liquid form, is a primary factor scientists consider when searching for signs of life. This is because water is essential for all known forms of life on Earth. For example, the discovery of water ice on Mars and the potential for liquid water beneath the surface of Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Enceladus has excited astrobiologists.



<h3 id="h-atmospheric-composition">Atmospheric Composition</h3>



Scientists also examine the composition of a planet's atmosphere for signs of life. Certain gases, such as methane, oxygen, or nitrogen, may indicate the presence of biological activity if found in significant quantities.



<h3 id="h-biosignatures">Biosignatures</h3>



These are any substances, phenomena or patterns that could have been created by life. For instance, certain complex organic molecules, like amino acids, or structures, like stromatolites (formed by microbial mats), could be considered biosignatures.



<h3 id="h-habitable-zone">Habitable Zone</h3>



Also known as the "Goldilocks Zone," this is the area around a star where conditions might be just right - not too hot, not too cold - for liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet. Planets within this zone are considered prime candidates for life.



<h3 id="h-exoplanets">Exoplanets</h3>



The discovery of exoplanets, especially those in the habitable zone of their stars, is another potential sign of life. As of now, thousands of such planets have been discovered.



<h3 id="h-seti-and-meti">SETI and METI</h3>



The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) and Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence (METI) are initiatives that actively look for signals from intelligent life and attempt to send messages to possible civilizations, respectively. A confirmed extraterrestrial signal would be a clear sign of intelligent life.



It's important to note that these signs are not definitive proof of life, but they indicate the conditions that could support life as we understand it. The search for extraterrestrial life continues to be a fascinating and complex field of research.



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Cosmic connection: Aliens could make contact by 2029

Aliens may contact Earth by 2029, according to a group...

Every year, approximately 10 million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-flu-threatens-bald-eagle-recovery/">waterfowl</a> migrate northward to their breeding grounds in the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. However, this landscape is rapidly changing due to shifting weather patterns and agricultural practices, which have drastically transformed the native grasslands that waterfowl have relied on for thousands of years. As a result, some waterfowl species are thriving, while others face decline. A new study led by a research team from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a> suggests that the timing of nesting plays a crucial role in determining the winners and losers in this region.



Professor Frances Buderman elaborated on the diverse habitats within the region where waterfowl make their nests. These habitats range from idle grassland, cropland, and even over water. Professor Buderman noted a particular challenge for early nesting ducks: "When early nesting ducks arrive in the Prairie Pothole Region, many fields are covered in debris left from the previous fall’s harvest, mainly stubble from cereal grains. Although this habitat looks inviting, the eventual replanting of these fields, as opposed to leaving them fallow, makes the ducks more vulnerable to predators and often results in their nests being destroyed by agricultural activities such as tilling and planting.”



The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Canadian Wildlife Service have been monitoring the spring population abundances of North American waterfowl since 1955. Their Waterfowl Breeding Population and Habitat Survey has yielded one of the largest datasets on vertebrate populations globally.



The ducks in this region are typically adapted to nest in mixed-grass prairie. With the surge of agriculture replacing this wild habitat, the birds are left in a state of confusion.&nbsp;



“Last year’s stubble looks good to them from the air, but in reality, it does not offer the same advantages and protections that the grass does," said Professor Buderman. "Over time, on a large scale, this association with cropland can lead to lower reproductive success and declining population numbers for early nesting ducks that breed in the region.”



In prior research, Buderman’s group focused on the northern pintail ducks, a species experiencing a decline since the 1980s. They discovered that these ducks' tendency to nest in agricultural fields acted as an “ecological trap,” leading to a decrease in the pintail population the following year, a direct outcome of demographic processes like reproduction and survival.



With this in mind, the researchers set out to understand if the northern pintail's response was unique, potentially explaining the diverging trends in abundance among waterfowl in the region. Their findings, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13919">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>, reveal that the timing of nesting is crucial in determining the effect of nesting in cropland on demographic processes. Early nesting ducks exhibited the most significant negative demographic responses to agricultural fields.



“Early nesting ducks that don’t nest in cropland, and diving ducks such as canvasbacks, nest over water and are not likely to be impacted by this trap," noted Buderman. "Climate change, which may allow farmers to till and plant earlier in the spring, could make matters worse. An earlier spring warm-up could also lead to a mismatch between nesting activities and food availability.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



The researchers' first step involved estimating the impact of climate and land-use changes on habitat selection and population dynamics for the nine species of ducks native to the region. This method allowed the researchers to recognize the response patterns of each species and to identify cases where certain species opted for conditions that were detrimental to their population dynamics. For example, the northern pintail has a preference for cropland.



The results of the analysis, however, painted a complex picture. The northern pintail, American wigeon, and blue-winged teal, in particular, often showcased extreme responses to habitat changes. But it's crucial to note, as Buderman points out, that these responses were not uniform. "Each of the species we studied reacted a bit differently to changes in climate and land-use,” she said.



Such variability underlines a nuanced complexity in managing these habitats at the community level. The researchers observed species-level differences in demographic and habitat-selection responses to climate and land-use change, which adds layers of complication to community-level habitat management.&nbsp;



"Our work highlights the importance of multi-species monitoring and community-level analysis, even among closely related species," said Professor Buderman. "This underscores the need for a comprehensive approach in conservation efforts, taking into account the unique responses of each species to climatic and land-use shifts, thereby ensuring the preservation of biodiversity in the face of changing environmental landscapes."



<h2 id="h-how-climate-change-impacts-nesting-ducks">How climate change impacts nesting ducks</h2>



Climate change has far-reaching effects on a wide range of species, and nesting ducks are not immune to these impacts. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns become more unpredictable, the ecosystems that ducks and other waterfowl depend on for nesting are undergoing significant changes.



Here's a closer look at how climate change affects nesting ducks:



<h3 id="h-shifts-in-timing">Shifts in Timing</h3>



Warming temperatures can lead to earlier springs, which may cause a shift in the timing of nesting for some duck species. This earlier nesting could potentially lead to mismatches between the timing of duckling hatching and the availability of their food sources, which can in turn affect survival rates.



<h3 id="h-habitat-changes">Habitat Changes</h3>



Climate change can significantly alter waterfowl habitats. Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation can lead to droughts, floods, or the drying up of wetlands, which ducks rely on for nesting. In addition, sea level rise can lead to the loss of coastal habitats used by some duck species.



<h3 id="h-increased-predation">Increased Predation</h3>



Changes in climate can also affect predator populations. For example, milder winters could lead to increased survival and reproduction of predators like foxes and raccoons, which can have a negative impact on duck nest survival.



<h3 id="h-changes-in-food-availability">Changes in Food Availability</h3>



Changes in weather patterns can affect the timing and abundance of food sources that ducks rely on. For instance, a late frost could kill off insects that ducklings feed on, and changes in precipitation can affect the availability of aquatic plants that adult ducks eat.



<h3 id="h-increased-disease-risk">Increased Disease Risk</h3>



Warmer temperatures can also contribute to the spread of diseases that affect waterfowl, such as avian influenza and botulism.



<h3 id="h-migration-disruption">Migration Disruption&nbsp;</h3>



Changes in temperature and weather patterns can disrupt traditional migration routes and timings for ducks. This can lead to ducks arriving at their breeding grounds either too early or too late, which can impact their ability to successfully nest and raise offspring.



Overall, climate change presents a serious challenge for nesting ducks and other wildlife. It's vital that conservation efforts take into account these climate-related threats and work towards strategies that help protect and preserve vital waterfowl habitats. This includes preserving wetlands, managing land use effectively, and working on global efforts to mitigate climate change.



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Early nesting ducks are at risk from climate and land-use changes

Every year, approximately 10 million waterfowl migrate northward to their...

A team of scientists led by a researcher from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> (UCSD) has discovered that over the past three centuries, the Asian elephant’s natural habitat has shrunk by a staggering 3 million square kilometers.



To better understand this dramatic decline, the experts developed new insights from a unique data set that models land-use change over 13 centuries. They discovered that habitats suitable for Asian elephants have been cut by nearly two-thirds within the past 300 years.&nbsp;



At their peak, these elephants thrived in grasslands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-overheating-in-warmer-rainforests/">rainforests</a> that spanned the breadth of Asia. However, the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30650-8">Scientific Reports</a>, estimates that more than 64 percent of historic suitable elephant habitat across Asia has been lost due to land-use practices, particularly during the colonial era. Timber extraction, farming, and agriculture reduced the average habitat patch size by over 80%, from 99,000 to 16,000 square kilometers.



According to the research, the remaining elephant populations today may not have adequate habitat areas. In 1700, 100 percent of the area within 100 kilometers of the current elephant range was considered suitable habitat, but by 2015, this proportion had declined to less than 50 percent. This sets up a high potential for conflicts with people living in those areas as elephant populations alter their behavior and adjust to more human-dominated spaces.



De Silva, an assistant professor in the School of Biological Sciences’ Department of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, and founder of the nonprofit Trunks &amp; Leaves, highlights the dramatic transformation in land use during the 1600s and 1700s, which has consequences that persist even to this day. Researchers from across the globe, including Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Vietnam National University of Forestry, Wild Earth Allies, Zoological Society of London, and Colby College, also contributed to the study.



Study co-author Professor Philip Nyhus of Colby College noted that the research has implications for understanding the history of elephant landscapes in Asia and their potential future. He also highlighted the collaborative and multi-institutional nature of the research.



While the study's immediate focus is on Asian elephants, the results can be used to assess land-use practices and develop conservation strategies for all of the area’s inhabitants. Professor De Silva explains that they are using elephants as indicators to examine the impact of land-use change on diverse ecosystems over a longer time scale.



Historical records of the impact of human actions and climate change on wildlife have been scarce, making long-term assessments difficult. The new study is based on information from the Land-Use Harmonization (LUH) data set, produced by researchers at the University of Maryland. This data set provides historical reconstructions of various types of land uses, including forests, crops, pastures, and others, reaching back to the ninth century.



The authors argue that much more work is needed to understand the possible changes facing these habitats in the future. They caution that attempts at habitat restoration need to be guided under a reckoning of social and environmental justice for historically marginalized communities.&nbsp;



“Exploring the relationship between past land management practices and the distributions of elephant ecosystems would be a useful direction for future studies from the perspectives of both ecological and social policy,” they note in the report.



<h2 id="h-more-about-asian-elephants">More about Asian elephants&nbsp;</h2>



Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are one of the largest land mammals on the planet, second only to their African counterparts. They are a fascinating and intelligent species with a rich cultural history in many Asian countries. Their historic range once spanned the entire Asian continent, from the borders of Persia to the coastlines of China, and from the Himalayan foothills down to the southernmost tip of the Asian continent. However, due to habitat loss, poaching, and human-elephant conflict, their current range is much more restricted, primarily found in India, Sri Lanka, and parts of Southeast Asia.



Asian elephants have several distinctive features. They are smaller than African elephants, with males typically reaching a shoulder height of up to 3.5 meters, compared to the 4 meters of African elephant males. Asian elephants also have smaller, rounded ears and a more arched back. Another distinctive feature is their trunk or proboscis, a remarkable organ with over 40,000 muscles that serve as an arm-like appendage used for feeding, drinking, communication, and even as a sensory organ.



One of the most significant distinctions between Asian and African elephants is that only some male Asian elephants have tusks, while female Asian elephants do not. This is in contrast to African elephants where both males and females can have tusks. In Asian elephants, the tuskless males are known as 'makhnas'. The possession of tusks has unfortunately made Asian elephants a target for illegal ivory poaching.



Asian elephants are a keystone species, meaning they play a crucial role in maintaining the biodiversity of the ecosystems they inhabit. They are known as "ecosystem engineers" because of their ability to modify their habitat in ways that benefit other species. For example, by uprooting trees and trampling vegetation, they create clearings that enable new plant growth and provide smaller creatures with access to food and paths through dense vegetation.



These elephants are highly social animals, usually found in closely knit matriarchal groups consisting of related females and their offspring. Male elephants, on the other hand, typically lead solitary lives or form small bachelor groups, and only join female groups during the breeding season.



Sadly, Asian elephants are classified as 'Endangered' by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Their population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, primarily due to habitat loss and fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, and poaching for their ivory, meat, and hides.&nbsp;



Conservation efforts for Asian elephants include anti-poaching initiatives, maintaining and restoring their habitats, establishing wildlife corridors to connect fragmented habitats, and resolving human-elephant conflicts in a way that is sustainable for both elephants and people.



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For Asian elephants, shrinking habitats will increase conflicts

A team of scientists led by a researcher from the...

As their populations grow, animals usually tend to get smaller due to increased competition for food resources among conspecifics. For instance, in marine mammal species such as northern fur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-killed-hundreds-of-seals-in-new-england-last-year/">seals</a>, South American sea lions, and harbor seals, significant declines in body sizes have been observed as their population size increased.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, this has not happened in the case of California sea lions: as their populations increased over the past half a century, males have gotten bigger, while female body size has remained stable, according to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> (UCSC).



“It’s counterintuitive. You would expect that their body size would decrease as dietary resource competition intensified,” said study co-author Paul Koch, a professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at UCSC.



The experts examined the size and morphology of sea lion skulls collected between 1962 and 2008 in central California, and analyzed bone samples for clues about where and what these animals were eating.&nbsp;



“We found that male California sea lions have expanded their ecological niche, which means they are now foraging on a more diversified group of prey and expanding the places where they are foraging,” explained lead author Ana Valenzuela-Toro, who conducted the research during her graduate studies at UCSC. “Apparently they are now going farther north than they used to, which is consistent with observations reported by other researchers.”



According to the scientists, expanding the breadth of their diets could have helped male sea lions to get bigger even as their numbers increased. At the same time, larger sea lions could travel further, dive deeper, and handle larger prey, thus boosting even more their growth. Finally, as their breeding sites became more crowded, increased competition among males during the breeding season may have favored larger males over time.



The fact that female body size remained stable can be explained by the significant differences between male and female foraging behavior, which creates different selection pressures for the two sexes. While males leave on long foraging trips after the breeding season, females stay in the colony to give birth and raise their pups, so their foraging is restricted to nearby areas, lacking the diversity of resources males have access to.



Although prey was abundant during the period covered in this study, the situation may soon change due to global warming.&nbsp;



“This has been a good period for sea lions, but if warm conditions become more frequent, we could see lower availability of their preferred prey, such as sardines and anchovies. Then we might see their population size start to plateau or decrease, and we could even see body size start to decline,” Valenzuela-Toro concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.026">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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California sea lions are getting bigger as their population increases

As their populations grow, animals usually tend to get smaller...

For many years, biologists argued that top predators such as lions, wolves, or cheetahs can benefit prey herds by targeting the weakest and slowest animals, and thus providing better opportunities for the healthy, strong animals to reproduce – an assumption formalized in 2003 as the “healthy herd hypothesis.”&nbsp;



While this hypothesis has been often used to suggest that manipulating predator numbers to protect prey could be a useful conservation strategy, hard evidence supporting it has been scarce, and recently, many of its assumptions and predictions have been questioned.&nbsp;



To test the healthy herd hypothesis, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) has conducted an experiment on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-predator-prey-equilibria/">predator-prey</a>-parasite system consisting of predatory fly larvae that feed on the water flea Daphnia dentifera, which hosts a virulent fungal parasite (Metschnikowia bicuspidate).&nbsp;



According to the healthy herd hypothesis, increasing the density of the predator in this three-organism study would help eliminate the fungal pathogen and increase the overall health of the flea populations.&nbsp;



However, the experiment revealed that, although at the highest levels, predation managed to completely eliminate the fungal pathogen, it also dramatically reduced Daphnia population sizes – an outcome not supporting the healthy herd hypothesis.



“The appeal of the healthy herds hypothesis lies in the alignment of multiple conservation goals - simultaneous conservation of predators, reduction of parasitism, and protection of vulnerable populations - as well as the potential to reduce spillover risk to other populations, including humans,” said senior author Meghan Duffy, an aquatic and disease ecologist at U-M. “But even when predators reduce disease in their prey populations, that does not necessarily lead to increased prey population size, as our study shows.”



Other well-known historical examples of attempts to apply the healthy herd hypothesis that have gone wrong include the culling of badgers in the United Kingdom in order to reduce the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in livestock or the culling of bats to reduce the spread of rabies in domestic dogs or wildlife (badgers and bats being the wildlife reservoirs of bovine tuberculosis and rabies, respectively). In both cases, these strategies failed to succeed, and the diseases continued to spread in other animal populations.



“Unless we develop a more comprehensive understanding of when and how predators influence disease, management strategies that propose to reintroduce or augment predator populations could backfire,” explained study lead author Laura Lopez, a former postdoctoral researcher in Professor Duffy’s laboratory, who now works as a Research Vaccine Safety Officer at the <a href="https://www.ncirs.org.au/">National Center for Immunization Research and Surveillance</a> in Australia.



“If your primary concern is the overall population size of a vulnerable animal species, then adding high levels of predation that eliminate disease could be detrimental. Interestingly, intermediate predation levels reduced parasitism in our study without incurring a cost in terms of overall prey density. Any management decisions would need to weigh the potential costs and benefits associated with increasing predation,” Duffy concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4063">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Predators increase the health of prey populations, but reduce their size

For many years, biologists argued that top predators such as...

In a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05941-9">Nature</a>, researchers have analyzed data from hundreds of plots in Canada’s <a href="https://nfi.nfis.org/en/">National Forest Inventory</a> (NFI). The goal was to clarify the relationship between tree diversity and changes in carbon and nitrogen storage in soils from natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-forests-are-being-transformed-by-global-warming/">forests</a>. The experts found that preserving the diversity of forests potentially increases the accumulation of these two substances in the soil, helping to sustain soil fertility and mitigate climate change.



Forest soils play a major role in sequestering carbon extracted from atmospheric CO2 during photosynthesis, storing at least three times more carbon as living plants do. At the same time, nitrogen is an essential nutrient driving carbon assimilation and plant growth in forests.&nbsp;



Although a variety of biodiversity-manipulation experiments have already suggested that higher tree diversity can lead to a larger accumulation of carbon and nitrogen in forest soils, this is the first study to provide evidence of a similar outcome in natural forests.



The researchers analyzed organic soil horizon samples from 361 plots and mineral soil horizon samples from 245 plots covering much of Canada’s landmass, and hosting a variety of fir, maple, pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, and other tree species.&nbsp;



Then, by comparing data from two NFI sample-plot censuses – one from 2000-2006 and another from 2008-2017 – the experts calculated changes in soil carbon and nitrogen storage over time and assessed the relation between these changes and tree diversity, which was quantified as a combination of tree richness (the number of tree species in a sample plot), species evenness (a measure of the relative abundance of tree species), and functional diversity (the various functional traits of tree species within a community).



The analysis revealed that increasing species evenness from its minimum to its maximum value enhanced carbon storage in the organic soil layer by 30 percent and nitrogen storage by 42 percent, while increasing the functional diversity of trees to its maximum value enhanced carbon storage in the soil mineral layer by 32 percent and nitrogen storage by 50 percent.



“Our study, for the first time, shows the sustained benefits of tree diversity in storing soil carbon and nitrogen in natural forests,” said study lead author Xinli Chen, a postdoctoral fellow in Forest Ecology at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a> in Canada.



“A greater diversity of species translates into a mixture of different types of trees with different ways of acquiring and storing biomass—both in live trunks, roots, branches and leaves and in newly dead and decaying plant detritus on and in the soil,” added co-author Peter Reich, the director of the <a href="https://seas.umich.edu/globalchangebiology">Institute for Global Change Biology</a> (IGCB) at the University of Michigan.



These findings suggest that promoting tree diversity not only increases productivity but can also help mitigating climate change and reducing soil degradation, thus highlighting the importance of biodiversity conservation in forests and guiding efforts to use forests for carbon and nitrogen sequestration.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tree diversity increases carbon storage in forest soils

In a new study published in the journal Nature, researchers...

The ocean’s so-called “twilight zone” is located between 200 and 1,000 meters deep, and although it gets very little light, is home to a diversity of organisms and billions of tons of organic matter.&nbsp;



A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37781-6">Nature Communications</a> has found that life in the twilight zone could decline dramatically due to climate change, which could lead to a 20-40 percent reduction in organisms inhabiting this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/">ocean</a> region. Moreover, in a high-emissions scenario, life in this zone could be severely depleted within 150 years, and may not recover for millennia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



By using records from preserved microscopic shells in ocean sediments, the researchers examined how abundant life was in the twilight zone in past warm climates. “We still know relatively little about the ocean twilight zone, but using evidence from the past we can understand what may happen in the future,”&nbsp;said study lead author Katherine Crichton, a postdoctoral fellow in Earth System Modelling at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“We looked at two warm periods in the Earth’s past, about 50 million years ago and 15 million years ago,” explained senior author Paul Pearson, a professor of Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a>. “We found that the twilight zone was not always a rich habitat full of life. In these warm periods, far fewer organisms lived in the twilight zone, because much less food arrived from surface waters.”



Animals in the twilight zone feed on particles on organic matter sinking from the ocean surface. Since in warmer waters, this matter is degraded much faster by bacteria, less food is available, thus contributing to significant population declines. The rich variety of life that we are witnessing today in this zone evolved over millions of years, when ocean waters had cooled enough to preserve the food for longer and allowing life to thrive. Unfortunately, due to current global warming, this situation may once more change dramatically.



“Unless we rapidly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, this could lead to the disappearance or extinction of much twilight zone life within 150 years, with effects spanning millennia thereafter,” Crichton explained.



“Even a low-emissions future may have a significant impact, but that would be far less severe than medium- and high-emissions scenarios. Our study is a first step to finding out how vulnerable this ocean habitat may be to climate warming.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Life in the ocean's twilight zone is facing a dramatic decline

The ocean’s so-called “twilight zone” is located between 200 and...

A recent analysis conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> has shed new light on the relationship between pet ownership, stress, and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284101">PLOS ONE</a>, reveals that while pet owners grew closer to their pets during the pandemic, the links between pet ownership and mental health were more complex than previously thought.



The COVID-19 pandemic provided a unique opportunity to study the impacts of pet ownership on mental health, and the researchers wanted to explore this relationship in more depth. The study included a series of surveys that were conducted prior to the pandemic, during the lockdown period of April to June 2020, the reopening of September to December 2020, and a recovery period from January to December 2021.



The surveys captured the dynamics of dog and cat ownership in the United States and included questions related to participants’ closeness to the pet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-salt-intake-elevates-stress-in-the-body/">stress</a> and loneliness levels, demographics, housing situation, personality, and other potentially relevant factors. The participants included 1,266 people with dogs and cats, 1,186 with only dogs, 1,128 with only cats, and 657 with no pets.



The results of the survey showed that both dog and cat owners grew closer to their pets during the study period. However, the links between pet ownership and mental health were more complex than expected.&nbsp;



While dog owners experienced a greater reduction in stress and loneliness during the reopening and recovery periods compared to cat owners and participants without pets, the researchers did not find statistically sound evidence that pet ownership eased participants’ stress and loneliness levels during the pandemic. Cat owners, in particular, reported higher levels of stress and loneliness.



However, further analysis showed that pet ownership may have had an impact on certain types of loneliness. Pet owners, in general, reported less loneliness related to romantic relationships compared to non-pet owners.



The researchers noted that the different results seen for dog versus cat owners could be explained by differences in the pet-owner relationship between these two groups.&nbsp;



“People felt closer toward their pets during the COVID-19 pandemic even though pet ownership did not mitigate stress and loneliness," wrote the study authors. "Dog ownership and cat ownership acted differently on mental health, but the difference between them could be partially explained away by the owner-pet relationship.”



The findings of this study add to the growing body of research on the impact of pet ownership on mental health and highlight the need for more research in this area. The researchers plan to continue collecting data through 2023 to capture any further changes in pet-owner relationships, stress, and loneliness.&nbsp;



While pet ownership may not necessarily alleviate stress and loneliness, the relationship between pet and owner may play a significant role in mental health outcomes during times of crisis.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pets-and-mental-health">More about pets and mental health</h2>



There is a growing body of research which suggests that pets can have a positive impact on mental health. Several studies have found that pet ownership is associated with reduced levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.&nbsp;



Pets can provide comfort and companionship, which can help to reduce feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Pets can also encourage physical activity and provide a sense of purpose and responsibility, which can help to improve overall well-being.



One study conducted by researchers at the University of Missouri found that interacting with pets can help to increase levels of the hormone oxytocin, which is known to have a calming effect on the body. Another study found that pets can help to reduce levels of cortisol, a hormone associated with stress.



Pet therapy programs have also been shown to have positive effects on mental health. These programs involve trained therapy animals visiting hospitals, nursing homes, and other care facilities to provide comfort and companionship to patients. Studies have found that pet therapy can help to reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).



However, it's important to note that pet ownership is not a panacea for mental health problems. Owning a pet can be a significant responsibility and requires time, effort, and resources. For some people, the demands of pet ownership may actually increase levels of stress and anxiety. Additionally, some people may have allergies or other health conditions that make pet ownership impractical.



Overall, while pets can provide many benefits to mental health, it's important to carefully consider the decision to bring a pet into your life and to ensure that you are able to provide the care and support that your pet needs.



<h2 id="h-can-pets-help-to-reduce-loneliness">Can pets help to reduce loneliness?</h2>



Some pets are known to be particularly social and affectionate, which can make them good companions for people who are feeling lonely. Here are a few examples:



<h3 id="h-dogs">Dogs</h3>



Dogs are known for their loyalty and affection towards their owners. They are social animals and enjoy spending time with their human companions. Dogs also require regular exercise and playtime, which can encourage their owners to stay active and engaged.



<h3 id="h-cats">Cats</h3>



Cats are independent animals that can provide comfort and companionship without requiring as much attention as dogs. They are also known for their soothing purring and relaxing presence, which can help to reduce stress and anxiety.



<h2 id="h-birds">Birds</h2>



Birds are social animals that can form strong bonds with their owners. They are known for their singing and chirping, which can be soothing and calming. Some birds, such as parrots, can also learn to mimic human speech, which can be entertaining and engaging.



<h3 id="h-guinea-pigs">Guinea pigs&nbsp;</h3>



Guinea pigs are social animals that enjoy being around other guinea pigs and humans. They are easy to care for and can be quite affectionate. Guinea pigs are also known for their vocalizations, which can be amusing and endearing.



<h2 id="h-fish">Fish</h2>



While fish may not provide the same level of interaction and companionship as other pets, they can still be calming and relaxing to watch. Fish tanks can also be visually appealing and provide a sense of tranquility and peace.



Ultimately, the best pet to cure loneliness will depend on the individual's personality, lifestyle, and preferences. It's important to carefully consider the demands of pet ownership and choose a pet that is a good fit for your lifestyle and circumstances.



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Pets and owners had complex relationships during the pandemic

A recent analysis conducted by researchers at Purdue University has...

Taking a siesta or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/midday-naps-lower-blood-pressure/">midday nap</a> is a common custom in some cultures. While previous studies have argued that sleeping in the middle of the day could potentially affect sleep quality, cognitive functioning, and metabolic processes, the relationship between different types of siestas and metabolic health is still poorly understood.



To clarify these issues, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://brighamandwomens.org/">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> has recently assesses the relationship of siestas and siesta duration with obesity and metabolic syndrome in a cohort of 3,275 adults from the Spanish region of Murcia. The experts measured baseline metabolic characteristics, and surveyed the participants on their siesta duration (no siesta, shorter than 30 minutes, longer than 30 minutes), along with other lifestyle factors.



“Not all siestas are the same. The length of time, position of sleep, and other specific factors can affect the health outcomes of a nap,” said senior author Marta Garaulet, a visiting professor in the Brigham’s <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/medicine/sleep-and-circadian-disorders/overview">Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders</a>.&nbsp;



“A previous study that we conducted in a large study population in the UK had found that siestas were associated with an increased risk of obesity. We wanted to determine whether this would hold true in a country where siestas are more culturally embedded, in this case Spain, as well as how the length of time for siestas is related to metabolic health.”



The analysis revealed that people who took afternoon naps longer than 30 minutes were more likely to have a higher body mass index, higher blood pressure, and a cluster of other conditions associated to heart disease and diabetes (metabolic syndrome) compared to those who took no siestas. Moreover, long siestas were linked to later nightly sleeping and food timing, as well as increased energy intake at lunch and cigarette smoking.&nbsp;



However, among individuals who took shorter siestas, or “power naps,” the increased risk of obesity and metabolic changes was not present. In addition, short siesta-takers seemed to be less likely to have elevated systolic blood pressure than those who took no siestas at all.&nbsp;



Further studies are needed to investigate the possible benefits of short siestas, particularly in individuals with habits such as having delayed meals and sleep schedules, or smoking.



“This study shows the importance of considering siesta length and raises the question whether short naps may offer unique benefits. Many institutions are realizing the benefits of short naps, mostly for work productivity, but also increasingly for general health,” said co-author Frank Scheer, a senior neuroscientist and professor of Medical Chronobiology at the Brigham’s Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders.



“If future studies further substantiate the advantages of shorter siestas, I think that that could be the driving force behind the uncovering of optimal nap durations, and a cultural shift in the recognition of the long-term health effects and productivity increases that can amount from this lifestyle behavior,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23765">Obesity</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How do afternoon naps impact our health?

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Closeup,Right,Side,Portrait,Of,Giant,Anteater,From,Climbing,On

Spores of coprophilous fungi pass through the guts of megafauna (animals weighing over 45 kilograms) as part of their life cycle. As a result,&nbsp; the presence of such spores in sediment samples can provide evidence that large animals lived in a specific time and place.&nbsp;



By analyzing samples from a peat bog in Pantano de Monquentiva – located about 60 kilometers from Bogota, Colombia in the Eastern Cordillera mountains – a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> discovered that large animals became locally extinct at this location both around 23,000 years ago and 11,000 years ago, severely impacting the ecosystems in which they were embedded.&nbsp;



Considering our current biodiversity crisis, these findings suggest that the disappearance of large animals could once more transform ecosystems that sustain both wildlife and humans.



“We know that large animals such as elephants play a vital role in regulating ecosystems, for example by eating and trampling vegetation,” said&nbsp;study senior author Dunia H. Urrego, a senior lecturer in Physical Geography at Exeter.



“By analyzing samples of fungal spores, as well as pollen and charcoal, we were able to track the extinction of large animals, and the consequences of this extinction for plant abundance and fire activity. We found the Monquentiva ecosystem changed dramatically when large animals disappeared, with different plant species thriving and wildfires increasing.”



Although the analysis of fungal spores does not show which types of megafauna were present, species known to inhabit Columbia during these periods included the giant armadillo and the giant, six-meter-tall ground sloth.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, most of the plentiful megafauna that existed for thousands of years vanished 23,000 years ago. After about 5,000 years, large animals began once more to populate the Monquentiva, before another wave of extinction decimated them approximately 11,000 years ago. While the causes of these extinctions are not yet clear, scientists argue that climate change, hunting by humans, or even meteor strikes could be plausible explanations.&nbsp;



“After the megafauna vanished, plant species at Monquentiva transitioned, with more woody and palatable plants (those favored by grazing animals), and the loss of plants that depend on seed dispersal by animals,” said lead author&nbsp;Felix Pym, a&nbsp;graduate student in Physical Geography at Exeter.



“Wildfires became more common after the megafauna extinctions – presumably because flammable plants were no longer being eaten or trampled upon. Overall, our findings show that this habitat was highly sensitive to the decline of its megafaunal populations.”



The findings suggest that, in the context of our current biodiversity crisis, conservation efforts should take into account the effects of local herbivore declines on the dispersal of various plant species, wildfire activity, and the loss of ecosystem services.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2022.66">Quaternary Research</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Colombian megafauna experienced "waves" of extinctions

Spores of coprophilous fungi pass through the guts of megafauna...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...