Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. 



If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery.



A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-civilization-and-technology">Oxygen, civilization, and technology</h2>



Leading this research are <a href="https://www.pas.rochester.edu/people/faculty/frank_adam/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adam Frank</a>, the Helen F. and Fred H. Gowen Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Rochester, and <a href="https://www-en.fisica.uniroma2.it/phone-directory/balbia_en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amedeo Balbi</a>, an associate professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Roma Tor Vergata, Italy.



Together with their team, they set out to explore whether oxygen is a key factor in allowing extraterrestrial civilizations to emerge and thrive through the development of technology.



“We are ready to find signatures of life on alien worlds,” Frank says. “But how do the [oxygen] conditions on a planet tell us about the possibilities for intelligent, technology-producing life?” 



This question drives efforts to examine oxygen’s role beyond respiration and metabolism, especially in relation to large-scale industrial activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-oxygen-matters-for-civilizations">Why oxygen matters for civilizations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> on Earth accounts for the bulk of our oxygen on our planet, thanks to countless organisms that use sunlight to make food. 



Because this process produces so much oxygen, it has been considered a biosignature. A planet with significant oxygen levels hints that life may be present, but Frank and Balbi argue that oxygen also has a second function.



“<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In our paper</a>, we explore whether any atmospheric composition would be compatible with the presence of advanced technology,” Balbi says. “We found that the atmospheric requirements may be quite stringent.”



The link to technology comes from open-air combustion. Smelting metals, cooking food, and powering engines all rely on oxygen. 



Any alien civilization that forges metals would need a certain percentage of oxygen in its air to keep fires burning reliably. That percentage, according to Earth’s history, appears to be around 18 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-the-18-threshold">Fire and the 18% threshold</h2>



“You might be able to get biology -- you might even be able to get intelligent creatures -- in a world that doesn’t have oxygen,” Frank says, “but without a ready source of fire, you’re never going to develop higher technology because higher technology requires fuel and melting.” 



He calls attention to fire’s role in shaping tools, infrastructure, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wellbeing-is-a-more-effective-focus-area-when-discussing-energy-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy production</a>. Metalworking, for instance, depends on sustaining flames hot enough to melt ore and craft refined structures.



Frank and Balbi refer to this requirement as an “oxygen bottleneck.” A planet might host life forms of various kinds, yet remain stuck without the combustion needed to fuel industrial breakthroughs. 



“The presence of high degrees of oxygen in the atmosphere is like a bottleneck you have to get through in order to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen in the atmosphere</a>, you’re not going to have a technological species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-create-technosignatures">Oxygen + technology create "technosignatures"</h2>



Frank thinks that exoplanets with oxygen levels at or above 18 percent should be at the top of our search list. 



“Targeting planets with high oxygen levels should be prioritized because the presence or absence of high oxygen levels in exoplanet atmospheres could be a major clue in finding potential technosignatures,” Frank says. 



Planets that exceed this level may have the capacity for factories, infrastructure, or communication networks.



Balbi notes that interpreting any possible signal of intelligent life will be challenging. 



“The implications of discovering intelligent, technological life on another planet would be huge,” adds Balbi. “Therefore, we need to be extremely cautious in interpreting possible detections. 



Their study suggests that astronomers should be skeptical of potential technosignatures from a planet with insufficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric oxygen</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technosphere-vs-biotechnosphere">Technosphere vs. biotechnosphere</h2>



Frank and Balbi’s perspective also covers the idea of a technosphere, which is the collective output of an advanced civilization. 



Factories, vehicles, and power grids all fit under this label. They rely on resources provided by the planet’s biosphere but stretch beyond purely natural processes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-technology-is-a-modern-solution-for-clean-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Burning fuels in open air</a> has been central to every major industrial leap, from forging steel to generating electricity.



When these technologies reach a global scale, they form a biotechnosphere. This term applies to the interplay of living systems and technology -- essentially, how organisms and machines coexist. 



On Earth, that includes everything from smartphones to farms, all running side by side. A well-established biotechnosphere might produce clear signals in the atmosphere: waste gases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-2024s-record-heat-unveiling-earths-climate-danger-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual heat patterns</a>, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-tap-and-bottled-water-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals not normally found in nature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-machines-and-ecosystems">Balancing machines and ecosystems</h2>



History shows that as technology expands, it can sometimes damage or alter environments. Factories might pump pollutants into the air, while deforestation removes habitats that produce oxygen. 



Yet there is an ongoing move toward cleaner energy and more efficient resource use. If any alien civilization follows a similar path, we might detect certain byproducts in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/banning-forever-chemicals-may-threaten-us-national-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered molecules</a>.



Though the focus is on oxygen, other factors matter too, such as temperature and access to metals or fuels. A planet may need stable conditions for life to progress to a point where industry becomes possible.



That said, Frank and Balbi’s findings highlight how oxygen stands out among these factors, because it directly enables combustion processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-progress-in-earth-s-past">Fire and progress in Earth’s past</h2>



Earth’s own development through advances in technology offers insight into how vital oxygen has been for technical achievements.



Once our atmosphere had enough of it, humans learned to manipulate fire for cooking and for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">making stronger materials</a>. 



From simple smithing to modern manufacturing, every stage of growth involved open-air combustion.



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have oxygen in the atmosphere, you’re not going to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



This idea underlines how a single factor -- oxygen -- can open or close the door to industrial progress, altering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decarbonizing-worlds-industrial-emissions-possible-with-current-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s entire future path</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-and-next-steps">Oxygen, technology, and next steps</h2>



Observatories now in the works may soon gather data about exoplanet atmospheres in detail. Detecting a high oxygen content could mark a world that supports advanced living organisms. 



The next task is to look for proof of industry or technology, sometimes called technosignatures. These might appear as chemical emissions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio signals</a>, or specific spectral lines.



If these two checks-- oxygen above 18 percent and evidence of artificial activity -- both yield results, we will have a strong indication that we share the universe with another technological civilization. 



That reality could reshape how we see ourselves and our place among the stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter-0">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Understanding the significance of atmospheric oxygen can also inspire reflection on our home planet. Human industries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rely heavily on combustion</a>, from running cars to powering factories. This has changed Earth’s ecosystems. 



As we learn more about how oxygen in an atmosphere enables or limits technology, we might gain new ideas on how to manage our own balance between growth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental health</a>.



Ultimately, Frank and Balbi’s argument shows that oxygen may do far more than keep living cells alive. It might be the clearest signal of whether a planet can support the technologies that shape modern societies. 



By recognizing the 18 percent threshold, scientists can refine their search for advanced life and possibly move closer to answering the age-old question: Are we alone, or is someone else using fire to reshape their world?



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Oxygen levels on exoplanets reveal presence of alien technology

Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery. A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. Oxygen, civilization, and technology Leading this research are...

In a recent commentary published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01465-4">Nature</a>, scientists have warned that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-fungal-diseases/">fungal diseases</a> in crops may have a devastating impact on the global food supply, unless scientists and officials worldwide ally to find better ways of combating fungal infections.&nbsp;



According to the experts, despite the widespread use of antifungals, 10 to 23 percent of global crops are lost to fungal infections each year, with an additional 10 to 20 percent lost post-harvest.&nbsp;



As global warming intensifies, fungal infections are steadily moving toward the poles, causing an increasing number of countries to struggle with such infections damaging their harvests. For instance, stem rust infections that normally occur in the tropics have already been reported in England and Ireland.&nbsp;



Moreover, the scientists warn that tolerance to higher temperatures in fungi may increase the probability of opportunistic soil-dwelling pathogens to become capable of infecting animals, including humans.



“As our global population is projected to soar, humanity is facing unprecedented challenges to food production. We’re already seeing massive crop losses to fungal infection, which could sustain millions of people each year,” said co-author Eva Stukenbrock, a professor of Environmental Genomics at the <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/">Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel</a> in Germany.&nbsp;



“This worrying trend may only worsen as a warming world makes fungal infections more prevalent in European crops, and as they continue to develop resistance to antifungals. This will be catastrophic for developing countries and will have a major impact in the Western world, too.”



Across the five most important crops (rice, wheat, maize, soya beans, and potatoes), fungal infections currently lead to losses equating to enough food to provide between 600 million to four billion people with 2,000 calories each day for a year.&nbsp;



Since fungi are extremely resilient, remaining viable in soil for up to four decades, and their airborne spores can travel between continents, crop losses are expected to increase in the near future. In addition, the widespread use of antifungal treatments has led many types of fungi to evolve resistance to such fungicides, forcing farmers to use ever-higher concentrations of fungicide to control infection, and unwittingly accelerating the pace of resistance developing.&nbsp;



In order to protect the world’s crops from fungal diseases, a more unified approach is needed, that would bring together farmers, the agricultural industry, plant breeders, biologists, policymakers, governments, and funders. Moreover, planting seed mixtures carrying genes that are resistant to fungal infection may also help controlling outbreaks, while the use of new technologies such as AI or remote sensing tools like drones could allow for early outbreak detection and control.



“Fungal infections are threatening some of our most important crops, from potatoes to grains and bananas. We are already seeing massive losses, and this threatens to become a global catastrophe in light of population growth," said co-author Sarah Gurr, the Chair in Food Security at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



"Recently, we’ve seen the world unite over the human health threat posed by Covid. We now urgently need a globally united approach to tackling fungal infection, with more investment, from governments, philanthropic organizations, and private companies, to build on the seeds of hope and stop this developing into a global catastrophe which will see people starve."



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-crops">More about climate change and crops</h2>



Climate change is having a profound impact on global crop production, as rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events disrupt agricultural systems. Some of the key ways climate change is affecting global crops include:



<h3>Changes in temperature</h3>



As global temperatures rise, many regions are experiencing longer and more intense growing seasons. While this may benefit certain crops in some areas, it can also lead to increased evapotranspiration, reducing the availability of water for irrigation. Additionally, higher temperatures can negatively affect crop development, yield, and quality, particularly for temperature-sensitive crops like wheat, rice, and maize.



<h3>Altered precipitation patterns</h3>



Climate change is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, with some regions experiencing increased rainfall and others facing more frequent droughts. These changes can lead to flooding, waterlogging, and soil erosion in some areas, while reducing water availability for irrigation in others. Both scenarios can negatively impact crop yields and food security.



<h3>Increased frequency of extreme weather events</h3>



Climate change is contributing to more frequent and severe weather events, such as storms, heatwaves, droughts, and floods. These events can cause significant damage to crops, disrupt agricultural infrastructure, and reduce overall crop production.



<h3>Pests and diseases</h3>



Warmer temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can create more favorable conditions for the spread of pests and diseases that affect crops. Climate change can also facilitate the poleward migration of pests and pathogens, exposing new regions to crop-damaging organisms. As discussed in the previous article, fungal diseases are one such example where climate change is exacerbating their impact on global crops.



<h3>Effects on pollinators</h3>



Many crops rely on pollinators, such as bees and other insects, for successful reproduction. Climate change can disrupt the life cycles and habitats of these pollinators, ultimately affecting crop yields.



<h3>Changes in growing regions</h3>



As temperatures rise and precipitation patterns shift, the regions suitable for growing certain crops are also changing. Some areas that were once fertile may become unsuitable for agriculture, while other regions may gain the potential for new crop production. This can lead to significant economic and social challenges for farmers and communities that rely on agriculture.



<h3>CO2 fertilization effect</h3>



Higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide can stimulate plant growth and increase crop yields. However, this "CO2 fertilization effect" may not be sufficient to offset the negative impacts of climate change on crop production. Moreover, elevated CO2 levels can also reduce the nutritional quality of some crops, including protein and micronutrient content.



To mitigate the impacts of climate change on global crops and food security, adaptation and mitigation strategies are essential. These may include the development of climate-resilient crop varieties, improved farming practices, more efficient irrigation systems, and the implementation of early warning systems for extreme weather events and disease outbreaks.



Additionally, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable agricultural practices can help limit the severity of future climate change and its consequences for global crop production.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fungal infections are threatening global food security

In a recent commentary published in the journal Nature, scientists...

For decades, strategies to treat pain without triggering potentially dangerous side effects such as euphoria and addiction have proven elusive. Although scientists have recently managed to develop painkillers that selectively activate one type of opioid receptor in order to relieve pain while not activating another receptor linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-older-americans-show-signs-of-food-addiction/">addiction</a>, these new compounds were found to have yet another unwanted side effect: hallucinations.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a> (WUSTL) has identified a potential route to effective pain relief that would neither lead to addiction nor cause hallucinations.



Painkillers such as oxycodone or morphine, as well as illegal drugs like heroin or fentanyl, work by activating the so-called “mu receptors” on nerve cells. While these receptors can relieve pain, they also cause feelings of euphoria, and easily lead to addiction.&nbsp;



To sidestep these issues, experts devised an alternative strategy to target another opioid receptor known as the “kappa receptor.” Unfortunately, drugs designed to target this receptor were found to cause hallucinations.&nbsp;



In the current study – published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06030-7">Nature</a> – researchers managed to identify the potential mechanisms causing hallucinations, which can be an important step forward in designing pain treatments without this side effect. By using electron microscopes, they discovered that a natural compound related to the salvia plant selectively binds to the kappa receptor, leading to hallucinations.



“Since 2002, scientists have been trying to learn how this small molecule causes hallucinations through kappa receptors,” said senior author&nbsp;Tao Che, an assistant professor of Anesthesiology at WUSTL. “We determined how it binds to the receptor and activates potential hallucinogenic pathways, but we also found that other binding sites on the kappa receptor don’t lead to hallucinations.”



Che and team discovered that a class of signaling proteins called “G proteins” cause the kappa opioid receptor to activate several different pathways.&nbsp;



“There are seven G proteins linked to the kappa receptor, and although they are very similar to each other, the differences between the proteins may help explain why some compounds can cause side effects such as hallucinations,” explained lead author Jianming Han, a postdoctoral researcher in Che’s laboratory. “By learning how each of the proteins binds to the kappa receptor, we expect to find ways to activate that receptor without causing hallucinations.”



“All of these proteins are similar to one another, but the specific protein subtypes that bind to the kappa receptor determine which pathways will be activated. We have found that the hallucinogenic drugs can preferentially activate one specific G protein but not other, related G proteins, suggesting that beneficial effects such as pain relief can be separated from side effects such as hallucinations. So we expect it will be possible to find therapeutics that activate the kappa receptor to kill pain without also activating the specific pathway that causes hallucinations,” Che added.



Since opioid drugs interacting with the mu receptor are the main cause behind the current opioid epidemic, which led to over 100,000 overdose deaths in the U.S. in 2021, targeting the kappa receptor to relieve pain without causing hallucinations would be a critical step forward to design safer, non-addictive painkillers.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Experts identify a route to safer painkillers

For decades, strategies to treat pain without triggering potentially dangerous...

While climate change has recently led to earlier spring blooms for wildflowers and ocean plankton, its effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-alaskas-wild-salmon-getting-smaller/">salmon</a> populations are more unpredictable and complicated, according to a new study led by <a href="http://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> (SFU).&nbsp;



To better understand this phenomenon, the experts compiled the largest dataset in the world on juvenile salmon migration timing, including 66 populations ranging from Oregon to British Columbia and Alaska. These datasets focused specifically on wild salmon and were at least 20 years in length, with the longest one dating back to 1951.



“Field scientists from many different organizations work really hard to collect data on the migration of smolts [young salmon], day after day, year after year. Bringing this data together really showcases the importance of long-term monitoring,” said study lead author Samantha Wilson, a postdoctoral fellow in Biology at SFU.



The investigation revealed that, although many species of salmon significantly changed their migration patterns over the past few decades – such as the pink and chum salmon, which are now migrating seven days per decade earlier – others did not change them, despite the rapid warming of their habitats.



Surprisingly, the researchers found greater variation between populations within species than between different species. “We were really surprised. Yes, there were really strong signals of climate change as many salmon tended to be migrating earlier, but it was incredibly variable and unpredictable,” Wilson said.



A match between the migration timing of juvenile salmon and food availability creates ideal conditions for surviving the first months in the ocean, influencing how many adults return. However, since many salmon populations do not appear to be responding to changes in the coastal ocean, mismatches could become increasingly common under future climate change, leading to population declines.



As global warming continues to alter a variety of ecosystems, being able to predict which species or populations are the most vulnerable is crucial for conservation efforts. However, when such changes are difficult to predict – as in the cases of salmon – a precautionary management approach could work best for the long-term conservation of ecologically, culturally, and economically important species.



“Climate change is here and it is changing salmon and their ecosystems. Many of these changes are going to be unpredictable, which calls for the protecting of salmon biodiversity and their habitats,” said co-author Jonathan Moore, an expert in the Ecology and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems at SFU.



Moreover, as this study has proven, collaborations among a variety of scientists from different backgrounds and the use of large datasets spanning extended periods of time are essential to examine the dynamics of large-scale, unpredictable systems.



“This study brought together more than 50 scientists from government and community organizations, with everyone contributing their expertise and data to better understand this important, but often overlooked life stage. Long term monitoring projects are expensive and logistically challenging to run, and yet are increasingly important to better our understanding of how climate change may be affecting salmon,” concluded co-author Matthew Sloat, the director of science at the <a href="https://wildsalmoncenter.org/">Wild Salmon Center</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02057-1">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Climate change has unpredictable effects on salmon migration

While climate change has recently led to earlier spring blooms...

Salt marshes have been a key component of coastal ecosystems for centuries, acting as carbon sinks, playing a significant role in nitrogen cycling, and providing critical habitats and nurseries for many fish, shellfish, and coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-evolutionary-origin-of-birds-wings/">birds</a>.&nbsp;



These low-lying wetlands are some of the most biologically productive ecosystems on the planet, and their loss could have a profound impact on coastal communities and economies.



New research from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> at the University of Chicago warns that over 90 percent of the world's salt marshes could be underwater by the end of the century, with Great Sippewissett Marsh in Falmouth, Massachusetts, serving as an example of what is to come.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of the Total Environment</a>, is based on a 50-year investigation of the salt marsh and has been supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>.



Francisco (Paco) Moore, a program director in the NSF's Division of Environmental Biology, commented on the research:&nbsp;



"Salt marshes shape our coastlines and create an ecological foundation for coastal economies both directly and indirectly. The direct impacts of saltmarsh loss would be staggering; the indirect effects may be larger still. These marshes are fundamental to coastal commercial and recreational fisheries and are a living buffer stabilizing our coastlines."



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The researchers have been mapping vegetative cover in experimental plots in the Great Sippewissett Marsh since 1971, examining whether increased nitrogen in the environment would affect the species of marsh grass. Due to the length of the study, they were also able to detect the effects of climate change on the ecosystem, particularly those resulting from accelerating sea-level rise.



According to the study's lead author, Ivan Valiela, "Even under conservative sea-level estimates, more than 90% of the salt marshes of the world will likely be submerged and disappear or be diminished by the end of the century."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The researchers discovered that increased nitrogen favored higher levels of vegetation and marsh surface accretion but that no matter how much nitrogen they applied to the marsh, these ecosystems would not be able to outpace submergence from global sea-level rise.



Valiela warns, "This is not a prediction from isolated scientists worried about little details. Major changes are going to be taking place on the surface of the Earth that will change the nature of coastal environments."



As a result of this research, it is clear that salt marshes are more than just beautiful ecosystems. They are an essential component of our planet's biodiversity and play a vital role in our coastal ecosystems and economies.&nbsp;



If we do not act quickly to address climate change and its impacts on our environment, we could lose these ecosystems, with disastrous consequences for both our planet and ourselves.



<h2 id="h-more-about-salt-marshes">More about salt marshes</h2>



Salt marshes are vital coastal ecosystems that have a significant impact on both humanity and the environment. They are characterized by their unique vegetation, which thrives in the saline conditions of coastal estuaries, lagoons, and bays.



One of the most important roles of salt marshes is their ability to act as carbon sinks, sequestering large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil. They are also crucial for nitrogen cycling, converting nitrogen from agricultural runoff and other sources into forms that can be used by other plants and animals.



Salt marshes also provide important habitat and nursery grounds for a wide variety of species, including fish, shellfish, and coastal birds. They serve as a natural buffer, protecting coastal areas from storm surges and wave action, and are an important component of coastal tourism and recreation industries.



<h3 id="h-under-severe-threat">Under severe threat</h3>



However, these important ecosystems are under threat from human activities, including coastal development, pollution, and climate change.&nbsp;



Rising sea levels and increased storm activity due to climate change are causing salt marshes to become submerged and erode, with potentially devastating consequences for coastal communities and ecosystems.



The loss of salt marshes could have far-reaching impacts on the planet's biodiversity, food security, and human livelihoods.



Many fish and shellfish species rely on salt marshes as breeding and feeding grounds, and the loss of these ecosystems could lead to declines in important commercial and recreational fisheries.&nbsp;



Additionally, the loss of carbon sequestration and nitrogen cycling could have far-reaching impacts on global climate change and food production.



Protecting and preserving salt marshes is essential for the health of our planet and our communities. This includes taking steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, mitigate the impacts of climate change, and limit human activities that degrade salt marsh ecosystems.&nbsp;



By taking action now, we can ensure that these vital ecosystems continue to provide benefits to both humanity and the environment for generations to come.



—-



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90 percent of Earth’s salt marshes will be underwater by the year 2100

Salt marshes have been a key component of coastal ecosystems...

A recent study investigating the effects of daylight saving time (DST) transitions on sleep patterns has uncovered some interesting findings. Publishing in Neurology, the medical journal of the <a href="https://www.aan.com/">American Academy of Neurology</a>, the researchers revealed that there is a brief increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-reduces-sleep-quality-elevates-disease-risk/">sleep</a> disorders after the transition from daylight saving time to standard time, when an extra hour is gained overnight. 



However, there was no such association observed when the hour was lost in the change from standard time to daylight saving time. The crucial role of sleep in maintaining good health, mood, cognition, job performance, and social activity has long been recognized.&nbsp;



According to study author Dr. Ron B. Postuma of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, sleep is influenced by the circadian rhythm - the internal clock that regulates various body processes.&nbsp;



"The good news is that the sleep disruptions we observed following the change to standard time were brief and no longer evident two weeks after the shift," said Dr. Postuma.



This comprehensive study involved 30,097 participants aged between 45 and 85 years, who completed a questionnaire on sleep duration, satisfaction, ability to fall asleep, ability to remain asleep, and excessive sleepiness during the day.&nbsp;



The questionnaire included questions such as, “Over the last month, how often did it take you more than 30 minutes to fall asleep?” and “Over the last month, how often did you wake in the middle of the night or too early in the morning and found it difficult to fall asleep again?”&nbsp;



Participants who responded three or more times a week to either of these questions were considered to have sleep problems.



For the change to standard time in autumn, the researchers compared people who completed the questionnaire one week before the transition to those who completed it one week after.&nbsp;



After adjusting for age, sex, and location, the experts found that those who completed the survey one week after the transition had a 34 percent increased risk of sleep dissatisfaction, with 28 percent reporting sleep dissatisfaction compared to 23 percent of those interviewed one week before.



Furthermore, those who completed the questionnaire one week after the transition also experienced a more than two times greater risk of difficulty falling asleep, a 64 percent increased risk of difficulty remaining asleep, and a two times greater risk of excessive sleepiness during waking hours.



When examining the transition to daylight saving time in spring, the researchers found no difference in sleep problems between those who completed the questionnaire one week before the change and those who completed it one week after. However, they did discover a nine-minute decrease in sleep duration one week after this transition.



The researchers also analyzed when participants completed the questionnaire - spring, summer, autumn, or winter. While they found no difference for sleep problems, they did find a small difference in sleep duration.&nbsp;



Participants who completed the questionnaire in summer had the shortest sleep duration, averaging 6.76 hours daily, whereas those who completed the survey in winter had the longest sleep duration, averaging 6.84 hours daily, a difference of five minutes.



This research highlights the impact of daylight saving time transitions on sleep patterns and emphasizes the importance of understanding the factors that influence sleep quality and duration. As sleep plays a vital role in overall health and well-being, these findings offer valuable insights for both individuals and health professionals.



<h2 id="h-more-about-daylight-saving-time">More about daylight saving time</h2>



The history of Daylight Saving Time (DST) can be traced back to the late 18th century when Benjamin Franklin, one of the founding fathers of the United States, penned a satirical essay suggesting that waking up earlier could save energy by reducing the use of candles and oil lamps. However, it was not until 1895 when George Hudson, a New Zealand entomologist, formally proposed a two-hour daylight saving shift to have more time for his insect collecting hobby.



During World War I, the idea of DST gained momentum as a means to conserve energy. Germany and its allies became the first countries to implement DST in 1916. Other countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, followed suit to save fuel needed for the war effort. After the war, DST usage varied across countries and was mainly brought back during World War II for similar reasons.



In the post-war years, the United States saw a patchwork of local DST rules, causing confusion and inefficiencies in transportation and communication. To address this issue, the Uniform Time Act was passed in 1966, establishing a standardized system of DST across the country, with some exceptions.



Today, daylight saving time is observed in many countries around the world, though not all of them adhere to this practice. The main reasons for continuing the use of DST include:



<h3 id="h-energy-conservation">Energy conservation</h3>



Proponents argue that DST reduces the need for artificial lighting in the evenings, thus saving energy. However, the actual energy savings have been debated, and some studies suggest that the impact on overall energy consumption is minimal or negligible.



<h3 id="h-increased-outdoor-activities">Increased outdoor activities</h3>



By extending evening daylight, DST encourages people to spend more time outdoors, engaging in recreational activities, and potentially boosting local economies through increased spending on goods and services.



<h3 id="h-reduced-traffic-accidents">Reduced traffic accidents</h3>



Some studies have shown that daylight saving time can lead to a decrease in traffic accidents, particularly in the evenings, as the additional daylight can improve visibility for drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians.



<h3 id="h-improved-public-health">Improved public health</h3>



The additional evening daylight may encourage people to exercise more, which can have positive effects on overall health and well-being.



Despite these reasons, there is an ongoing debate about the merits of daylight saving time, with opponents arguing that the energy savings are minimal, that it causes confusion and disruptions in scheduling, and that it has negative effects on health due to the change in sleep patterns. This debate has led some countries and regions to reconsider their approach to time changes, with some abandoning DST or proposing to do so.



In conclusion, the history of daylight saving time is rooted in the idea of conserving energy and making better use of daylight. The practice continues in many parts of the world, but its future remains uncertain as debates persist over its benefits and drawbacks.



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Daylight saving time changes are directly linked to sleep disorders

A recent study investigating the effects of daylight saving time...

After decades of hard work and frustrating setbacks, scientists have finally seen the process by which nature creates the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-struggling-to-maintain-oxygen-as-temperatures-rise/">oxygen</a> we breathe. The experts accomplished this herculean task by using SLAC’s X-ray laser. In the intricate process of photosynthesis, Photosystem II, a protein complex present in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, plays a vital role in harvesting energy from sunlight and splitting water, generating the oxygen that sustains life on Earth. 



Despite the fundamental nature of this process, much about Photosystem II's operation remains enigmatic. Recently, however, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> and SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, along with collaborators from Uppsala University, Humboldt University, and other institutions, have successfully unlocked a key aspect of Photosystem II's function.



<h2 id="h-giant-laser-to-the-rescue">Giant laser to the rescue</h2>



By utilizing the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at SLAC and the SPring-8 Angstrom Compact free electron LAser (SACLA) in Japan, the researchers were able to capture, in unprecedented atomic detail, the final moments preceding the release of breathable oxygen in the photosynthesis process. The data unveiled a previously unknown intermediate reaction step.



This groundbreaking discovery, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06038-z">Nature</a>, provides valuable insight into the optimization of photosynthesis in nature. Moreover, it aids scientists in the development of artificial photosynthetic systems that emulate this natural process to harness sunlight, converting carbon dioxide into hydrogen and carbon-based fuels.



Jan Kern, a scientist at Berkeley Lab and co-author of the study, explained the potential implications of the findings: “The more we learn about how nature does it, the closer we get to using those same principles in human-made processes, including ideas for artificial photosynthesis as a clean and sustainable energy source.”&nbsp;



Fellow co-author and Berkeley Lab scientist Junko Yano added, “Photosystem II is giving us the blueprint for how to optimize our clean energy sources and avoid dead ends and dangerous side products that damage the system. What we once thought was just fundamental science could become a promising avenue to improving our energy technologies.”



<h2 id="h-using-a-baseball-analogy-to-explain-photosynthesis">Using a baseball analogy to explain photosynthesis</h2>



During photosynthesis, the oxygen-evolving center of Photosystem II - a cluster comprising four manganese atoms, one calcium atom, and connecting oxygen atoms - facilitates a series of complex chemical reactions responsible for splitting water molecules and releasing molecular oxygen.&nbsp;



The center cycles through four stable oxidation states (S0 through S3) when exposed to sunlight. This process can be likened to a baseball game, where S0 represents a player on home base prepared to bat, while S1-S3 correspond to players on first, second, and third bases.



As a player progresses from one base to the next with each successful hit, the oxygen-evolving center similarly advances through the oxidation states with each absorbed photon of sunlight. Once the fourth ball is hit and the player reaches home, a run is scored; in the case of Photosystem II, a molecule of breathable oxygen is released.&nbsp;



The scientists probed the atomic structure of a cluster in cyanobacteria samples. They excited the samples with optical light and used ultrafast X-ray pulses from the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) and the SPring-8 Angstrom Compact free electron LAser (SACLA) to collect data.



This technique allowed the researchers to image, for the first time, the transient state (S4) where two oxygen atoms bond and release an oxygen molecule. The data also revealed additional, previously unseen steps in this reaction.&nbsp;



"It’s really going to change the way we think about Photosystem II. Although we can't say we have a unique mechanism based on the data yet, we can exclude some models and ideas people have proposed over the last few decades," said Uwe Bergmann, a co-author of the study and a scientist and professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.



<h2 id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The study is part of a series conducted by the team over the past decade, with earlier work focusing on observing the photosynthetic cycle at the temperature at which it occurs in nature. Vittal Yachandra, a co-author and scientist at Berkeley Lab, explained the complexity of Photosystem II, stating, "There are several things happening at different parts of Photosystem II and they all have to come together in the end for the reaction to succeed."



To further their understanding, the researchers plan to capture more snapshots of the process. Jan Kern acknowledged that there are still aspects of the process that remain elusive, emphasizing the need for additional snapshots.&nbsp;



Overcoming the challenges posed by faint X-ray signals and low repetition rates of existing X-ray lasers like LCLS and SACLA required years of effort and data collection.



However, with the LCLS-II upgrade scheduled to come online later this year, the repetition rate will increase dramatically, from 120 pulses per second to up to a million per second.&nbsp;



Bergmann expressed enthusiasm for the future of the research, saying, "With these upgrades, we will be able to collect several days' worth of data in just a few hours. We will also be able to use soft X-rays to further understand the chemical changes happening in the system. These new capabilities will continue to drive this research forward and shed new light on photosynthesis."



This groundbreaking research not only demystifies the complex process of photosynthesis but also offers promising avenues for developing sustainable energy solutions.



<h2 id="h-more-about-photosynthesis">More about photosynthesis</h2>



Photosynthesis is a fundamental biological process that occurs in plants, algae, and certain types of bacteria, such as cyanobacteria. It plays a critical role in maintaining Earth's ecosystems and regulating the planet's climate by converting sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) into glucose and oxygen.



In this process, plants absorb sunlight through a pigment called chlorophyll, which is found in specialized organelles called chloroplasts. The energy from sunlight drives a series of chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, a type of sugar that plants use for energy and growth. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of these reactions, which is vital for the survival of many living organisms, including humans and animals.



<h3 id="h-photosynthesis-serves-several-essential-functions-in-earth-s-ecosystems">Photosynthesis serves several essential functions in Earth's ecosystems:</h3>



<h4 id="h-oxygen-production">Oxygen production</h4>



The oxygen released during photosynthesis is crucial for the survival of aerobic organisms, including humans and animals, who rely on it for respiration. The process is responsible for producing the majority of the planet's atmospheric oxygen.



<h4 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h4>



Photosynthesis helps reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by using it to produce glucose. This process is essential in mitigating the greenhouse effect, as increased levels of CO2 can contribute to global warming.



<h4 id="h-energy-source-for-food-chains">Energy source for food chains</h4>



Photosynthesis enables plants to produce glucose, which serves as a primary energy source for many organisms. Herbivores consume plants to obtain energy, and carnivores, in turn, consume herbivores. As such, photosynthesis forms the foundation of most food chains and supports the survival and growth of countless species.



<h4 id="h-soil-formation-and-nutrient-recycling">Soil formation and nutrient recycling</h4>



Dead plant material decomposes and returns nutrients to the soil, enriching it and allowing new plants to grow. Photosynthesis, therefore, plays a vital role in maintaining soil fertility and promoting nutrient cycling in ecosystems.



<h4 id="h-climate-regulation">Climate regulation</h4>



Photosynthesis helps regulate Earth's climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen. This process also contributes to the formation of clouds through the process of transpiration, where plants release water vapor, which eventually condenses to form clouds. Clouds play a crucial role in reflecting sunlight back into space, helping to regulate Earth's temperature.



In summary, photosynthesis is a crucial process that supports life on Earth by producing oxygen, sequestering carbon dioxide, forming the basis of food chains, contributing to soil formation and nutrient recycling, and helping regulate the planet's climate.



—-



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Scientists have finally decoded the process of photosynthesis

After decades of hard work and frustrating setbacks, scientists have...

Prudhoe Bay is located on the Arctic Coastal Plain in Alaska and is one of the most important avian breeding grounds in the world, with millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-and-light-pollution-alter-the-breeding-behavior-of-birds/">birds</a> nesting here each year, before migrating to distant places such as Central and South America, Africa, Russia, Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and even Antarctica.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, Prudhoe Bay is also a site of intensive energy development which is now likely to increase due to the recently approved $8 billion Willow oil project - a controversial, long-term effort to drill in Alaska’s largest still untouched regions.



By analyzing 17 years of migratory bird-nesting data in Prudhoe Bay, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) has now found that nest survival decreased substantially in the vicinity of high-use oil and gas infrastructure and the various disturbances it produces, including noise, traffic, dust, and air pollution.



“Tundra-breeding birds contend with short breeding seasons, harsh climatic conditions, and now, rapidly changing, variable, and unpredictable environmental conditions caused by climate change. Additionally, as we demonstrate here, those breeding in industrial areas are impacted by human activities too,” said study co-author Martin Robards, the Regional Director of WCS’s Arctic Beringia Program.&nbsp;



“The urgency to better understand these relationships and mitigate impacts cannot be expressed strongly enough, given widely acknowledged declines in these species, our national and global obligations to protect migratory birds, and the fact that the potential impacts are so large.”



By monitoring 1265 shorebird nests, 378 passerine (songbird) nests, and 231 waterfowl nests, the experts examined the factors influencing reproductive parameters of breeding birds at Prudhoe Bay between 2003 and 2019.&nbsp;



The investigation revealed that nest survival decreased significantly close to high-use infrastructure – a worrisome aspect that previous short-term studies were unable to detect, suggesting that long-term datasets are crucial for understanding how climate change and increased anthropogenic activities impact breeding birds.



Some of the factors linked to industrial development which may directly or indirectly influence nesting include habitat degradation through hydrology alteration and road dust, noise, air pollution, vehicle and aircraft traffic, and the increased numbers of nest predator populations associated with development, such as ravens, Arctic foxes, or glaucous gulls.



“In the face of current uncertainty, to protect migratory birds, the U.S. Government should ensure the most important bird areas continue to be set aside, as has been done through the NPR-A’s Special Areas [regions from the 36,875 square mile National Petroleum Reserve west of Prudhoe Bay that are set aside from production due to their significant ecological importance or subsistence value],” concluded John Calvelli, the Executive Vice President for Public Affairs at WCS.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jav.03075">Journal of Avian Biology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Oil and gas infrastructure harms breeding birds in Alaska

Prudhoe Bay is located on the Arctic Coastal Plain in...

Scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have discovered the first direct evidence of musth, a testosterone-driven episode of heightened aggression against rival males, in adult male woolly mammoths.&nbsp;



The findings, based on traces of sex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-hormone-that-coordinates-plant-regeneration/">hormones</a> extracted from a woolly mammoth's tusk, reveal that the extinct species experienced musth in a manner similar to modern elephants.



While elevated testosterone levels during musth in male elephants had previously been detected through blood and urine tests, musth battles in extinct relatives of modern elephants were only inferred from indirect evidence such as skeletal injuries and broken tusk tips.&nbsp;



However, this new study, published online in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06020-9">Nature</a>, is the first to demonstrate that testosterone levels are recorded in the growth layers of both mammoth and elephant tusks.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="z7vJs5AAzj-2720787-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-what-the-scientists-learned">What the scientists learned</h2>



The researchers, in collaboration with their international colleagues, reported annually recurring testosterone surges up to ten times higher than baseline levels within a permafrost-preserved woolly mammoth tusk from Siberia.&nbsp;



The adult male mammoth in question lived more than 33,000 years ago. The study authors also found that the testosterone surges seen in the mammoth tusk are consistent with musth-related testosterone peaks observed in an African bull elephant tusk.



"Temporal patterns of testosterone preserved in fossil tusks show that, like modern elephants, mature bull mammoths experienced musth," said study lead author Michael Cherney, a research affiliate at the U-M Museum of Paleontology and a research fellow at the U-M Medical School.



The research establishes that both modern and ancient tusks hold traces of testosterone and other steroid hormones. These compounds are incorporated into dentin, the mineralized tissue that constitutes the interior portion of all teeth. Tusks are, in fact, elongated upper incisor teeth.



"This study establishes dentin as a useful repository for some hormones and sets the stage for further advances in the developing field of paleoendocrinology," Cherney said. "In addition to broad applications in zoology and paleontology, tooth-hormone records could support medical, forensic, and archaeological studies."



<h2 id="h-examining-ancient-hormones-from-tusk-samples">Examining ancient hormones from tusk samples</h2>



Hormones, which are signaling molecules that help regulate physiology and behavior, have previously been analyzed in human and animal hair, nails, bones, and teeth in both modern and ancient contexts. However, the significance and value of such hormone records have been subject to ongoing scrutiny and debate.&nbsp;



The authors of the new Nature study believe that their findings should help change this perception by demonstrating that steroid records in teeth can provide meaningful biological information that sometimes persists for thousands of years.



"Tusks hold particular promise for reconstructing aspects of mammoth life history because they preserve a record of growth in layers of dentin that form throughout an individual's life," explained study co-author Daniel Fisher, a curator at the U-M Museum of Paleontology and professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences.



"Because musth is associated with dramatically elevated testosterone in modern elephants, it provides a starting point for assessing the feasibility of using hormones preserved in tusk growth records to investigate temporal changes in endocrine physiology," added Fisher.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The research team developed innovative methods to extract steroids from tusk dentin, which has enabled them to investigate the hormone levels of adult African bull elephants and two adult woolly mammoths from Siberia—one male and one female. The samples were obtained in accordance with relevant laws and appropriate permits.&nbsp;



This groundbreaking research not only offers valuable insights into the hormone levels of these ancient animals but also has potential applications in various fields, including reproductive ecology, life history, population dynamics, disease, and behavior in both modern and prehistoric contexts.



The researchers used CT scans to identify annual growth increments within the tusks. A tiny drill bit, operated under a microscope and moved across a block of dentin using computer-actuated stepper motors, was employed to grind contiguous half-millimeter-wide samples representing approximately monthly intervals of dentin growth. The powder produced during the milling process was collected and chemically analyzed.



<h3 id="h-measuring-the-hormone-levels">Measuring the hormone levels</h3>



To measure the steroids in tusk dentin with a mass spectrometer, U-M endocrinologist and study co-author Professor Rich Auchus developed new methods.



"We had developed steroid mass spectrometry methods for human blood and saliva samples, and we have used them extensively for clinical research studies. But never in a million years did I imagine that we would be using these techniques to explore 'paleoendocrinology,'" said Professor Auchus.



"We did have to modify the method some, because those tusk powders were the dirtiest samples we ever analyzed. When Mike (Cherney) showed me the data from the elephant tusks, I was flabbergasted. Then we saw the same patterns in the mammoth - wow!"



Radiocarbon dating revealed that the male woolly mammoth lived 33,291 to 38,866 years ago, while the female woolly mammoth's tusk was carbon-dated to between 5,597 and 5,885 years before present.&nbsp;



The researchers found that, as expected, the female woolly mammoth's tusk showed little variation in testosterone levels over time, and the average testosterone level was lower than the lowest values in the male mammoth's tusk records.



"With reliable results for some steroids from samples as small as 5 mg of dentin, these methods could be used to investigate records of organisms with smaller teeth, including humans and other hominids," wrote the study authors.



"This is one of the reasons we come to work every morning at the University of Michigan: to make discoveries that empower us to see the world in new ways," said study co-author Perrin Selcer of the U-M Department of History. He also emphasized the importance of collaboration across schools and the university's instrumentation infrastructure.



<h2 id="h-more-about-woolly-mammoths">More about Woolly mammoths</h2>



Woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) were large, prehistoric mammals closely related to modern-day elephants. They roamed the Earth during the last ice age, around 400,000 to 4,000 years ago, and were most commonly found in the northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia.



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



Woolly mammoths were well-adapted to the cold, harsh environments they inhabited. They stood around 9 to 11 feet tall at the shoulder and weighed between 4.5 to 6.8 metric tons. Their most distinctive features were their long, curved tusks, which could grow up to 16 feet in length. These tusks were used for fighting, digging for food, and clearing snow.



Woolly mammoths were covered in a thick, shaggy coat of hair that could be up to 3 feet long, providing insulation against the cold. Underneath the hair was a layer of fat up to 4 inches thick, which helped to conserve heat and store energy. Their large, flat, and furry ears were smaller than those of modern elephants, which helped to reduce heat loss.



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Woolly mammoths were herbivores, primarily feeding on grasses, shrubs, and other vegetation. Due to the cold climate and frozen ground, they used their tusks and trunk to dig through snow and ice to reach plants. The low nutritional value of their diet meant that they had to consume large quantities of food daily.



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior</h3>



Woolly mammoths are believed to have lived in social groups, similar to modern elephants. These groups were likely led by a dominant female, or matriarch, and consisted of related females and their offspring. Adult males usually lived apart from the group, either alone or in smaller, loosely associated bachelor groups. Males would join female groups during mating season, engaging in competitive behavior to establish dominance and win mating rights.



<h3 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h3>



The exact cause of the woolly mammoth's extinction remains a subject of debate among scientists. It is widely believed that a combination of factors, including climate change, habitat loss, and overhunting by humans, led to their decline and eventual disappearance. As the Earth warmed at the end of the last ice age, the mammoths' cold-adapted habitats shrank, and they faced increased competition for resources from other species. Additionally, human populations expanded, and it is thought that overhunting further contributed to the woolly mammoth's extinction.



<h3 id="h-recent-discoveries">Recent discoveries</h3>



Thanks to the preserved remains of woolly mammoths found in the permafrost of Siberia and other Arctic regions, scientists have been able to study their DNA and learn more about their biology, behavior, and extinction. These discoveries have also fueled discussions about the possibility of using genetic engineering to "resurrect" the species through de-extinction efforts. However, the ethical and ecological implications of such endeavors remain the subject of ongoing debate.



image Credit: University of Michigan



—-



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Woolly mammoths had testosterone-driven aggression during mating season

Scientists at the University of Michigan have discovered the first...

Artist Impress of a Star Devouring One of Its Planets

In a huge astronomical discovery, astronomers have pieced together an understanding of the life cycle of stars and their interactions with surrounding planetary systems as they age.&nbsp;



By studying countless stars at various stages of their evolution, researchers have confirmed that when a Sun-like star nears the end of its life, it can expand anywhere from 100 to 1000 times its original size. This dramatic expansion often results in the engulfment of the system's inner planets, a rare event estimated to occur only a few times each year across the entire Milky Way.



Although past observations have confirmed the aftermath of such planetary engulfments, astronomers have never actually witnessed one in progress. That changed recently, thanks to the power of the Gemini South Adaptive Optics Imager (GSAOI) on Gemini South, one half of the <a href="https://www.gemini.edu/">International Gemini Observatory</a>, operated by NSF's NOIRLab.&nbsp;



For the first time, astronomers have observed direct evidence of a dying star expanding to engulf one of its planets (see image <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/983999">here</a>).



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<h2 id="h-what-astronomers-saw">What astronomers saw</h2>



The evidence came in the form of a telltale "long and low-energy" outburst from a star located approximately 13,000 light-years from Earth in the Milky Way. This event, the devouring of a planet by an engorged star, is believed to foreshadow the ultimate fate of Mercury, Venus, and Earth when our Sun begins its death throes in about five billion years.



"These observations provide a new perspective on finding and studying the billions of stars in our Milky Way that have already consumed their planets," said Ryan Lau, NOIRLab astronomer and co-author of the study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05842-x">Nature</a>.



Throughout most of its life, a Sun-like star fuses hydrogen into helium within its hot, dense core. This fusion process allows the star to push back against the crushing weight of its outer layers.



However, when the core's hydrogen supply runs out, the star begins fusing helium into carbon, while hydrogen fusion migrates to the star's outer layers. This shift causes the outer layers to expand, transforming the Sun-like star into a red giant.



Unfortunately, this transformation often spells doom for any planets located within the inner reaches of the star's planetary system. As the star's surface expands to engulf one of its planets, their interaction triggers a spectacular outburst of energy and material.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, this process puts the brakes on the planet's orbital velocity, causing it to plunge into the star.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The initial hints of this rare event were discovered through optical images from the Zwicky Transient Facility. NASA's Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (NEOWISE), which specializes in peering into dusty environments in search of outbursts and transient events, then confirmed the engulfment event, named ZTF SLRN-2020.



"Our team's custom reanalysis of all-sky infrared maps from NEOWISE exemplifies the vast discovery potential of archival survey data sets," said NOIRLab astronomer Aaron Meisner.



Distinguishing a planetary-engulfment outburst from other types of outbursts, such as solar-flare-type events and coronal-mass ejections, is challenging.&nbsp;



High-resolution observations are needed to pinpoint the location of an outburst and long-term measurements of its brightness without contamination from nearby stars. Gemini South, with its adaptive-optics capabilities, provided the essential data for this observation.



"Gemini South continues to expand our understanding of the Universe and these new observations support predictions for the future of our own planet," said NSF Gemini Observatory program director Martin Still. "This discovery is a wonderful example of the feats we can accomplish when we combine world-class telescope operations and cutting-edge scientific collaboration."



"With these revolutionary new optical and infrared surveys, we are now witnessing such events happen in real time in our own Milky Way - a testament to our almost certain future as a planet," said Kishalay De, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and lead author on the paper.



<h2 id="h-more-details-about-what-the-astronomers-found">More details about what the astronomers found</h2>



The outburst resulting from the planetary engulfment lasted approximately 100 days, and the characteristics of its light curve, as well as the ejected material, provided astronomers with information about the mass of the star and its engulfed planet. The ejected material consisted of about 33 Earth masses of hydrogen and about 0.33 Earth masses of dust.



"That's more star- and planet-forming material being recycled, or burped out, into the interstellar medium thanks to the star eating the planet," said Lau. The team estimated that the progenitor star is about 0.8−1.5 times the mass of our Sun, while the engulfed planet was 1−10 times the mass of Jupiter.



Now that the signatures of a planetary engulfment have been identified for the first time, astronomers have improved metrics they can use to search for similar events happening elsewhere in the cosmos. This information will be particularly important when the Vera C. Rubin Observatory comes online in 2025.



For instance, the observed effects of chemical pollution on the remnant star, when seen elsewhere, can hint that an engulfment has taken place. The interpretation of this event also provides evidence for a missing link in our understanding of the evolution and final fates of planetary systems, including our own.



"I think there's something pretty remarkable about these results that speaks to the transience of our existence," said Lau. "After the billions of years that span the lifetime of our Solar System, our own end stages will likely conclude in a final flash that lasts only a few months."



The recent observations of this phenomenon have given astronomers a unique opportunity to study the interactions between dying stars and their planetary systems, shedding light on the life cycle of stars and the fates of their planets.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-life-cycle-of-stars">More about the life cycle of stars&nbsp;</h2>



 The life cycle of a star depends on its mass, which determines its longevity and the stages it goes through during its life. Here is an overview of the typical life cycle of a star:



<h3 id="h-stellar-birth">Stellar birth</h3>



Stars form in large, cold molecular clouds primarily composed of hydrogen gas and dust. Gravity causes the denser regions of the cloud to collapse, forming a rotating protostar. As the protostar continues to contract, its temperature and pressure increase, eventually reaching the point where nuclear fusion can begin.



<h3 id="h-main-sequence">Main sequence</h3>



This is the longest stage in a star's life, where it spends the majority of its time. Nuclear fusion occurs in the core of the star, where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing a tremendous amount of energy in the form of light and heat. This energy counteracts the inward pull of gravity, maintaining the star's size and stability. The more massive a star is, the shorter its main sequence stage, as it burns through its fuel more rapidly.



<h3 id="h-red-giant-or-supergiant-phase">Red giant or supergiant phase&nbsp;</h3>



As the hydrogen in the core is depleted, the core contracts, and hydrogen fusion moves to the outer layers. The core heats up, allowing helium to fuse into carbon (and oxygen in more massive stars). The outer layers of the star expand and cool, causing it to become a red giant or, in the case of more massive stars, a red supergiant. This phase marks the beginning of the end for a star's life.



<h3 id="h-stellar-death-the-fate-of-a-star-depends-on-its-mass">Stellar death: The fate of a star depends on its mass:</h3>



<h4 id="h-low-mass-stars-like-our-sun">Low-mass stars (like our Sun)</h4>



After the red giant phase, the outer layers of the star are expelled into space, forming a planetary nebula. The remaining core becomes a white dwarf, which eventually cools and fades over billions of years, turning into a black dwarf (although none exist yet in the universe, as the process takes longer than the current age of the universe).



<h4 id="h-medium-mass-stars">Medium-mass stars&nbsp;</h4>



These stars may undergo a similar process as low-mass stars, but with more intense planetary nebulae and a more massive white dwarf at the end.



<h4 id="h-high-mass-stars">High-mass stars</h4>



These stars end their lives in a violent explosion known as a supernova. The core collapses under the force of gravity, causing the outer layers to be ejected into space. The remaining core can form a neutron star, an incredibly dense object made almost entirely of neutrons. If the core is massive enough, it may collapse further and form a black hole, an object with such strong gravity that not even light can escape it.



<h3 id="h-stellar-remnants">Stellar remnants</h3>



The remnants of a star, whether a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole, continue to evolve over time. White dwarfs eventually cool and become black dwarfs, while neutron stars and black holes can interact with their surroundings, such as accreting matter from nearby objects or merging with other compact remnants.



Throughout their life cycles, stars play a crucial role in the universe. They create and disperse heavy elements through supernovae and planetary nebulae, which contribute to the formation of new stars, planets, and even life.



Image Credit: International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/M. Garlick/M. Zamani



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How Earth will meet its demise: Astronomers witness a star devour a planet

In a huge astronomical discovery, astronomers have pieced together an...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-environment/">Antibiotic resistance</a> in bacteria is becoming a major public health concern worldwide. The extensive use of antibiotics to sustain human activities has led to the acquisition of antibiotic-resistance genes in bacteria and their massive spread into the environment.&nbsp;



Now, by sampling clouds at an atmospheric research station on top of the Puy de Dôme summit, a dormant volcano in France’s Massif Central, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ulaval.ca/en">Laval University</a> in Canada and the <a href="https://www.uca.fr/en">University of Clermont Auvergne</a> in France has found that the atmosphere can be a large-scale dissemination route for bacteria carrying antibiotic-resistance genes.



“This is the first study to show that clouds harbor antibiotic resistance genes of bacterial origin in concentrations comparable to other natural environments,” said lead author Florent Rossi, a postdoctoral fellow specializing in bioaerosols at Laval.



The scientists conducted 12 cloud sampling sessions over a period of two years using high-flow rate “vacuums.” The analysis of these samples revealed that, on average, they contained approximately 8,000 bacteria per milliliter of cloud water. Moreover, between five and 50 percent of them could be alive and potentially active.&nbsp;



“These bacteria usually live on the surface of vegetation or soil. They are aerosolized by the wind or by human activities, and some of them rise into the atmosphere and participate in the formation of clouds,” Rossi explained.



By using this data, the experts measured the concentration of 29 sub-types of antibiotic-resistance genes found in atmospheric air masses, and discovered that clouds contained an average of 20,800 copies of antibiotic-resistance genes per millimeter of cloud water.&nbsp;



“Oceanic clouds and continental clouds each have their signature of antibiotic-resistance genes. For example, continental clouds contain more antibiotic-resistance genes used in animal production,” Rossi said.



Although airborne transport of such genes is a natural phenomenon, the massive use of antibiotics in agriculture and medicine has played a major role in the proliferation of these resistant strains and their widespread dissemination in the environment.&nbsp;



“Our study shows that clouds are an important pathway for antibiotic-resistance genes spreading over short and long ranges. Ideally, we would like to locate emission sources resulting from human activities to limit the dispersal of these genes,” Rossi concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161264">Science of the Total Environment</a>.&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have been found in clouds

Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is becoming a major public health...

Scientists from <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a> and the University of Toulouse in France have discovered the secret behind the unique bubble behavior in Champagne, explaining why its bubbles rise in a straight line compared to other carbonated beverages like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/belgian-microbiologists-improve-the-flavor-of-beer/">beer</a> or soda.&nbsp;



This research not only sheds light on the science behind the formation of bubbles in Champagne but also offers valuable insights into fluid mechanics, with potential applications in other bubbly flows.



The findings, recently published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/">Physical Review Fluids</a>, are the culmination of a series of numerical and physical experiments that involved pouring glasses of Champagne, beer, sparkling water, and sparkling wine.&nbsp;



The researchers aimed to investigate the stability of bubble chains in carbonated drinks and understand the fluid mechanics that give each beverage its distinct characteristics.



Study senior author Roberto Zenit, an engineering professor at Brown, explained the significance of the research: “This is the type of research that I've been working out for years. Most people have never seen an ocean seep or an aeration tank but most of them have had a soda, a beer or a glass of Champagne. By talking about Champagne and beer, our master plan is to make people understand that fluid mechanics is important in their daily lives.”



When enjoying carbonated beverages, the formation of bubbles and fizz is a key part of the overall experience. In Champagne and sparkling wine, gas bubbles continuously rise to the top in a single-file line and persist for some time, forming what is known as a stable bubble chain.&nbsp;



In contrast, bubble chains in other carbonated drinks like beer tend to be unstable, with many bubbles veering off to the side and appearing as if multiple bubbles are emerging simultaneously.



<h2 id="h-why-study-bubbles">Why study bubbles?</h2>



The researchers sought to understand the mechanics behind stable bubble chains and explore if they could recreate them, making unstable chains as stable as those in Champagne or prosecco.



The experiments revealed that the stable bubble chains in Champagne and other sparkling wines are due to the presence of ingredients that act as soap-like compounds called surfactants. These surfactant-like molecules help reduce the tension between the liquid and gas bubbles, enabling a smooth rise to the top.



“The theory is that in Champagne, these contaminants that act as surfactants are the good stuff,” said Zenit. “These protein molecules that give flavor and uniqueness to the liquid are what makes the bubble chains they produce stable.”



The stability of bubbles in carbonated beverages is influenced by the size of the bubbles themselves and the presence of surfactant-like molecules.&nbsp;



The research, which involved pouring glasses of various carbonated beverages such as Pellegrino sparkling water, Tecate beer, Charles de Cazanove Champagne, and a Spanish-style brut, sheds light on the fluid mechanics behind bubble formation and has potential applications in bubbly flows.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The experiments revealed that chains with large bubbles have a wake similar to those with contaminants, resulting in a smooth rise and stable chains. However, bubbles in beverages are generally small, making surfactants crucial for producing straight and stable chains.&nbsp;



While beer also contains surfactant-like molecules, the stability of its bubbles varies depending on the type of beer. In contrast, bubbles in carbonated water are always unstable due to the absence of contaminants that help them move smoothly through the wake flows left behind by other bubbles in the chain.



“This wake, this velocity disturbance, causes the bubbles to be knocked out. Instead of having one line, the bubbles end up going up in more of a cone," explained Professor Zenit.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The findings have implications beyond understanding the science behind celebratory toasts. They provide a general framework for understanding the formation of clusters in bubbly flows, which has both economic and societal value.&nbsp;



Technologies that utilize bubble-induced mixing, such as aeration tanks at water treatment facilities, would benefit from a clearer understanding of bubble clustering, origins, and predictability. Additionally, understanding these flows could help explain ocean seeps, where methane and carbon dioxide emerge from the ocean floor.



<h2 id="h-how-to-study-bubble-chains">How to study bubble chains</h2>



To study bubble chains and their stability, the researchers used a small rectangular plexiglass container filled with liquid and inserted a needle at the bottom to pump in gas, creating different types of bubble chains.&nbsp;



They gradually added surfactants or increased bubble size and discovered that making bubbles larger could stabilize unstable bubble chains even without surfactants. Similarly, adding surfactants to fixed bubble sizes also resulted in the transition from unstable to stable chains.



The team performed numerical simulations on a computer to answer questions that physical experiments could not address, such as calculating the amount of surfactants in the gas bubbles, the weight of the bubbles, and their precise velocity.



The researchers plan to continue exploring the mechanics of stable bubble chains and apply their findings to various aspects of fluid mechanics, particularly in bubbly flows. Zenit emphasized their ongoing interest: “We’re interested in how these bubbles move and their relationship to industrial applications and in nature.”



This research not only offers valuable insights into the science behind the behavior of bubbles in carbonated beverages but also opens the door to new applications in fluid mechanics and bubbly flows, potentially benefiting a range of industries and natural processes.



<h2 id="h-more-about-carbonation">More about carbonation</h2>



Carbonation is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in a liquid, typically water or a beverage. This process creates the fizzy sensation and bubbly appearance associated with carbonated drinks such as soda, sparkling water, beer, and Champagne. The carbonation process can occur naturally through fermentation, as in beer and some sparkling wines, or artificially by injecting pressurized carbon dioxide into the liquid.



When a carbonated drink is poured or opened, the pressure inside the container decreases, causing the carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid to come out of solution and form gas bubbles.



The bubbles are attracted to imperfections or rough spots on the container or glass, known as nucleation sites, where they begin to grow. The bubbles in carbonated drinks can also form around tiny particles or impurities in the liquid.



The size, stability, and behavior of the bubbles in carbonated beverages can vary depending on several factors:



<h3 id="h-concentration-of-dissolved-co2">Concentration of dissolved CO2</h3>



The more CO2 dissolved in the liquid, the more bubbles will be produced, and the fizzier the drink will be.



<h3 id="h-temperature">Temperature</h3>



Cold liquids can hold more dissolved CO2 than warm liquids. As a result, carbonated beverages are usually served cold to maintain their fizziness.



<h3 id="h-presence-of-surfactants">Presence of surfactants</h3>



Surfactant-like molecules, which can be naturally occurring or added to the beverage, can influence bubble formation and behavior. They reduce surface tension between the liquid and gas bubbles, helping create more stable bubble chains, as seen in Champagne and some sparkling wines.



<h3 id="h-bubble-size">Bubble size</h3>



The size of the bubbles can impact their stability and movement. Larger bubbles tend to rise more quickly and create more stable chains than smaller bubbles.



<h3 id="h-beverage-composition">Beverage composition</h3>



The ingredients and composition of a drink can affect the carbonation process. For example, beer contains proteins and other compounds that may influence bubble behavior, while sugar in soda can make the liquid more viscous, which affects the size and rise of the bubbles.



Understanding the science behind carbonation and bubbles in drinks has various applications beyond the beverage industry, including fluid mechanics, water treatment, and environmental research.&nbsp;



By studying the behavior of bubbles in carbonated beverages, researchers can gain insights into bubbly flows and improve technologies and processes that rely on the movement and interaction of gas bubbles in liquids.



—-



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New discovery explains what makes Champagne bubbles so special

Scientists from Brown University and the University of Toulouse in...

Cigarette butts, the most prevalent form of litter worldwide, have been found to release thousands of toxic chemicals and microplastic fibers harmful to aquatic life, according to a recent study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a>. In light of these findings, the scientists involved in the research are urging a total ban on cigarette filters.



Cigarette butts are an all-too-familiar sight in our environment, scattered across sidewalks, bus stops, parks, and beaches. These unsightly remnants of cigarette smoking are not only an eyesore but also pose a significant threat to the environment.&nbsp;



The researchers have discovered that the microfibers and chemicals leaking from cigarette filters are toxic to aquatic larvae.



"The filter is full of thousands of toxic chemicals and microplastic fibers, so it’s not just any piece of plastic that’s being discarded into the environment. It’s hazardous waste," said Bethanie Carney Almroth, Professor of Ecotoxicology at the University of Gothenburg.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://microplastics.springeropen.com/">Microplastics and Nanoplastics</a>, examined the effects of the toxins present in cigarette filters, both before and after smoking, on aquatic mosquito larvae. The researchers discovered that these toxins increased the mortality rate among mosquito larvae by 20 percent.



Prior research has already established the adverse effects of toxins found in cigarette filters on various aquatic organisms. For instance, fish can perish when exposed to concentrations of toxins equivalent to those released by just two cigarette butts in one liter of water for four days.



The evidence is clear: cigarette filters are a significant environmental hazard, posing a threat to aquatic life and ecosystems. By shedding light on the toxic nature of cigarette filters and their impact on aquatic organisms, the Gothenburg team hopes to spur necessary changes in policy and regulation.&nbsp;



The researchers argue that the only way to truly protect the environment and its inhabitants from the harmful effects of cigarette filters is through a comprehensive ban.



“Cigarette filters are also a major source of the microplastics that find their way into our environment – something we know has a major negative impact on biological life. The EU has already classified cigarette filters as hazardous waste,” said Professor Carney Almroth.



Starting from the new year, tobacco producers will be responsible for footing the bill to clean up cigarette butts. However, simply providing more ashtrays may not be an adequate solution.&nbsp;



The research team observed smokers' behavior when it comes to extinguishing their cigarettes in Gothenburg, Sweden. They found that many people discard their cigarette butts on the ground even when ashtrays are available nearby.



"The clean-up costs the municipalities millions of kronor, but there will still be many cigarette butts in the environment," said Professor Carney Almroth.



"We are now conducting a survey of plastic litter across all of Sweden with the aid of community science in what we’re calling the Plastics experiment. That way, we can work with school children and others to get better figures on where and how many cigarette butts with filters are found in the environment, in addition to other problematic plastic products."



Professor Carney Almroth believes there is no valid justification for filters to remain a component of cigarettes. She, along with other experts, has penned an opinion piece in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of the Total Environment</a>, arguing that cigarette butts are not only the most common litter item globally but also merely a marketing tactic with little benefit to the smoker, contrary to popular belief.



"That’s why they have to be taken off the market entirely," said Professor Carney Almroth. "It’s not the right approach to focus on making tobacco producers pay for cleaning up the filters. The problem should be prevented in the first place, rather than cleaned up later."



The impending shift in responsibility for cigarette butt clean-up costs to tobacco producers is a step in the right direction, but it may not be sufficient in addressing the broader environmental issues related to cigarette filters.&nbsp;



Researchers like Professor Carney Almroth advocate for a more proactive and comprehensive approach, including the complete removal of filters from the market. By doing so, we can prevent further harm to the environment and more effectively tackle the problem at its source, rather than relying on clean-up efforts as a reactive measure.



<h2 id="h-more-about-cigarettes-and-their-environmental-impact">More about cigarettes and their environmental impact</h2>



Cigarettes have a far-reaching impact on the global environment, affecting not only human health but also air, water, and soil quality, as well as wildlife. The various stages of cigarette production, consumption, and disposal contribute to environmental degradation in several ways:



<h3 id="h-deforestation-and-habitat-destruction">Deforestation and habitat destruction</h3>



Tobacco cultivation requires vast amounts of land, which often leads to deforestation and habitat destruction. As forests are cleared for tobacco farming, the loss of tree cover contributes to increased greenhouse gas emissions and disrupts local ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-pesticide-and-fertilizer-use">Pesticide and fertilizer use</h3>



Tobacco farming relies heavily on the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. These chemicals can leach into the soil, contaminating groundwater and local water sources, and negatively affect both human health and aquatic life.



<h3 id="h-air-pollution">Air pollution</h3>



Cigarette smoke contains thousands of chemicals, many of which are harmful pollutants. When a cigarette is smoked, these pollutants are released into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution and exacerbating respiratory issues for those exposed to secondhand smoke.



<h3 id="h-cigarette-butts-and-litter">Cigarette butts and litter</h3>



Cigarette filters, or butts, are the most common form of litter worldwide. These filters, which contain toxic chemicals and microplastics, often end up in waterways and oceans, posing a significant threat to aquatic life. Animals may mistake cigarette butts for food, which can lead to ingestion of harmful chemicals and cause injury or death.



<h3 id="h-greenhouse-gas-emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h3>



The entire lifecycle of cigarettes, from tobacco cultivation to manufacturing and transportation, generates greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions contribute to climate change, which has far-reaching consequences for ecosystems and human health globally.



<h3 id="h-resource-consumption">Resource consumption</h3>



The production of cigarettes requires substantial amounts of water, energy, and other resources. This consumption contributes to the depletion of natural resources and places additional strain on the environment.



In conclusion, the environmental impact of cigarettes is multifaceted, touching upon various aspects of the global environment. From deforestation and pollution to waste generation and resource consumption, cigarettes pose a significant challenge to environmental sustainability.&nbsp;



Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach, including stricter regulations on tobacco production, public awareness campaigns, and support for alternative livelihoods for tobacco farmers.



—-



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Cigarette butts leak thousands of deadly toxins into the environment

Cigarette butts, the most prevalent form of litter worldwide, have...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...