Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. 



If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery.



A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-civilization-and-technology">Oxygen, civilization, and technology</h2>



Leading this research are <a href="https://www.pas.rochester.edu/people/faculty/frank_adam/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adam Frank</a>, the Helen F. and Fred H. Gowen Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Rochester, and <a href="https://www-en.fisica.uniroma2.it/phone-directory/balbia_en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amedeo Balbi</a>, an associate professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Roma Tor Vergata, Italy.



Together with their team, they set out to explore whether oxygen is a key factor in allowing extraterrestrial civilizations to emerge and thrive through the development of technology.



“We are ready to find signatures of life on alien worlds,” Frank says. “But how do the [oxygen] conditions on a planet tell us about the possibilities for intelligent, technology-producing life?” 



This question drives efforts to examine oxygen’s role beyond respiration and metabolism, especially in relation to large-scale industrial activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-oxygen-matters-for-civilizations">Why oxygen matters for civilizations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> on Earth accounts for the bulk of our oxygen on our planet, thanks to countless organisms that use sunlight to make food. 



Because this process produces so much oxygen, it has been considered a biosignature. A planet with significant oxygen levels hints that life may be present, but Frank and Balbi argue that oxygen also has a second function.



“<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In our paper</a>, we explore whether any atmospheric composition would be compatible with the presence of advanced technology,” Balbi says. “We found that the atmospheric requirements may be quite stringent.”



The link to technology comes from open-air combustion. Smelting metals, cooking food, and powering engines all rely on oxygen. 



Any alien civilization that forges metals would need a certain percentage of oxygen in its air to keep fires burning reliably. That percentage, according to Earth’s history, appears to be around 18 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-the-18-threshold">Fire and the 18% threshold</h2>



“You might be able to get biology -- you might even be able to get intelligent creatures -- in a world that doesn’t have oxygen,” Frank says, “but without a ready source of fire, you’re never going to develop higher technology because higher technology requires fuel and melting.” 



He calls attention to fire’s role in shaping tools, infrastructure, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wellbeing-is-a-more-effective-focus-area-when-discussing-energy-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy production</a>. Metalworking, for instance, depends on sustaining flames hot enough to melt ore and craft refined structures.



Frank and Balbi refer to this requirement as an “oxygen bottleneck.” A planet might host life forms of various kinds, yet remain stuck without the combustion needed to fuel industrial breakthroughs. 



“The presence of high degrees of oxygen in the atmosphere is like a bottleneck you have to get through in order to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen in the atmosphere</a>, you’re not going to have a technological species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-create-technosignatures">Oxygen + technology create "technosignatures"</h2>



Frank thinks that exoplanets with oxygen levels at or above 18 percent should be at the top of our search list. 



“Targeting planets with high oxygen levels should be prioritized because the presence or absence of high oxygen levels in exoplanet atmospheres could be a major clue in finding potential technosignatures,” Frank says. 



Planets that exceed this level may have the capacity for factories, infrastructure, or communication networks.



Balbi notes that interpreting any possible signal of intelligent life will be challenging. 



“The implications of discovering intelligent, technological life on another planet would be huge,” adds Balbi. “Therefore, we need to be extremely cautious in interpreting possible detections. 



Their study suggests that astronomers should be skeptical of potential technosignatures from a planet with insufficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric oxygen</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technosphere-vs-biotechnosphere">Technosphere vs. biotechnosphere</h2>



Frank and Balbi’s perspective also covers the idea of a technosphere, which is the collective output of an advanced civilization. 



Factories, vehicles, and power grids all fit under this label. They rely on resources provided by the planet’s biosphere but stretch beyond purely natural processes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-technology-is-a-modern-solution-for-clean-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Burning fuels in open air</a> has been central to every major industrial leap, from forging steel to generating electricity.



When these technologies reach a global scale, they form a biotechnosphere. This term applies to the interplay of living systems and technology -- essentially, how organisms and machines coexist. 



On Earth, that includes everything from smartphones to farms, all running side by side. A well-established biotechnosphere might produce clear signals in the atmosphere: waste gases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-2024s-record-heat-unveiling-earths-climate-danger-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual heat patterns</a>, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-tap-and-bottled-water-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals not normally found in nature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-machines-and-ecosystems">Balancing machines and ecosystems</h2>



History shows that as technology expands, it can sometimes damage or alter environments. Factories might pump pollutants into the air, while deforestation removes habitats that produce oxygen. 



Yet there is an ongoing move toward cleaner energy and more efficient resource use. If any alien civilization follows a similar path, we might detect certain byproducts in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/banning-forever-chemicals-may-threaten-us-national-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered molecules</a>.



Though the focus is on oxygen, other factors matter too, such as temperature and access to metals or fuels. A planet may need stable conditions for life to progress to a point where industry becomes possible.



That said, Frank and Balbi’s findings highlight how oxygen stands out among these factors, because it directly enables combustion processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-progress-in-earth-s-past">Fire and progress in Earth’s past</h2>



Earth’s own development through advances in technology offers insight into how vital oxygen has been for technical achievements.



Once our atmosphere had enough of it, humans learned to manipulate fire for cooking and for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">making stronger materials</a>. 



From simple smithing to modern manufacturing, every stage of growth involved open-air combustion.



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have oxygen in the atmosphere, you’re not going to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



This idea underlines how a single factor -- oxygen -- can open or close the door to industrial progress, altering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decarbonizing-worlds-industrial-emissions-possible-with-current-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s entire future path</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-and-next-steps">Oxygen, technology, and next steps</h2>



Observatories now in the works may soon gather data about exoplanet atmospheres in detail. Detecting a high oxygen content could mark a world that supports advanced living organisms. 



The next task is to look for proof of industry or technology, sometimes called technosignatures. These might appear as chemical emissions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio signals</a>, or specific spectral lines.



If these two checks-- oxygen above 18 percent and evidence of artificial activity -- both yield results, we will have a strong indication that we share the universe with another technological civilization. 



That reality could reshape how we see ourselves and our place among the stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter-0">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Understanding the significance of atmospheric oxygen can also inspire reflection on our home planet. Human industries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rely heavily on combustion</a>, from running cars to powering factories. This has changed Earth’s ecosystems. 



As we learn more about how oxygen in an atmosphere enables or limits technology, we might gain new ideas on how to manage our own balance between growth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental health</a>.



Ultimately, Frank and Balbi’s argument shows that oxygen may do far more than keep living cells alive. It might be the clearest signal of whether a planet can support the technologies that shape modern societies. 



By recognizing the 18 percent threshold, scientists can refine their search for advanced life and possibly move closer to answering the age-old question: Are we alone, or is someone else using fire to reshape their world?



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Oxygen levels on exoplanets reveal presence of alien technology

Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery. A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. Oxygen, civilization, and technology Leading this research are...

Seasonal allergies are a yearly struggle for millions of people worldwide, and it seems that climate change is only making matters worse. A recent study published in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/aesccq">ACS Earth and Space Chemistry</a> demonstrates that common allergen-producing plants, such as ryegrass and ragweed, emit more "sub pollen particles" (SPPs) than previously thought.&nbsp;



Interestingly, these plants are more likely to impact climate through their intact pollen grains, which can boost cloud formation. Pollen, aside from being a nuisance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/allergy-season-will-become-increasingly-brutal-as-climate-warms/">allergy</a> sufferers, is essential for plants to exchange genetic material and reproduce.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-pollen-and-spps">Pollen and SPPs</h2>



When exposed to moisture, pollen grains can burst into tiny SPPs that are less than a micron long. Due to their smaller size, SPPs can reach the lower respiratory system, where they persist longer and cause more inflammation than their larger counterparts.



Both SPPs and whole pollen grains are thought to act as ice nucleation sites, which are miniature starting points for clouds.&nbsp;



However, SPPs and pollen form smaller, more numerous clouds that tend to retain their precipitation. It then traps radiant heat, contributing to climate change. Higher temperatures can then extend pollen-release periods, further aggravating the issue.



Brianna Matthews, Alyssa Alsante, and Sarah Brooks previously investigated how oak trees emit SPPs at different humidity levels.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



In their new study, the researchers wanted to examine how two other common allergen-producing plants - ragweed and ryegrass - release SPPs under humid conditions and how these particles could affect ice cloud formation.



The experts collected samples of ryegrass and ragweed and placed them into a specialized "pollen chamber." They exposed the samples to different humidity levels and bursts of wind over several hours to simulate real-world conditions.&nbsp;



By assessing the number of SPPs per pollen grain and the ice nucleation abilities of both, the team made a surprising discovery.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-found">What the researchers found</h2>



Their findings revealed that previous experiments on the same types of plants had underestimated the number of SPPs by a factor of 10 to 100. The researchers attributed this discrepancy to the less realistic methods used in earlier studies to spread the pollen and generate SPPs.



However, the experts also found that ragweed and ryegrass SPPs were very poor ice-nucleating sites, barely better than plain water.&nbsp;



In contrast, whole pollen grains facilitated cloud growth. These updated parameters and numbers of emitted pollen grains and particles could ultimately be used to create more accurate climate models.



In summary, this research not only highlights the underestimated impact of allergen-producing plants on seasonal allergies but also emphasizes the need for accurate data on pollen emissions to better understand their role in climate change.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pollen-and-spps">More about pollen and SPPs</h2>



Pollen is a fine powder-like substance produced by plants as part of their reproductive process. It contains the male gametes (sperm cells) of seed plants, and its primary function is to fertilize the female ovules, leading to the formation of seeds.&nbsp;



Pollen grains are produced by the male parts of a plant, called the stamen, and are typically transferred to the female reproductive organs either by wind, insects, or other animals.



Pollen can cause allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. When inhaled, pollen can trigger an immune response in the body, leading to symptoms such as sneezing, itching, watery eyes, and a runny or stuffy nose. This condition is commonly referred to as seasonal allergies or hay fever.



Subpollen particles (SPPs) are smaller fragments that are formed when pollen grains are exposed to moisture and subsequently burst. These tiny particles, which are less than a micron in size, can reach deeper into the respiratory system than intact pollen grains.&nbsp;



Due to their small size, SPPs can last longer and cause more inflammation in the lower respiratory system, potentially exacerbating allergy symptoms.



Recent research has shown that allergen-producing plants like ragweed and ryegrass emit more SPPs than previously thought. This increased emission of SPPs has implications not only for allergy sufferers but also for our understanding of climate change.



Both intact pollen grains and SPPs can act as ice nucleation sites, which serve as starting points for cloud formation. However, SPPs and pollen create smaller, more numerous clouds that tend to retain their precipitation instead of releasing it.&nbsp;



This process traps radiant heat, contributing to climate change. Additionally, higher temperatures caused by climate change can extend pollen-release periods, further exacerbating allergy issues.



Understanding the role of pollen and SPPs in the environment is essential for creating more accurate climate models and addressing the impacts of allergen-producing plants on public health.



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Plant pollen may help clouds form, impacting climate change

Seasonal allergies are a yearly struggle for millions of people...

The coqui frog, one of Puerto Rico's most emblematic creatures, is experiencing significant changes in its vocalizations due to climate change, according to recent research by Peter Narins, a scientist at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>.



The coqui frog is known for its unique two-note call, "co-qui," which resonates across the island each night. Although male coqui frogs use these calls to establish their territory and deter rivals, scientists like Narins are able to analyze them to better understand the impact of climate change on these small amphibians.



In his talk titled "Climate change drives frog call change in Puerto Rico: Predictions and implications," Peter Narins will discuss the alterations he and his team have observed in coqui frog calls over a 23-year period.&nbsp;



The presentation is scheduled for 2:40 p.m. Eastern U.S. time on Monday, May 8, in room Chicago F/G, as part of the 184th <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/asa-meetings/">Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America</a>, held at the Chicago Marriott Downtown Magnificent Mile Hotel from May 8-12.



Narins' research began more than two decades ago when he recorded coqui frog sounds along the slopes of El Yunque Peak in Puerto Rico. He and his team discovered that the calls of the coqui frog varied depending on elevation.&nbsp;



Due to their high sensitivity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bushfires-linked-to-temperature-spikes-in-the-stratosphere/">temperature</a> changes, these frogs exhibit differences in size and call characteristics based on their habitat. Frogs dwelling in colder mountain peaks tend to be larger than their counterparts in warmer valleys, a fact that is reflected in their vocalizations.



"Coqui that produced short, high-pitched calls at high rates lived near the base of the mountain, while the calls of animals living near the mountain's peak were longer, lower-pitched, and repeated less frequently," Narins explained.



Two decades later, Narins, along with his colleague Sebastiaan Meenderink, returned to El Yunque Peak to find that the calls of every frog had become higher in pitch.&nbsp;



Meenderink said, "In order to record a call with certain characteristics we had to move to a slightly higher altitude. It was as if all the animals had moved up the mountain."



This apparent upward shift in the frogs' habitat corresponds to the temperature changes brought about by climate change. As global temperatures continue to rise, coqui frogs may be forced to retreat further up the mountain until they run out of viable living space.



Meenderink commented on the potential consequences of this shift, stating, "For now, the consequences are not dire. A barely perceptible change in frog body size and call has little impact on the environment."



"However, if left unabated, the temperature increase will eventually cause a collapse of the coqui population, which will be catastrophic for the Puerto Rican ecosystem."



This research highlights the importance of understanding and mitigating the effects of climate change on vulnerable species like the coqui frog.&nbsp;



As we continue to witness these changes, it becomes increasingly urgent to address the root causes of global warming and work towards a sustainable future for all living beings.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-coqui-frog">More about the coqui frog</h2>



 The coqui frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui) is a small tree frog native to Puerto Rico. Named after its distinctive two-note call, which sounds like "co-qui," this amphibian is an iconic symbol of Puerto Rican culture and wildlife. Here's what you need to know about the coqui frog:



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



Coqui frogs are small, typically ranging from 1 to 2 inches in length. They vary in color from shades of brown to gray or green, sometimes with patterns on their skin, which helps them blend in with their surroundings.



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Coqui frogs are primarily found in Puerto Rico, but they have also been introduced to other locations such as the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In their natural habitat, they prefer moist environments, such as forests, gardens, and agricultural areas.



<h3 id="h-vocalization">Vocalization</h3>



The male coqui frog's unique two-note call serves several purposes. It is used to establish territory, ward off rivals, and attract females for mating. The first note, "co," alerts other males of their presence, while the second note, "qui," attracts females.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Unlike most frogs, the coqui frog does not have a tadpole stage. Instead, females lay eggs on moist surfaces, such as leaves or in crevices, and the male guards them until they hatch into small, fully-formed frogs. This direct development helps them bypass the vulnerability of a tadpole stage in their life cycle.



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Coqui frogs are nocturnal and primarily insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects and other small invertebrates, such as ants, spiders, and mites.



<h3 id="h-predators-and-threats">Predators and threats</h3>



The coqui frog's natural predators include birds, snakes, and larger frogs. In addition to predation, the coqui frog faces threats from habitat loss, pollution, and climate change. Climate change, in particular, has been shown to affect their vocalizations and potentially their distribution, as they are sensitive to changes in temperature.



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive species</h3>



In areas where the coqui frog has been introduced, such as Hawaii, it has become an invasive species, causing ecological problems due to its rapid reproduction and predation on native insects. Their loud calls have also been a nuisance for some residents in these areas.



Overall, the coqui frog is an important part of Puerto Rican culture and a fascinating subject of scientific study. The species offers insights into the effects of climate change on wildlife and serves as a reminder of the importance of protecting and preserving delicate ecosystems.



—-



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Climate change is altering the calls and voices of frogs around the world

The coqui frog, one of Puerto Rico's most emblematic creatures,...

Couple,Of,Brachiosaurus,Altithorax,And,A,Flock,Of,Pterosaurs,In

Sauropods, a group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> that includes the iconic long-necked species such as Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus, have long been known as the largest animals to walk the earth. Their massive size has been an enigma for scientists, and a new study now provides new insights into the remarkable evolution of these colossal creatures.



Paleontologist Michael D'Emic, an assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://www.adelphi.edu/">Adelphi University</a> in New York, is the author of the study titled "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size in Sauropod Dinosaurs."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The research, published in the May 8 edition of <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>, challenges previous theories regarding the evolution of sauropods.



"It was previously thought that sauropods evolved their exceptional sizes independently a few times in their evolutionary history, but through a new analysis, we now know that this number is much higher, with around three dozen instances over the course of 100 million years around the globe," D'Emic explained.



To study the evolution of sauropod body size, D'Emic compiled measurements of the circumferences of hundreds of weight-bearing bones and correlated them with the weight of the animal they belonged to.&nbsp;



He then employed a technique called ancestral state reconstruction to map the reconstructed body masses of nearly 200 sauropod species onto their evolutionary tree.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



D'Emic's research revealed that sauropods achieved their enormous sizes early in their evolution, with each new sauropod family giving rise to one or more lineages that independently reached immense proportions (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Sauropod-dinosaur-evolution-infographic_Adelphi-University_1big.png">here</a>).



He further explained, "Before going extinct with the other dinosaurs (besides birds) at the end of the Cretaceous Period, sauropods evolved their unrivaled sizes a total of three dozen times."



These super-sized sauropods were found to be ecologically distinct, exhibiting variations in the shapes of their teeth, heads, and body proportions, suggesting that they occupied different niches within the "large-bodied" category.&nbsp;



A microscopic study of their bones also indicated that these sauropods had different growth rates, implying that the record-setting dinosaurs were metabolically distinct.



D'Emic's findings contradict the popular 19th-century theory known as "Cope's Rule," which proposed that animals' size evolved over time. Instead, the new study suggests that animals achieve different body sizes depending on their ecological context and the available niches, a pattern that can appear random when examined on a larger scale.



"While other researchers have explained sauropods' immense size in general based on their unique combination of features, there is no one feature or set of features that characterize the sauropods that did surpass terrestrial mammal size from the ones that didn't," D'Emic said.



As the research continues, the next step will be to untangle why certain lineages of sauropods evolved into super-giants while others did not, further unraveling the fascinating history of these awe-inspiring prehistoric creatures.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sauropod-dinosaurs">More about Sauropod dinosaurs</h2>



 Sauropod dinosaurs were a group of long-necked, herbivorous dinosaurs that lived during the Mesozoic Era, approximately 252 to 66 million years ago. They are best known for their massive size and are considered the largest animals to have ever walked the Earth. Here is a summary of some key characteristics and information about sauropod dinosaurs:



<h3 id="h-size-and-anatomy">Size and anatomy</h3>



Sauropods were characterized by their long necks, small heads, long tails, and columnar limbs. Their bodies were enormous, with some species measuring over 100 feet (30 meters) in length and weighing up to 100 tons. Examples of well-known sauropods include Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, and Diplodocus.



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Sauropods were herbivores, feeding primarily on plants. Their long necks allowed them to reach high vegetation, while their peg-like teeth were adapted to strip leaves from branches. They likely swallowed their food whole or in large chunks, as their teeth were not suited for chewing. Some scientists believe they may have swallowed stones (gastroliths) to help grind up plant material in their stomachs.



<h3 id="h-locomotion">Locomotion</h3>



Sauropods were quadrupedal, walking on all four limbs. Their limbs were strong and column-like to support their massive weight. The arrangement of their limbs varied between species; some had front limbs that were shorter than their hind limbs (e.g., Diplodocus), while others had front limbs that were longer or nearly equal in length to their hind limbs (e.g., Brachiosaurus).



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Sauropods likely reproduced by laying eggs, as evidenced by the discovery of fossilized sauropod nests and eggs. Their eggs were relatively small compared to their body size, usually about the size of a grapefruit or cantaloupe. They may have laid their eggs in large nesting colonies, similar to modern-day sea turtles.



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior</h3>



The social behavior of sauropods is still a matter of debate among paleontologists. Some evidence, such as trackways and bonebeds, suggests that they may have lived in herds or traveled in groups. Others argue that their size would have made group living difficult, and they may have been more solitary animals.



<h3 id="h-evolution-and-extinction">Evolution and extinction</h3>



Sauropods first appeared in the Late Triassic Period and diversified greatly during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. They became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, around 66 million years ago, along with other non-avian dinosaurs.



<h3 id="h-fossil-record">Fossil record</h3>



Sauropod fossils have been found on every continent, indicating that they were widespread during their time on Earth. However, due to their size and the fragility of their bones, complete sauropod skeletons are rare. Most of what we know about sauropods comes from partial remains and isolated bones.



In conclusion, sauropod dinosaurs were a diverse group of large, long-necked herbivores that lived during the Mesozoic Era. Their massive size, unique anatomy, and global distribution make them one of the most intriguing and well-studied groups of dinosaurs.



—-



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Scientists learn how super-giant Sauropods grew to be so massive

Sauropods, a group of dinosaurs that includes the iconic long-necked...

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a species of legume grown in many regions of the world as a source of animal fodder, due to its high protein content and biomass yield. Moreover, this so-called “King of Grass” is hailed as an environmentally beneficial crop, with proven positive impacts on biodiversity and soil nitrogen conservation. More recently, alfalfa protein has also been used in aquaculture, pet food industry, and even human diet.&nbsp;



Alfalfa produces two types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-disperse-their-seeds/">seeds</a> – hard and non-hard – which cannot be clearly distinguished from visual observations alone. Since they exacerbate slow germination, nonuniform seedling establishment, increased weed competition, and germination failure, hard seeds have low value and pose major challenges from an economic standpoint.&nbsp;



To better understand the characteristics of alfalfa hard seeds, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://en.cau.edu.cn/">China Agricultural University</a> (CAU) has investigated a phenomenon called “seed dormancy,” referring to the delayed germination following embryogenesis. Dormancy has several components thought to influence seed germination, including hormone-mediated physiological dormancy (PD), hard seededness for physical dormancy (PY), and combinatorial dormancy (PY+PD).&nbsp;



Until recently, scientists believed that dormancy in alfalfa included only the PY type. However, by combining multispectral imaging (MSI) technology with “multi-omics” (transcriptomics, metabolomics, and methylomics) platforms, the experts now found that alfalfa dormancy is also structured by the PY+PD pattern.&nbsp;



“Studying dormancy in hard and non-hard alfalfa seeds is problematic. Doing comparative research by soaking the seeds in water–a technique called imbibition–is time-consuming and causes the non-hard seeds to germinate. We needed an accurate, non-destructive, and high-throughput approach to gain deeper insights,” said senior author Shangang Jia, an associate professor of Genomics and Bioinformatics at CAU.



By combining MSI with multi-omics platforms, Jia and his team developed such a high-throughput technique for identifying seeds, comparing dormancy patterns, and clarifying differences in physiology, gene expression, and metabolism in both hard and non-hard alfalfa seeds.



“The technique could successfully identify hard alfalfa seeds with high accuracy - of up to 100 percent. Furthermore, the transcriptomics, metabolomics, and methylomics analyses revealed that abscisic acid (ABA) responses played a key role in hard alfalfa seeds,” Jia explained.&nbsp;



ABA is a hormone that induces dormancy and keeps seeds in a dormant state, often in combination with other hormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA) and jasmonic acid (JA). The researchers found that, compared to non-hard seeds, hard seeds contained higher levels of antioxidants, flavonoids, lipids, and hormone biosynthetic pathways. Moreover, the increased expression of ABA genes, along with the differential methylation of ABA-responsive genes in hard seeds, seemed to underscore the ABA responses.



By identifying non-PY hard seeds containing higher ABA/IAA and ABA/JA levels that did not germinate following an intervention to break dormancy, the experts found further evidence that the PY+PD rather than the PY pattern alone leads to the germination failure of hard seeds.



“We believe we’ve provided a theoretical and technical framework for exploring alfalfa hard seed dormancy, and our findings could certainly guide the optimal processing of these seeds in the alfalfa seed industry,” Jia concluded.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2023.03.003">The Crop Journal</a>.



<h2 id="h-what-is-special-about-alfalfa">What is special about alfalfa?</h2>



Alfalfa is a perennial legume crop that has several unique and valuable qualities, which make it special:



<h3 id="h-nutrient-rich">Nutrient-rich</h3>



Alfalfa is an excellent source of various nutrients, including protein, fiber, vitamins (A, C, E, and K), and minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and iron). This makes it a valuable feed for livestock and a dietary supplement for humans.



<h3 id="h-nitrogen-fixation">Nitrogen fixation</h3>



As a legume, alfalfa has the ability to form a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) in its root nodules. This process allows alfalfa to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plant growth, reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and improving soil fertility.



<h3 id="h-deep-root-system">Deep root system</h3>



Alfalfa has a deep and extensive root system, which allows it to access water and nutrients from deeper soil layers. This characteristic makes it drought-tolerant and enables it to contribute to soil stabilization and erosion control.



<h3 id="h-multiple-uses">Multiple uses</h3>



Alfalfa is a versatile crop with various applications. It is primarily used as high-quality forage for livestock, such as cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. It can also be processed into pellets, meal, or cubes for animal feed. In addition, alfalfa can be used as a green manure or cover crop to improve soil structure, suppress weeds, and increase organic matter content.



<h3 id="h-potential-for-bioenergy">Potential for bioenergy</h3>



Alfalfa has potential as a feedstock for producing bioenergy, such as biofuels and biogas, due to its high biomass yield and relatively low input requirements.



<h3 id="h-medicinal-properties">Medicinal properties</h3>



Alfalfa has been used in traditional medicine for centuries to treat various ailments, including digestive disorders, kidney and bladder issues, and arthritis. It is also believed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-boosting properties. However, more research is needed to confirm these claims.



<h3 id="h-pollinator-friendly">Pollinator-friendly</h3>



Alfalfa is an important source of nectar and pollen for pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, which play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and supporting food production.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Groundbreaking technology uncovers the mysteries of alfalfa seeds

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a species of legume grown in...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-national-park-danger/">Yellowstone National Park</a> is one of the most seismically active areas in the U.S., with as many as 3,000 earthquakes recorded each year. On Tuesday, May 9, at the&nbsp;<a href="https://internet2.edu/2023-internet2-community-exchange/">2023 Internet2 Community Exchange</a>&nbsp;conference in Atlanta, Georgia, Dr. Dominico Vicinanza, an expert in data sonification (the process of converting scientific measurements into sound) at <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/">Anglia Ruskin University</a>, will attempt to turn the seismic activity recorded in real time at Yellowstone into music during an unprecedented live event.&nbsp;



The music will be produced live on stage by using a computer program developed by Vicinanza that will map seismographic data to musical notes, which will then be performed by Alyssa Schwartz, a visiting assistant professor of Flute and Musicology at the <a href="https://www.fairmontstate.edu/">Fairmont State University</a>. Since earthquakes at Yellowstone often occur in “swarms,” with many of them happening in a very short time, it is impossible to predict what the music will sound like.&nbsp;



“We have absolutely no idea how the music will turn out. Using my program, I’ll be converting the data to musical notes and if there’s significant seismic activity and big spikes in the data we’re receiving at that time, the music will be incredibly dramatic. Equally it could be quite serene, so it’s a huge artistic challenge for Alyssa to interpret, and it’s really Alyssa who will be taking all the risks,” said Vicinanza.&nbsp;



“Alyssa won’t be able to change any note, but she will be able to&nbsp;interpret the piece of music created before her eyes, and she will be able to creatively use speed, articulation, or make certain parts softer or louder. It might be really difficult to play, but that’s what makes it exciting, and Alyssa is incredibly brave to be doing this in front of a live audience.”



According to Vicinanza – who will visit Yellowstone next year to capture his own recordings amongst the U.S. oldest national park’s hot springs and geysers – being able to musically perform what would otherwise be only seen on a graph can bring the power of nature to life and provide people the opportunity to experience more intensely Yellowstone’s natural wonders.



“Music, and sound in general, can be a really useful way of experiencing science – for scientists as well as the general public. After all, our ears are much more sensitive to small changes than our eyes. Every pattern, spike, or sudden change in the music is a direct representation of what is happening at that spot in Yellowstone at that time. Rather than just looking at a seismograph we can listen to it, and that’s an incredible thing,” he concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-yellowstone-national-park">More about Yellowstone National Park</h2>



Yellowstone National Park is a large protected area located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming, but also extending into Montana and Idaho. Established in 1872 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant, Yellowstone is the first national park in the United States and is often considered the first national park in the world. 



The park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles (8,983 square kilometers) and is known for its unique geothermal features, diverse ecosystems, and abundant wildlife.



Yellowstone is situated atop a volcanic hotspot, which is responsible for the park's numerous geothermal features such as geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and mudpots. 



The park is home to the world-famous Old Faithful Geyser, which erupts at regular intervals, drawing millions of visitors each year. In total, the park has more than 10,000 geothermal features, making it the largest concentration of such features on Earth.



The park also boasts a diverse range of ecosystems, including forests, grasslands, wetlands, and alpine areas. 



This diversity supports a rich array of plant and animal life, including hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles. Some of the most iconic animals that can be found in the park include the American bison, elk, gray wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles.



Yellowstone National Park offers various recreational activities for visitors, such as hiking, camping, fishing, wildlife viewing, and photography. The park has over 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) of hiking trails and several campgrounds for those wishing to spend the night in the great outdoors.



Yellowstone is also known for the Yellowstone Caldera, a massive volcanic caldera that was formed during the last of three supereruptions that occurred over the past 2.1 million years. 



The caldera measures about 34 miles (55 kilometers) by 45 miles (72 kilometers) and is considered an active volcano. While the chances of another massive eruption in the near future are relatively low, ongoing volcanic activity beneath the park is constantly monitored by scientists.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Researchers will attempt to translate Yellowstone's seismic activity into music

The Yellowstone National Park is one of the most seismically...

Offshore,The,Industry,Oil,And,Gas,Production,Petroleum,Pipeline.

In an era where global initiatives are pushing for a transition from fossil fuels to cleaner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-harness-plant-energy-to-improve-solar-panels/">energy</a> sources, the United States is experiencing a concerning trend.&nbsp;



Despite these efforts, oil and gas (O&amp;G) production in the country is approaching record levels, raising alarms among health experts who worry about the potential implications of this growth on air quality and human health.



While the climate effects of methane produced by O&amp;G operations have been extensively researched, there is a lack of studies examining the health effects of the air pollution generated by these activities.&nbsp;



Aiming to address this gap, a collaborative study led by the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/">Boston University School of Public Health</a> (BUSPH), the University of North Carolina Institute for the Environment (UNC-IE), PSE Healthy Energy, and Environmental Defense Fund has been published in the journal Environmental Research: Health.



This groundbreaking study reveals that air pollution from the oil and gas sector in the United States has significant detrimental effects on air quality, human health, and associated healthcare costs.&nbsp;



The researchers found that nitrogen oxide (NO2), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and ozone (O3) emitted from U.S. oil and gas production contributed to 7,500 excess deaths, 410,000 asthma attacks, and 2,200 new cases of childhood asthma across the nation in 2016.



Taking into account respiratory and cardiovascular-related hospitalizations, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and other health issues, the study estimates that oil and gas production is responsible for $77 billion in annual health costs. This figure is three times the estimated climate impact costs of methane emissions from oil and gas operations.



The consequences of O&amp;G-related pollution are not evenly distributed, with the most significant impacts concentrated in areas with substantial oil and gas production. Some of the most affected regions include southwest Pennsylvania, Texas, and Eastern Colorado.&nbsp;



However, the health effects of this pollution do not stop at the borders of these production areas. Densely populated cities with little or no gas activity, such as Chicago, New York City, Baltimore, Washington DC, and Orlando, also experience negative health outcomes due to pollution from O&amp;G operations.



The study has indicated that policies aimed at reducing oil and gas (O&amp;G) emissions, such as the forthcoming EPA methane regulations, could produce immediate and significant air quality benefits for human health, in addition to the substantial climate benefits.&nbsp;



The researchers behind the study are urging policymakers to take these "co-benefits" into account when developing future emissions reduction strategies.



The scientists also emphasize that focusing solely on end-of-pipe pollution controls during combustion in power plants, vehicles, buildings, and industries only addresses a part of the problem.&nbsp;



According to study corresponding author Jonathan Buonocore, assistant professor of environmental health at BUSPH, “These substantial impacts from oil and gas production show that there are serious consequences across the full life cycle of oil and gas, from ‘well to wheels,’ ‘well to power plant,’ and ‘well to furnace.’"



"The health impacts are not just from the combustion of oil and gas. In order for energy, air quality, and decarbonization policies to successfully protect health, they need to incorporate health impacts across this full life cycle.”



The research identified the five states with the highest impacts from O&amp;G pollution as Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Louisiana. However, interestingly, Illinois and New York - states that produce very little O&amp;G - still ranked 6th and 8th, respectively.&nbsp;



Study senior author Saravanan Arunachalam, research professor at UNC-IE, highlighted the importance of inter-state cooperation. “The fact that air pollution and health impacts cross state boundaries indicates a strong need for regional to nationwide coordination. States that have the highest emissions are not necessarily always the ones with the highest health risk due to these emissions, although Texas ranks first in both.”



The study utilized a novel modeling framework that included the health impacts of NO2 and employed an advanced model better suited to capturing the chemistry of emissions from the O&amp;G sector.&nbsp;



Among the three pollutants studied, NO2 was found to be the highest contributor to overall health impacts, accounting for 37% of the effects, followed by ozone at 35%, and PM2.5 at 28%. The majority of these effects were related to mortality.



NO2 contributes to the formation of PM2.5 and ozone, so strategies aimed at reducing O&amp;G-produced NO2 could be effective in mitigating health impacts. State regulations addressing precursor NO2 emissions from the O&amp;G sector could help alleviate childhood asthma cases in communities located near emission sources and provide secondary ozone and PM2.5 health benefits in downwind areas.



“Curbing oil and gas emissions is one of the fastest, most cost-effective ways to reduce methane and other air pollutants, which improves air quality, protects public health and slows climate change,” said study co-author Ananya Roy, senior health scientist at EDF.&nbsp;



“It’s critical that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency strengthen and finalize its proposed oil and gas methane rules as quickly as possible. These proposed rules should build from leading state approaches in Colorado and New Mexico and go further to end pollution from the practice of routine flaring.”



According to the authors, future studies should focus on learning more about health impacts across the full life cycle of oil and gas production. They should also focus on the benefits of additional oil and gas pollution control strategies.



“There are technologies and strategies to reduce methane leaks, emissions from compressor stations, or emissions from other sources, such as ponds and dehydrators,” Buonocore said. “Each of these strategies will have different effects on the levels of different pollutants that get emitted.”



The study did not examine the health impacts of emissions, such as benzene and formaldehyde. Arunachalam notes there is much more work to be done in this area as well.



“Exposure to these pollutants which have been detected near oil and gas wells can cause cancer and several other adverse health impacts, and quantifying them will demonstrate even higher public health benefits of controlling emissions from this sector,” said Arunachalam.



This research serves as a stark reminder that the urgency to transition away from fossil fuels is not only driven by climate concerns but also by the pressing need to protect public health. As global efforts continue to shift towards cleaner energy sources, the findings of this study highlight the importance of addressing the health impacts of oil and gas production on communities across the United States.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-environmental-impact-of-oil-and-gas-production">More about the environmental impact of oil and gas production</h2>



Oil and gas production has significant environmental impacts beyond the direct effects on air quality and human health. Some of the most notable environmental consequences include:



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



The combustion of fossil fuels, including oil and gas, releases greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, causing global temperatures to rise and leading to various climate change-related problems such as more frequent and severe heatwaves, storms, and floods.



<h3 id="h-water-pollution">Water pollution</h3>



Oil and gas extraction, particularly through hydraulic fracturing (fracking), can contaminate groundwater and surface water sources with chemicals, heavy metals, and radioactive materials. This poses risks to aquatic ecosystems and can also affect the quality of drinking water for nearby communities.



<h3 id="h-soil-contamination">Soil contamination</h3>



Accidental spills, leaks, or improper waste disposal during oil and gas production can lead to soil contamination. This can harm local ecosystems, reduce soil fertility, and pose risks to human health through the food chain.



<h3 id="h-habitat-destruction-and-fragmentation">Habitat destruction and fragmentation</h3>



The construction of oil and gas infrastructure, such as drilling sites, pipelines, and roads, often requires clearing large areas of land, leading to habitat destruction and fragmentation. This can negatively impact local ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and disrupt the migration patterns of various species.



<h3 id="h-noise-and-light-pollution">Noise and light pollution</h3>



Oil and gas operations often generate significant noise and light pollution, which can disturb wildlife and disrupt their natural behaviors, such as mating, feeding, and migration.



<h3 id="h-resource-depletion">Resource depletion</h3>



The extraction of finite resources like oil and gas contributes to their eventual depletion, which can lead to economic, geopolitical, and environmental challenges as the world becomes more dependent on these dwindling resources.



<h3 id="h-induced-seismicity">Induced seismicity</h3>



In some cases, oil and gas extraction processes, particularly wastewater injection associated with hydraulic fracturing, have been linked to induced seismic activity or human-induced earthquakes.



Addressing the environmental impacts of oil and gas production requires transitioning to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources, implementing stricter regulations, and developing new technologies to minimize the adverse effects of these activities.&nbsp;



It is essential to consider the full life cycle of oil and gas production and to explore alternative energy sources to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate their harmful impacts on the environment.



—-



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Oil and gas production linked to $77 billion in annual health care costs

In an era where global initiatives are pushing for a...

A recent study led by <a href="https://integratebio.co/">Integrated Biosciences</a> – a biotechnology company founded in 2022 that combines synthetic biology and machine learning to combat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-may-be-driven-by-genetic-imbalances/">aging</a> – has shown the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to discover new senolytic compounds. These are a class of small molecules with the capacity to suppress age-related processes such as inflammation, fibrosis, or cancer. 



By using AI to screen over 800,000 compounds, the experts discovered three highly efficient drug candidates with superior medicinal chemistry properties than currently known senolytics.



“This research result is a significant milestone for both longevity research and the application of artificial intelligence to drug discovery,” said co-lead author Felix Wong, the co-founder of Integrated Biosciences.&nbsp;



“These data demonstrate that we can explore chemical space&nbsp;in silico&nbsp;and emerge with multiple candidate anti-aging compounds that are more likely to succeed in the clinic, compared to even the most promising examples of their kind being studied today.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-anti-aging-drugs-using-ai-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Senescent cells</a> are known to be involved in a wide variety of age-related diseases such as diabetes, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and cardiovascular disease. 



Senolytics are a type of medicines selectively inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in senescent cells that no longer divide. However, most of the previously identified senolytic compounds are hampered by poor bioavailability and undesirable side effects.



“One of the most promising routes to treat age-related diseases is to identify therapeutic interventions that selectively remove these cells from the body similarly to how antibiotics kill bacteria without harming host cells. The compounds we discovered display high selectivity, as well as the favorable medicinal chemistry properties needed to yield a successful drug,” said co-lead author Satotaka Omori, the Head of the Aging Biology department at Integrated Biosciences.&nbsp;



“We believe that the compounds discovered using our platform will have improved prospects in clinical trials and will eventually help restore health to aging individuals.”



To predict the senolytic activity of a wide range of molecules, the scientists trained deep neural networks on experimentally generated data. 



By using this machine learning model to screen more than 800,000 compounds, they discovered three highly selective and potent senolytic compounds, with chemical properties suggestive of high oral bioavailability. 



In addition, these compounds – which all bind Bcl-2, a protein that regulates apoptosis and is also a chemotherapy target - exhibited favorable toxicity profiles in hemolysis and genotoxicity experiments. 



Testing these compounds in 80-week-old-mice (an age corresponding to 80-year-old humans), the researchers found that they efficiently removed senescent cells and reduced the expression of genes associated to senescence in the kidneys.



“This work illustrates how AI can be used to bring medicine a step closer to therapies that address aging, one of the fundamental challenges in biology,” said senior author James J. Collins, a professor of Medical Engineering and Science at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and founding chair of the Integrated Biosciences Scientific Advisory Board.



“Integrated Biosciences is building on the basic research that my academic lab has done for the last decade or so, showing that we can target cellular stress responses using systems and synthetic biology. This experimental tour de force and the stellar platform that produced it make this work stand out in the field of drug discovery and will drive substantial progress in longevity research,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43587-023-00415-z">Nature Aging</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-anti-aging">More about anti-aging </h2>



Anti-aging refers to the various techniques, therapies, and lifestyle changes aimed at delaying or reversing the aging process in humans. The primary goal of anti-aging interventions is to promote a healthy and longer life by targeting the underlying causes of aging and age-related diseases. Here are some key aspects of anti-aging:



<h3 id="h-cellular-aging">Cellular aging</h3>



This involves studying cellular senescence, the process by which cells lose their ability to divide and function normally. Interventions targeting cellular aging include senolytics (compounds that selectively eliminate senescent cells) and telomerase activation (aimed at maintaining or extending telomere length).



<h3 id="h-oxidative-stress">Oxidative stress</h3>



Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can damage cells and contribute to aging. Antioxidants are molecules that help neutralize ROS, and their supplementation has been considered as a potential anti-aging strategy.



<h3 id="h-inflammation">Inflammation</h3>



Chronic low-grade inflammation is associated with aging and age-related diseases. Anti-inflammatory interventions, such as dietary changes and medications, can help reduce inflammation and potentially slow the aging process.



<h3 id="h-hormone-replacement-therapy">Hormone replacement therapy</h3>



As we age, hormone levels decline, contributing to various age-related symptoms. Hormone replacement therapy seeks to restore hormone levels to those of younger individuals, potentially improving health and well-being.



<h3 id="h-caloric-restriction-and-fasting">Caloric restriction and fasting</h3>



Reducing caloric intake or fasting for short periods has been shown to extend lifespan in various organisms, possibly by activating stress-response pathways that promote cellular repair and maintenance.



<h3 id="h-lifestyle-changes">Lifestyle changes</h3>



Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, stress management, and sufficient sleep, has been shown to promote overall health and longevity.



<h3 id="h-genetic-and-epigenetic-interventions">Genetic and epigenetic interventions</h3>



Genetic manipulation and epigenetic modifications have shown potential for altering the aging process. Examples include gene therapy to target specific aging-related genes and interventions that modify epigenetic marks, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications.



<h3 id="h-pharmaceutical-interventions">Pharmaceutical interventions</h3>



Several compounds, such as rapamycin, metformin, and resveratrol, have shown promise in extending lifespan and improving health in animal models. These drugs target various aging-related pathways and are under investigation for their potential human application.



It's important to note that while many of these interventions show promise, their long-term safety and efficacy in humans are not yet fully understood. Further research is needed to determine the optimal strategies for promoting healthy aging and extending human lifespan.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Artificial intelligence identifies new anti-aging compounds

A recent study led by Integrated Biosciences – a biotechnology...

Beautiful,Bay,Near,Brela,Town,,Makarska,Rivera,,Dalmatia,,Croatia

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mediterranean-sea-is-a-hotspot-for-plastic-pollution/">Mediterranean Sea</a> is one of the world’s marine areas most deeply affected by a variety of human pressures. Factors such as its high rates of urbanization and population (with over 150 million inhabitants on its coasts), tourism (comprising one third of the world’s total volume), industrial activity, and fishing, along with its geomorphological configuration as a semi-enclosed basin and its specific patterns of oceanic circulation, have made the Mediterranean one of the most polluted areas on Earth and a natural trap for marine litter, particularly plastics (with an estimated 230,000 tons of land-sourced plastic leaking into the sea per year).



According to a new report conducted by the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/icta-1345819904184.html">Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB) and presented in the European Parliament, the implementation of effective policies at local and regional levels, and the cooperation of all countries in the Mediterranean basin are urgently needed to address the major environmental problems this region is currently facing.&nbsp;



This report - requested by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/regi/home/highlights">Committee on Regional Development (REGI) Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies</a>&nbsp;of the European Parliament – is a comprehensive analysis of the current situation of the Mediterranean Sea and a call for urgent collective action to reduce the generation and dispersal of marine pollutants.



The experts argue that the primary cause of this worrisome situation is the massive waste generation in this area and its mismanagement. Other factors include industrial and urban waste discharge, sewage, agricultural run-off, shipping, maritime traffic, fishing, and tourism.&nbsp;



“To tackle pollution, management policies must be applied to waste reduction and treatment, tourism, pollution from plastics and other pollutants, sewage and other waste from rivers,” explained report leader Patrizia Ziveri, an oceanographer at ICTA-UAB.&nbsp;



The policies aimed at combating marine pollution in the Mediterranean should address the production process, consumption habits, and methods of waste disposal. It is crucial that all Mediterranean nations work together in implementing these policies effectively.&nbsp;



In addition, the progress and results of the actions taken to fight against marine pollution should be monitored closely at various stages. This will help identify the most effective strategies and enable their implementation in other regions of the Mediterranean as well.



Although significant progress has already been made in terms of treatment and prevention – such as the implementation of the single-use plastic directive and the promotion of recycling – more and continued efforts are necessary to reduce plastic pollution, including market restrictions, improved waste management, and agreements between producers and consumers.



“Efforts to reduce the use of plastics must continue in order to meet environmental targets. There is an urgent need to focus on the EU’s strategy targets for key sectors, such as consumption patterns, production, and waste management,” said report co-author Michael Grelaud, an oceanographer at ICTA-UAB.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-oher-problematic-areas-policy-makers-should-focus-on-include">Oher problematic areas policy makers should focus on include:</h2>



<h3 id="h-emerging-pollutants">Emerging pollutants</h3>



Besides plastics, several new pollutants such as UV filters, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or flame retardants that reach the Mediterranean Sea through agricultural, industrial, and urban runoff or coastal wastewater treatment plants, should be closely monitored and, whenever possible, reduced.



<h3 id="h-microplastics">Microplastics</h3>



Since no regulations for the increasing problem of microplastics currently exist, microplastic pollution should be established as a priority issue in the Mediterranean agenda, by creating bans and reduction targets in the manufacturing of fabrics and cosmetics, monitoring the entry of microplastics into the Mediterranean Sea through all water-channels, including rivers and sewage outflows, and strictly regulating the use of ship paint and antifouling coatings.



<h3 id="h-marine-noise-pollution">Marine noise pollution</h3>



Activities such as shipping, oil and gas exploration, construction and upkeep of offshore structures, and military exercises can lead to harmful noise pollution in marine environments. This noise pollution can cause significant damage to marine fauna, including disturbances in behavior, communication, hearing damage, stress, and even death.&nbsp;



To mitigate these impacts, the experts suggest to establish particularly sensitive sea areas where noise levels are limited, with special attention given to migratory routes, breeding grounds, and areas of high biodiversity. Moreover, they recommend the use of quieter ship models and the reduction of ship speeds in these sensitive areas.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-rivers-wastewater-treatments-and-harbors">Rivers, wastewater treatments, and harbors</h3>



Managing water pollution in the Mediterranean region is a challenge that hinges on the implementation of policies by the signatory countries, which is complicated by their varying economic development levels. However, one promising solution is to reuse treated effluent for agriculture, which not only reduces the need for expensive fertilizers but also provides a valuable resource for farmers.&nbsp;



Additionally, recovering organic wastewater from urban areas can also serve as an agricultural resource, helping to combat water pollution in the region.



<h3 id="h-aquaculture">Aquaculture</h3>



Untreated waste discharge, chemical usage, and excess nutrient release are among the primary causes of water pollution. These practices can lead to significant harm to aquatic life, promoting the growth of harmful algal blooms, and even poisoning fish and other marine species with antibiotics and heavy metals. Thus, there is a need to regulate the amount of excess nutrients in aquaculture.&nbsp;



To help combat these issues, EU policies for Mediterranean countries should enforce the <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CA3546T/">Voluntary Guidelines on the Marking of Fishing Gear</a> to reduce abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear and incentivize the recovery of marine litter through compensation.



<h3 id="h-implementation-of-initiatives-in-coastal-cities-on-waste-characterization-and-monitoring">Implementation of initiatives in coastal cities on waste characterization and monitoring</h3>



Some of these initiatives could include the use of smart bins which alert waste management teams when they are full, the establishing of awareness-raising campaigns targeting beach users, the monitoring of debris and litter on the major commercial routes in the Mediterranean Sea, and the creation of more sustainable types of packaging.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-regulation-of-tourist-activities">Regulation of tourist activities</h3>



Policy makers should promote sustainable tourism, limit the generation of coastal litter by increasing tourists’ awareness of this problem, introduce visiting fees for litter-free coastal attractions, develop comprehensive waste management plans by collaborating with local communities, and enforce regulations to create smoke-free beaches.



The full report can be downloaded <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2023/733123/IPOL_STU(2023)733123_EN.pdf">here</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea is an urgent issue

The Mediterranean Sea is one of the world’s marine areas...

A recent study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has revealed that humans inherited genetic material from Neanderthals, which affects the shape of our noses.&nbsp;



This discovery sheds light on the role of natural selection in shaping our facial features and provides further evidence of the interbreeding between ancient human ancestors and Neanderthals.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04838-7">Communications Biology</a>, the study suggests that a specific gene responsible for a taller nose (measured from top to bottom) may have evolved as ancient humans adapted to colder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-climates-linked-to-low-oxygen-dead-zones-in-the-north-pacific/">climates</a> after leaving Africa.&nbsp;



Dr. Kaustubh Adhikari, co-corresponding author from UCL Genetics, Evolution &amp; Environment, and The Open University, stated, "In the last 15 years, since the Neanderthal genome has been sequenced, we have been able to learn that our own ancestors apparently interbred with Neanderthals, leaving us with little bits of their DNA."



The researchers found that some DNA inherited from Neanderthals affects the shape of our faces, potentially offering an evolutionary advantage that has been passed down for thousands of generations.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The scientists analyzed data from more than 6,000 volunteers across Latin America, who were part of the UCL-led CANDELA study. These participants had mixed European, Native American, and African ancestry and were recruited from Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico, and Peru.



By comparing genetic information from the participants with photographs of their faces, the researchers were able to identify associations between various facial traits and the presence of specific genetic markers.&nbsp;



They newly identified 33 genome regions related to face shape, 26 of which were replicated in comparisons with data from other ethnicities, including participants from East Asia, Europe, and Africa.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The researchers discovered that many individuals in their study with Native American ancestry (as well as others with East Asian ancestry from another cohort) had inherited genetic material from Neanderthals in a gene region called ATF3.&nbsp;



This genetic material contributed to increased nasal height, and the researchers found signs of natural selection in this gene region, suggesting it offered an advantage to those carrying the genetic material.



"It has long been speculated that the shape of our noses is determined by natural selection; as our noses can help us to regulate the temperature and humidity of the air we breathe in, different shaped noses may be better suited to different climates that our ancestors lived in. The gene we have identified here may have been inherited from Neanderthals to help humans adapt to colder climates as our ancestors moved out of Africa," explained study first author Dr. Qing Li of Fudan University.



Co-corresponding author Professor Andres Ruiz-Linares from Fudan University, UCL Genetics, Evolution &amp; Environment, and Aix-Marseille University, highlighted the significance of their diverse sample. "Most genetic studies of human diversity have investigated the genes of Europeans; our study’s diverse sample of Latin American participants broadens the reach of genetic study findings, helping us to better understand the genetics of all humans.”



This research marks the second discovery of DNA from archaic humans, distinct from Homo sapiens, influencing our face shape. The same team had previously identified a gene affecting lip shape, which was inherited from the ancient Denisovans, in a 2021 paper. The study involved researchers based in the UK, China, France, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico, Germany, and Brazil.



<h2 id="h-more-about-neanderthals">More about Neanderthals</h2>



Neanderthals, or Homo neanderthalensis, were a species of hominids that lived in Europe and parts of western and central Asia from around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They are the closest extinct relatives of modern humans, Homo sapiens, and the two species share a common ancestor from approximately 600,000 to 800,000 years ago.



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



Neanderthals were shorter and stockier than modern humans, with a more robust build. They had a distinct facial structure with a prominent brow ridge, a forward-projecting midface, and a receding chin.&nbsp;



Their cranial capacity was slightly larger than that of modern humans, indicating a similar brain size. Neanderthals were well-adapted to cold climates, with their short limbs and barrel-shaped chest helping to conserve body heat.



<h3 id="h-culture-and-behavior">Culture and Behavior</h3>



Neanderthals were capable of creating and using tools, including stone tools made using the Levallois technique. They hunted large mammals such as woolly mammoths, rhinoceros, and deer, and evidence suggests they also consumed plant-based foods. They used fire for cooking, warmth, and protection.



Neanderthals likely lived in small groups and had complex social structures. They cared for their injured or sick members, and there is evidence of intentional burials, suggesting they had some form of cultural or religious beliefs.



<h3 id="h-interaction-with-homo-sapiens">Interaction with Homo sapiens</h3>



The exact relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens is still a subject of debate among scientists. However, genetic evidence shows that there was interbreeding between the two species. As a result, non-African modern human populations have approximately 1-2% Neanderthal DNA.



<h3 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h3>



The reasons for Neanderthal extinction are still not entirely clear. It is believed that several factors, including competition with modern humans for resources, climate change, and the spread of diseases, could have contributed to their decline. Some researchers also suggest that assimilation through interbreeding with Homo sapiens may have played a role in their eventual disappearance.



<h3 id="h-recent-discoveries">Recent Discoveries</h3>



Advancements in genetic research and paleoanthropology have led to a better understanding of Neanderthals. The Neanderthal genome was sequenced in 2010, revealing their genetic similarities and differences with modern humans. Additionally, recent studies have identified Neanderthal genes that still influence the appearance, health, and behavior of some modern human populations.



—-



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Humans can thank Neanderthals for the size and shape of our noses

A recent study led by researchers from University College London...

Between 450 BCE and 950 CE, Amerindian people living in today’s Amazonia fundamentally transformed their habitat’s originally poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-waste-could-be-used-as-a-valuable-soil-additive/">soils</a>, enriching them with charcoal from their low-intensity fires used for cooking and burning refuse, as well as from manure, animal bones, broken pottery, and compost. The result is the exceptionally fertile Amazonian dark earth (ADE) – “tera preta” – which is rich in nutrients and stable organic matter derived from charcoal (an element that also gives it its dark color).&nbsp;



In a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fsoil.2023.1161627">Frontiers in Soil Science</a>, a team of Brazilian scientists has argued that Amazonian dark earth could be a “secret weapon” to boost reforestation efforts not only in the Amazon – where 18 percent of forests have been lost since the 1970s – but also worldwide.



“Here we show that the use of ADEs can enhance the growth of pasture and trees due to their high levels of nutrients, as well as to the presence of beneficial bacteria and archaea in the soil microbial community,” said co-lead author Luís Felipe Zagatto, a graduate student at the Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil. “This means that knowledge of the ‘ingredients’ that make ADEs so very fertile could be applied to help speed up ecological restoration projects.”



To investigate the ecological succession and soil changes occurring when pastures in deforested areas are actively restored to forests and assess the role of ADEs in boosting this process, the experts conducted controlled experiments involving 36 four-liter pots with three kilograms of soil kept inside a greenhouse with an average temperature of 34C (in order to anticipate global warming beyond the current 22-28 C average Amazonian temperatures). One third of these pots were filled with control soil, another third with a 4:1 mixture of control soil and ADE, and a last one fully with ADE.



After planting palisade grass (Urochloa brizantha) – a common forage for livestock in Brazil - in each pot and allowing it to grow for 60 days, they cut it and left only its roots in the soil, in order to mimic a “virgin territory” for reforestation. Then, they replanted each of the three types of soil with different types of tree seeds – the colonizing species Ambay pumpwood (Cecropia pachystachya), the&nbsp;Peltophorum dubium&nbsp;typical of secondary forests, and the&nbsp;cedro blanco&nbsp;(Cedrela fissilis)&nbsp;typical of climax forest.&nbsp;



After the seedling were left to grow for three months, the researchers measured their height, extension of roots, and dry mass, as well as changes in the soil’s pH, texture, concentrations of potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, boron, sulfur, copper, iron, and zinc. Finally, they quantified each type of soil’s microbial diversity.



The analyses revealed that ADEs had greater amounts of nutrients and supported a larger diversity of bacteria and archaea than control soils.&nbsp;



“Microbes transform chemical soil particles into nutrients that can be taken up by plants. Our data showed that ADE contains microorganisms that are better at this transformation of soils, thus providing more resources for plant development,” explained co-lead author Anderson Santos de Freitas, a doctoral student at USP.



Moreover, adding Amazonian dark earth to the soils significantly improved the growth and development of plants (with the dry mass of palisade grass increasing 3.4 times in 20 percent ADE and 8.1 times in 100 percent ADE compared to the control soil), as well as the growth of the three tree species (for instance, seedlings of&nbsp;cedro blanco&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. dubium&nbsp;were 2.1 and 5.2 times taller in 20 percent ADE, and 3.2 and 6.3 times taller in 100 percent ADE than in control soils).



Although these findings provide clear evidence of the benefits of Amazonian dark earth in tree restoration, this type of soil has taken thousands of years to accumulate and would most likely take an equal amount of time to regenerate in nature if used.&nbsp;



“Our recommendations aren’t to utilize ADE itself, but rather to copy its characteristics, particularly its microorganisms, for use in future ecological restoration projects,” concluded senior author Siu Mui Tsai, a professor of Cell and Molecular Biology at USP.



<h2 id="h-more-about-tree-restoration">More about tree restoration&nbsp;</h2>



Tree restoration refers to the process of repairing and restoring damaged, degraded, or destroyed forests and tree ecosystems. It aims to bring back the ecological, economic, and social benefits that healthy forests provide. This can be achieved through various methods, including natural regeneration, direct seeding, tree planting, and assisted natural regeneration.



<h3 id="h-tree-restoration-is-crucial-for-several-reasons">Tree restoration is crucial for several reasons:</h3>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-conservation">Biodiversity conservation</h3>



Forests are home to a vast range of plant and animal species. Restoring forests helps to conserve and protect this biodiversity, which is essential for maintaining the balance of ecosystems and supporting human livelihoods.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate change mitigation</h3>



Trees absorb and store carbon dioxide, which is a major greenhouse gas contributing to climate change. By restoring forests, we can help mitigate the impacts of climate change by increasing the carbon sequestration capacity of these ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-erosion-control">Erosion control</h3>



Tree roots stabilize soil and prevent erosion, which can lead to loss of fertile land and sedimentation in water bodies. Restoring forests can help protect and maintain soil quality and prevent erosion.



<h3 id="h-water-cycle-regulation">Water cycle regulation</h3>



Trees play a critical role in regulating the water cycle by absorbing and releasing water through transpiration. Restoring forests can help maintain water resources and reduce the risk of flooding and drought.



<h3 id="h-livelihoods-and-economic-benefits">Livelihoods and economic benefits</h3>



Forests provide resources such as timber, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism opportunities. Restoring forests can create jobs and support local economies while providing valuable ecosystem services.



To achieve successful tree restoration, it is essential to consider factors such as site selection, appropriate tree species, timing of planting, and long-term maintenance. 



Engaging local communities in restoration efforts and developing sustainable forest management practices can further enhance the success and sustainability of tree restoration projects.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Amazonian dark earth could be used to boost tree reforestation

Between 450 BCE and 950 CE, Amerindian people living in...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has recently proposed a new model for the evolution of higher brain functions and social behavior in the Hymenoptera – a large order of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-insects-have-more-than-200000-brain-cells/">insects</a> comprising over 150,000 of species of sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants.&nbsp;



The experts compared the Kenyon neuronal cells in the mushroom bodies – parts of the insect brain structuring the processes of sensory integration, memory, and learning - of “primitive” sawflies and more sophisticated honey bees. They discovered that three specialized Kenyon cell subtypes in the brains of honey bees may have evolved from a single, multifunctional Kenyon cell-subtype ancestor.&nbsp;



Besides helping scientists better understand how insect behavior has evolved, these findings could also shed new light on the evolution of the behavior of more complex organisms, including humans.



“In 2017, we reported that the complexity of Kenyon cell (KC) subtypes in mushroom bodies in insect brains increases with the behavioral diversification in Hymenoptera (a large and varied order of insects),” said senior author Takeo Kubo, a professor of Animal Physiological Chemistry at Tokyo. “In other words, the more KC subtypes an insect has, the more complex its brain and the behaviors it may exhibit. But we didn’t know how these different subtypes evolved. That was the stimulus for this new study.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



To clarify these issues, the researchers chose two Hymenoptera species that engage in highly different behaviors: the solitary turnip sawfly, which has a single KC subtype, and the sophisticated, social honey bee, which has three KC subtypes.&nbsp;



The experts used transcriptome analysis to identify the genetic expression profiles of these various KC subtypes to reveal the potential evolutionary pathways between the primitive sawfly brain and the honey bees’ more complex one.



“I was surprised that each of the three KC subtypes in the honey bee showed comparable similarity to the single KC type in the sawfly,” said co-author Hiroki Kohno, an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at Tokyo. “Based on our initial comparative analysis of several genes, we had previously supposed that additional KC subtypes had been added one by one. However, they appear to have been separated from a multifunctional ancestral type, through functional segregation and specialization.”&nbsp;



As the numbers of KC subtypes increased, each of them seemed to inherit various properties from an ancestral KC, and later on evolved in different ways, leading to their varied current functions. To clarify how ancestral KC functions are present in both sawflies and honey bees, the researchers trained sawflies to perform a common honey bee behavioral test, in which they learn to associate an olfactory stimulus with a reward.&nbsp;



In honey bees, a gene called&nbsp;CaMKII contributes to long-term memory formation. The experts manipulated this gene in sawfly larvae. When the larvae grew, their long-term memory was impaired, suggesting that this gene plays a similar role in both species.&nbsp;



However, while CaMKII&nbsp;is expressed across the entire KC subtype in sawflies, in honey bees it is expressed in only one KC subtype, suggesting that its role in long-term memory was transmitted to a specific KC subtype in honey bees.



Although mammalian brains are significantly larger and much more complex than those of insects, better understanding the evolution and diversification of KC subtypes could shed new light on the evolution of social behavior in mammals, including humans.&nbsp;



“There are many mysteries about the neural basis that controls social behavior, whether in insects, animals, or humans. How it has evolved still remains largely unknown. I believe that this study is a pioneering work in this field,” concluded lead author Takayoshi Kuwabara, a doctoral student at Tokyo.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add4201">Science Advances</a>.



<h2 id="h-why-is-social-behavior-important">Why is social behavior important?</h2>



Social behavior is important for a variety of reasons, as it plays a crucial role in the functioning, development, and survival of individuals and societies. Here are some key reasons why social behavior is important:



<h3 id="h-social-bonding-and-relationships">Social bonding and relationships</h3>



Social behavior fosters the formation of relationships and connections among individuals, which are essential for emotional well-being, mental health, and overall happiness.



<h3 id="h-cooperation-and-collaboration">Cooperation and collaboration</h3>



Social behavior enables individuals to work together and pool their resources, skills, and knowledge to achieve common goals, solve problems, and overcome challenges.



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Social behavior involves verbal and non-verbal communication, which allows individuals to share ideas, convey emotions, and coordinate actions effectively.



<h3 id="h-social-learning">Social learning</h3>



Social behavior facilitates learning from others through observation, imitation, and instruction, which can lead to the acquisition of new skills, knowledge, and behaviors.



<h3 id="h-culture-and-tradition">Culture and tradition</h3>



Social behavior plays a role in the transmission and preservation of cultural values, beliefs, practices, and traditions across generations, helping to maintain a sense of identity and continuity within societies.



<h3 id="h-social-norms-and-rules">Social norms and rules</h3>



Social behavior helps establish and maintain social norms and rules that govern how individuals should behave in different situations, which can contribute to social order, stability, and cohesion.



<h3 id="h-conflict-resolution-and-negotiation">Conflict resolution and negotiation</h3>



Social behavior allows individuals to resolve disputes, negotiate differences, and reach compromises, which can prevent or reduce the likelihood of conflicts and promote social harmony.



<h3 id="h-emotional-support-and-empathy">Emotional support and empathy</h3>



Social behavior encourages individuals to provide emotional support and empathy to others, which can help alleviate stress, foster resilience, and promote mental health.



<h3 id="h-social-influence-and-conformity">Social influence and conformity</h3>



Social behavior can lead to social influence and conformity, which may encourage individuals to adopt socially accepted attitudes, values, and behaviors, and discourage deviant or harmful actions.



<h3 id="h-evolution-and-survival">Evolution and survival&nbsp;</h3>



From an evolutionary perspective, social behavior has been crucial for the survival and reproduction of many species, including humans, by promoting cooperation, resource sharing, and protection from potential threats.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Study explores the basis of social behavior in the insect brain

A team of scientists led by the University of Tokyo...

Massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrasses-continue-to-release-methane-after-they-die/">seagrass</a> die-offs are currently occurring all over the world due to a variety of stressors. These include high temperatures, hypersalinity, hypoxia, and exposure to sediment-derived hydrogen sulfide, a phytotoxin which accumulates as seagrass meadows become richer in nutrients.&nbsp;



Although hydrogen sulfide intrusion into seagrass tissue is considered a leading cause of recurrent mortality events, its effects on subsequent recruitment and distribution of new populations, along with the ability of seagrass meadows to “bounce back” and recolonize in open bare patches, have not yet been properly investigated.&nbsp;



Now, a team of scientists led by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) has examined whether porewater hydrogen sulfide prevents&nbsp;Thalassia testudinum - a tropical Atlantic-Caribbean&nbsp;marine seagrass commonly known as&nbsp;turtlegrass - from recruiting into unvegetated sediment in Florida Bay, one of the largest contiguous seagrass systems in the world.



“Seagrass&nbsp;meadows sustain coastal ecosystems by protecting against erosion, maintaining water quality, and providing habitat and food for many marine species and organisms,” said&nbsp;senior author Marguerite Koch, a professor of Biological Sciences at FAU. “Because of their importance in coastal communities, the current decline of seagrass ecosystems on a global scale across geographic regions is a concern.”



Since the 1980s, seagrass meadows in Florida Bay – an estuary covering 1,100 square miles between Florida Keys and the southern tip of Florida – have experienced recurrent biomass losses and die-offs, usually occurring during high temperature and salinity conditions.&nbsp;



These particular seagrass meadows are exposed to high levels of porewater hydrogen sulfide and are surrounded by vast unvegetated areas that are usually recolonized by turtle grass recruits after major die-offs, which makes them an excellent case study to investigate seagrass resilience and its relation to hydrogen sulfide exposure.



The experts analyzed the leaf, stems, and roots of turtlegrass to determine tissue exposure to hydrogen sulfide in new recruits and, by using state-of-the-art microsensors and stable isotopic analyses, they measured internal hydrogen sulfide and oxygen dynamics.&nbsp;



The investigation revealed that, after die-off events, turtlegrass can successfully recruit into open bare sediment due to biomass partitioning during early development (a process by which they efficiently divide their energy among roots, leaves, stems, and reproductive parts), young root structure, and a capacity to efficiently oxidize internally that helps them lower hydrogen sulfide exposure.



Although these findings suggest that turtlegrass can be highly resilient and able to recover after mortality events, their recovery takes quite a long period of time. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2023.103650">Aquatic Botany</a>.&nbsp;



“Long-term monitoring programs in Florida Bay indicate that the time frame for full recovery of&nbsp;turtlegrass meadows after major die-off events is at least a decade. Therefore, preventing large-scale seagrass mortality events should be the management goal, particularly as global warming and associated stressors are likely to get more extreme in the future,” Koch concluded.



<h2 id="h-seagrass-meadows-and-the-environment">Seagrass meadows and the environment&nbsp;</h2>



Seagrass meadows are underwater plant communities comprised of flowering plants known as seagrasses. They are found in shallow coastal waters and estuaries, and are essential for maintaining healthy marine ecosystems. Seagrass meadows provide various environmental benefits, including:



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3>



Seagrasses are highly efficient at capturing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This process, known as "blue carbon" sequestration, helps mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.



<h3 id="h-water-quality-improvement">Water quality improvement</h3>



Seagrasses act as natural water filters, trapping sediment and absorbing excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. This helps maintain water clarity and prevents harmful algal blooms, which can lead to dead zones in the ocean.



<h3 id="h-habitat-provision">Habitat provision</h3>



Seagrass meadows serve as essential habitats for a wide variety of marine species, including fish, crustaceans, and marine mammals. These habitats support high levels of biodiversity and act as nurseries for juvenile fish, which in turn support commercial and recreational fisheries.



<h3 id="h-shoreline-protection">Shoreline protection</h3>



Seagrass meadows help to stabilize the seafloor by holding sediments together with their roots and rhizomes. They also dampen wave energy, reducing coastal erosion and protecting shorelines from the impacts of storms and sea level rise.



<h3 id="h-food-source">Food source</h3>



Seagrasses provide a direct food source for herbivores, such as green sea turtles and manatees, as well as indirectly supporting other marine life through the food chain.



Despite their importance, seagrass meadows are under threat from various human activities, such as coastal development, pollution, and climate change. Loss of seagrass meadows can lead to reduced biodiversity, increased carbon emissions, and weakened coastal resilience. Efforts to conserve and restore seagrass meadows are essential for maintaining the health of our marine ecosystems and the valuable services they provide.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Seagrass meadows can recover after major die-offs

Massive seagrass die-offs are currently occurring all over the world...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...