Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. 



If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery.



A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-civilization-and-technology">Oxygen, civilization, and technology</h2>



Leading this research are <a href="https://www.pas.rochester.edu/people/faculty/frank_adam/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adam Frank</a>, the Helen F. and Fred H. Gowen Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Rochester, and <a href="https://www-en.fisica.uniroma2.it/phone-directory/balbia_en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amedeo Balbi</a>, an associate professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Roma Tor Vergata, Italy.



Together with their team, they set out to explore whether oxygen is a key factor in allowing extraterrestrial civilizations to emerge and thrive through the development of technology.



“We are ready to find signatures of life on alien worlds,” Frank says. “But how do the [oxygen] conditions on a planet tell us about the possibilities for intelligent, technology-producing life?” 



This question drives efforts to examine oxygen’s role beyond respiration and metabolism, especially in relation to large-scale industrial activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-oxygen-matters-for-civilizations">Why oxygen matters for civilizations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> on Earth accounts for the bulk of our oxygen on our planet, thanks to countless organisms that use sunlight to make food. 



Because this process produces so much oxygen, it has been considered a biosignature. A planet with significant oxygen levels hints that life may be present, but Frank and Balbi argue that oxygen also has a second function.



“<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In our paper</a>, we explore whether any atmospheric composition would be compatible with the presence of advanced technology,” Balbi says. “We found that the atmospheric requirements may be quite stringent.”



The link to technology comes from open-air combustion. Smelting metals, cooking food, and powering engines all rely on oxygen. 



Any alien civilization that forges metals would need a certain percentage of oxygen in its air to keep fires burning reliably. That percentage, according to Earth’s history, appears to be around 18 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-the-18-threshold">Fire and the 18% threshold</h2>



“You might be able to get biology -- you might even be able to get intelligent creatures -- in a world that doesn’t have oxygen,” Frank says, “but without a ready source of fire, you’re never going to develop higher technology because higher technology requires fuel and melting.” 



He calls attention to fire’s role in shaping tools, infrastructure, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wellbeing-is-a-more-effective-focus-area-when-discussing-energy-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy production</a>. Metalworking, for instance, depends on sustaining flames hot enough to melt ore and craft refined structures.



Frank and Balbi refer to this requirement as an “oxygen bottleneck.” A planet might host life forms of various kinds, yet remain stuck without the combustion needed to fuel industrial breakthroughs. 



“The presence of high degrees of oxygen in the atmosphere is like a bottleneck you have to get through in order to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen in the atmosphere</a>, you’re not going to have a technological species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-create-technosignatures">Oxygen + technology create "technosignatures"</h2>



Frank thinks that exoplanets with oxygen levels at or above 18 percent should be at the top of our search list. 



“Targeting planets with high oxygen levels should be prioritized because the presence or absence of high oxygen levels in exoplanet atmospheres could be a major clue in finding potential technosignatures,” Frank says. 



Planets that exceed this level may have the capacity for factories, infrastructure, or communication networks.



Balbi notes that interpreting any possible signal of intelligent life will be challenging. 



“The implications of discovering intelligent, technological life on another planet would be huge,” adds Balbi. “Therefore, we need to be extremely cautious in interpreting possible detections. 



Their study suggests that astronomers should be skeptical of potential technosignatures from a planet with insufficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric oxygen</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technosphere-vs-biotechnosphere">Technosphere vs. biotechnosphere</h2>



Frank and Balbi’s perspective also covers the idea of a technosphere, which is the collective output of an advanced civilization. 



Factories, vehicles, and power grids all fit under this label. They rely on resources provided by the planet’s biosphere but stretch beyond purely natural processes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-technology-is-a-modern-solution-for-clean-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Burning fuels in open air</a> has been central to every major industrial leap, from forging steel to generating electricity.



When these technologies reach a global scale, they form a biotechnosphere. This term applies to the interplay of living systems and technology -- essentially, how organisms and machines coexist. 



On Earth, that includes everything from smartphones to farms, all running side by side. A well-established biotechnosphere might produce clear signals in the atmosphere: waste gases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-2024s-record-heat-unveiling-earths-climate-danger-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual heat patterns</a>, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-tap-and-bottled-water-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals not normally found in nature</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-machines-and-ecosystems">Balancing machines and ecosystems</h2>



History shows that as technology expands, it can sometimes damage or alter environments. Factories might pump pollutants into the air, while deforestation removes habitats that produce oxygen. 



Yet there is an ongoing move toward cleaner energy and more efficient resource use. If any alien civilization follows a similar path, we might detect certain byproducts in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/banning-forever-chemicals-may-threaten-us-national-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered molecules</a>.



Though the focus is on oxygen, other factors matter too, such as temperature and access to metals or fuels. A planet may need stable conditions for life to progress to a point where industry becomes possible.



That said, Frank and Balbi’s findings highlight how oxygen stands out among these factors, because it directly enables combustion processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-progress-in-earth-s-past">Fire and progress in Earth’s past</h2>



Earth’s own development through advances in technology offers insight into how vital oxygen has been for technical achievements.



Once our atmosphere had enough of it, humans learned to manipulate fire for cooking and for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">making stronger materials</a>. 



From simple smithing to modern manufacturing, every stage of growth involved open-air combustion.



“You can have everything else work out, but if you don’t have oxygen in the atmosphere, you’re not going to have a technological species,” Frank says. 



This idea underlines how a single factor -- oxygen -- can open or close the door to industrial progress, altering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decarbonizing-worlds-industrial-emissions-possible-with-current-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s entire future path</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-technology-and-next-steps">Oxygen, technology, and next steps</h2>



Observatories now in the works may soon gather data about exoplanet atmospheres in detail. Detecting a high oxygen content could mark a world that supports advanced living organisms. 



The next task is to look for proof of industry or technology, sometimes called technosignatures. These might appear as chemical emissions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio signals</a>, or specific spectral lines.



If these two checks-- oxygen above 18 percent and evidence of artificial activity -- both yield results, we will have a strong indication that we share the universe with another technological civilization. 



That reality could reshape how we see ourselves and our place among the stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter-0">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Understanding the significance of atmospheric oxygen can also inspire reflection on our home planet. Human industries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rely heavily on combustion</a>, from running cars to powering factories. This has changed Earth’s ecosystems. 



As we learn more about how oxygen in an atmosphere enables or limits technology, we might gain new ideas on how to manage our own balance between growth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental health</a>.



Ultimately, Frank and Balbi’s argument shows that oxygen may do far more than keep living cells alive. It might be the clearest signal of whether a planet can support the technologies that shape modern societies. 



By recognizing the 18 percent threshold, scientists can refine their search for advanced life and possibly move closer to answering the age-old question: Are we alone, or is someone else using fire to reshape their world?



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02112-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Oxygen levels on exoplanets reveal presence of alien technology

Scientists have long looked to oxygen when searching for signs of life beyond Earth. This gas sustains breathing and enables animals and plants to flourish. Now, researchers suggest that oxygen might also point to advanced technology. If an exoplanet’s atmosphere holds enough oxygen, it may not only support organisms but also help them spark fire, build structures, and craft machinery. A study in Nature Astronomy presents this view, highlighting oxygen’s value as more than just a sign of biology. Oxygen, civilization, and technology Leading this research are...

The <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/">University of Central Florida</a> (UCF) has recently been co-opted to participate in a $12.6 million <a href="https://www.darpa.mil/">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA)-funded project called Reefense, which aims to develop self-healing, hybrid biological and engineering reef-mimicking structures. These self-repairing oyster reefs will help mitigate coastal flooding, erosion, and storm damage that currently threaten civilian and <a href="https://www.defense.gov/">Department of Defense</a> (DoD) infrastructure and personnel.&nbsp;



Reefense plans to foster the growth and restoration of calcareous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-oyster-reefs-would-produce-major-benefits/">reef</a> organisms - such as corals or oysters - through the use of custom wave-attenuating base structures. These structures will aid in self-healing and the accommodation of sea level rise over time.&nbsp;



Additionally, the system will draw in other organisms vital to the maintenance of a thriving ecosystem. The incorporation of adaptive biology, without the use of genetically modified organisms, will also boost the resilience of corals and oysters against disease and temperature stress, thereby ensuring compatibility with a changing environment.



The Reefense project currently consists of three teams led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a>, and the <a href="https://www.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii</a>. While Rutgers is focusing on oyster reef, the other two universities will work with corals. The UCF researchers – led by Kelly Kibler, an associate professor of Ecohydraulics – will monitor the pre- and post-implementation of the oyster reef structure and assess how the reef and habitat mosaic influence sediment transport near the shoreline.



“We’re not only focusing on the oyster reef, but we’re also bringing in a mosaic habitat concept. So, we’re not only working with one species but recognizing that multiple species that inhabit the intertidal zone work together to create further resilience,” Kibler explained. “This type of natural infrastructure design project is important especially to a state like Florida that is vulnerable to climate change impacts and rising sea level.”



The overall project consists of three phases including iterations of designing, implementing, and monitoring the structures. The UCF team – which will receive about $800,000 for their collaboration in the project - is currently in Phase 1 and is set to implement the first structure in 2024, as part of Phase 2.



According to Kibler, the long-term success of the reef will depend on the recruitment and survival of the oysters. If they turn out to be successful, these structures could be used in various regions in Florida and elsewhere in the world within the range of oysters.



“We hope to have a cost-effective, transferable design that would be taken up by communities, homeowners and landowners,” she concluded.



<h2 id="h-why-are-oyster-reefs-important">Why are oyster reefs important?</h2>



Oyster reefs provide numerous ecological and economic benefits, and they are considered important for a variety of reasons:



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-support">Biodiversity Support</h3>



Oyster reefs create complex habitats that provide shelter and breeding grounds for a multitude of marine species, including fish, crustaceans, and other shellfish. This helps to maintain high levels of biodiversity in the marine ecosystem.



<h3 id="h-water-filtration">Water Filtration</h3>



Oysters are filter feeders, meaning they extract plankton and other particles from the water. This process can significantly improve water quality by reducing excess nutrients, particulate matter, and harmful algal blooms.



<h3 id="h-shoreline-protection">Shoreline Protection</h3>



Oyster reefs can act as natural breakwaters, reducing the impact of waves, preventing erosion, and stabilizing shorelines. They can also buffer the effects of storm surges, helping to protect coastal communities.



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon Sequestration</h3>



Oysters, like other shellfish, help to remove carbon dioxide from the water, converting it into their calcium carbonate shells. This process aids in mitigating the effects of climate change.



<h3 id="h-economic-value">Economic Value</h3>



Oyster reefs support commercial and recreational fisheries by providing habitat for valuable fish and shellfish species. The oyster industry itself is a significant economic contributor through the provision of jobs and seafood products.



<h3 id="h-education-and-research">Education and Research</h3>



Oyster reefs can serve as living laboratories for educational and scientific research, providing insights into marine ecology, habitat restoration, and climate change.



Despite their importance, oyster reefs are among the most threatened marine habitats globally due to overharvesting, disease, pollution, and habitat destruction. Restoration and conservation efforts are crucial to preserving these valuable ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-how-will-sea-level-rise-impact-coastlines">How will sea level rise impact coastlines?</h2>



Sea level rise can have significant impacts on coastlines. Here are some of the ways in which rising sea levels can affect coastal areas:



<h3 id="h-coastal-erosion">Coastal Erosion</h3>



Higher sea levels contribute to increased erosion of coastlines. As the water reaches farther inland, it erodes beaches, cliffs, and dunes. This can lead to the loss of valuable coastal land and damage to infrastructure, including buildings and roads.



<h3 id="h-flooding">Flooding</h3>



Low-lying coastal areas are at a greater risk of flooding as sea levels rise. Even small increases in sea level can lead to more frequent and severe coastal flooding during storms and high tides. Saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources can also occur, impacting drinking water supplies and ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-wetland-loss">Wetland Loss</h3>



Coastal wetlands, such as marshes and mangroves, are highly vulnerable to sea level rise. These ecosystems act as natural buffers, absorbing and dissipating wave energy. However, as sea levels rise, these areas can become submerged, leading to the loss of important habitats and a decrease in their protective functions.



<h3 id="h-displacement-of-communities">Displacement of Communities</h3>



Rising sea levels can force the relocation of coastal communities due to increased flood risks and erosion. Some small islands and low-lying coastal regions may become uninhabitable in the long term, leading to the displacement of populations and potential social, economic, and political challenges.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-infrastructure">Impact on Infrastructure</h3>



Coastal infrastructure, including ports, harbors, and coastal defense systems, may be affected by sea level rise. Structures designed to withstand current sea levels may become inadequate, requiring expensive upgrades or adaptations to mitigate the risks.



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-changes">Ecosystem Changes</h3>



Rising sea levels can disrupt coastal ecosystems by altering habitats and ecological processes. Changes in water salinity, flooding patterns, and erosion can affect coastal plants, animals, and biodiversity. Some species may be forced to migrate or face habitat loss, leading to ecosystem imbalances.



It is important to note that the extent of these impacts will depend on various factors, including the rate of sea level rise, the geomorphology of the coastline, and human interventions such as coastal management strategies and adaptation measures. Efforts to mitigate and adapt to sea level rise, such as coastal defenses, beach nourishment, and land-use planning, can help reduce the impacts on coastlines and coastal communities.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Self-repairing oyster reefs will help protect coastlines

The University of Central Florida (UCF) has recently been co-opted...

Social psychologists have long noticed that, many times, some of the most meaningful human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/">relationships</a> grow from the briefest of connections, involving for instance whether another person likes or dislikes the same thing that we do, such as a music band or a snack. This phenomenon - characterized by the fact that we generally tend to like people who are like us - is known as the “similarity-attraction effect.”&nbsp;



To test the conditions that shape whether we feel attracted to - or turned off by each other - researchers from <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> (BU) conducted a series of experiments, and discovered that a crucial factor behind the similarity-attraction effect was what psychologists call “self-essentialist reasoning,” where people believe they have a deep inner core or essence shaping who they are.&nbsp;



Thus, when people think that an essence drives their interests, likes, and dislikes, they usually assume the same for others and, if they find someone with as little as one – often minor – interest, they reason that person will share their broader worldview too.



“If we had to come up with an image of our sense of self, it would be this nugget, an almost magical core inside that emanates out and causes what we can see and observe about people and ourselves,” explained study lead author Charles Chu, an assistant professor of Management and Organizations at BU.&nbsp;



“We argue that believing people have an underlying essence allows us to assume or infer that when we see someone who shares a single characteristic, they must share my entire deeply rooted essence, as well.”



To come to this conclusion, Chu devised four experiments. In the first one, participants were told about a fictional person, Jaime, who held either complementary or contradictory attitudes to them on topics such as abortion, capital punishment, animal testing, gun ownership, and physician-assisted suicide.&nbsp;



After being asked to describe their sense of identity to measure their affinity with self-essentialist reasoning, participants had to state how they felt about Jaime. The experiment revealed that the more a participant believed their worldview was shaped by an essential core, the more connected they felt with the Jaime who shared their views on a specific issue.



In a second experiment, the scientists assessed whether this effect persisted when the target topics were less substantial. To test this, they asked participants to estimate the number of blue dots on a page and categorized them – along with the fictional Jaime – as either under- or over-estimators. Even in the case of such a slim connection, those who believed they had an inner core felt closer to the Jaime who was similar to them.&nbsp;



“I found that both with pretty meaningful dimensions of similarity as well as with arbitrary, minimal similarities, people who are higher in their belief that they have an essence are more likely to be attracted to these similar others as opposed to dissimilar others,” Chu reported.



Finally, in other two experiments, the researchers attempted to disrupt the influence of self-essentialist reasoning, by either telling participants that attributes such as liking a paining were either essential or nonessential, or by trying to convince them that using their essence to judge others could lead to inaccurate results.



“It breaks this essentialist reasoning process, it cuts off people’s ability to assume that what they’re seeing is reflective of a deeper similarity. One way I did that was to remind people that this dimension of similarity is actually not connected or related to your essence at all; the other way was by telling people that using their essence as a way to understand other people is not very effective,” Chu explained.



These attempts to disrupt self-essentialist reasoning emerged from Chu’s conviction that embracing an indefinable, fundamental similarity with someone based on a small number of shared interests may be inherently flawed, and could restrict who we can form meaningful connections with.



“When you hear a single fact or opinion being expressed that you either agree or disagree with, it really warrants taking an additional breath and just slowing down. Not taking that single piece of information and extrapolating on it, using this type of thinking to go to the very end, that this person is fundamentally good and like me or fundamentally bad and not like me,” he argued.



Since self-essentialist reasoning often structures how people behave with one other in a variety of social spheres, such as the business world, politics, or even the way society distributes resources - with some people receiving funding, for instance, based not on their merits, but on the similarity-attraction effect – Chu advocates a more balanced approach to others that takes into account their complexity.



“There are ways for us to go through life and meet other people, and form impressions of other people, without constantly referencing ourselves. If we’re constantly going around trying to figure out,&nbsp;who’s like me, who’s not like me?,&nbsp;that’s not always the most productive way of trying to form impressions of other people. People are a lot more complex than we give them credit for,” he concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000425">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Which factors drive interpersonal attraction?

Social psychologists have long noticed that, many times, some of...

Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-with-a-trusted-owner-remain-calm-in-new-situations/">horses</a> in the wild had to be continuously alert for predators that might attack them, even domestic horses are now hardwired to be alert of potential dangers and often scare easily. 



Unfortunately, such “startle response” or “spooking” is reflexive, and many times horses cannot distinguish between real threats and events in their environment that are not dangerous, such as a plastic bag floating by a riding arena.&nbsp;



When horses overreact to perceived threats by rearing, bolting, or bucking, they can create dangerous situations for owners and riders.



In an attempt to overcome such issues, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> is currently working to identify genes that structure such horses’ tendency to overreact. In the future, the identification of such genes could help selecting or breeding horses for the types of temperaments their owners prefer.



To better understand startle responses, the researchers equipped several horses with heart-rate monitors and let them loose in a round pen. Occasionally, they opened an umbrella quickly within the horses’ perceptual field and analyzed their behavior and heart rate during and after their initial startle reaction.



“We can’t read their minds,” said senior author Samantha Brooks, an associate professor of Equine Genetics at UF. “Their heart rate tells us what is going on inside that we cannot see from reading their body language alone. It was interesting to see the stories their heart rates told us.”



This experiment helped scientists identify two types of horses: one that was startled by the umbrella opening, had a spike in heart rate, and maintained a hyper-alert state, spending more time looking and moving away from the umbrella; and another that startled just as easily and experienced a spike in heart rate, but calmed quickly afterwards. While these animals were also startled by the stimulus, they did not go through the pattern of fear and avoidance as the other horses.



“Horses have adapted over thousands of years to live with people. Some of those changes include a reduction in startle response and are really helpful to better understand the horses we work with today,” Brooks explained.



By using these findings, the scientists plan to design a new study to differentiate the genetic components structuring how horses respond to perceived threats, in order to help owners find their right fit. For instance, while an easily spooked horse may not be the best choice for children learning to ride, it could be a good fit for high-energy “jobs” such as show jumping.&nbsp;



“Understanding each horse’s genetic makeup will help you understand the type of animal you need,” Brooks said. “If we learn early on what this animal’s natural tendencies are most likely to be, we can make educated decisions on training and future careers to give the horse the best shot to grow into their potential, rather than becoming a problem or danger.”



Moreover, clarifying a horse’s reaction to an uncomfortable situation could make a difference in transportation or veterinary practices too.&nbsp;



“It doesn’t matter if the horse is a racehorse, therapy animal or driving a carriage, an unplanned startle response is generally a problem. We are just beginning to scratch the surface of this. It might take us 10 years or more to really have a clear understanding, but it is worth the effort,” Brooks concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14030593">Genes</a>.



<h2 id="h-how-horses-express-their-emotions">How horses express their emotions</h2>



Horses, like many animals, do have a range of emotions that they can express, and these can often be seen through their behavior and body language. It's important to remember that while we can observe and interpret these signs, we can't fully understand a horse's emotional experience in the same way we understand human emotions.



<h3 id="h-here-are-some-commonly-recognized-emotions-in-horses">Here are some commonly recognized emotions in horses:</h3>



<h4 id="h-happiness">Happiness</h4>



A relaxed horse with ears forward and a calm tail usually indicates a happy horse. A soft, gentle eye also suggests contentment. Happy horses often engage in social grooming with other horses and appear generally calm and at ease.



<h4 id="h-fear">Fear</h4>



When a horse is scared, it might raise its head high, prick its ears forward, and widen its eyes. In some cases, a scared horse may also show the whites of its eyes. Horses are flight animals, so a fearful horse may also try to run away from whatever is causing its fear.



<h4 id="h-anger-aggression">Anger/Aggression</h4>



An angry or aggressive horse may pin its ears back flat against its head. It might also show its teeth, swish its tail, or even try to bite or kick. These are all warning signs that should be taken seriously to avoid injury.



<h4 id="h-stress-anxiety">Stress/Anxiety</h4>



Horses can also show signs of stress or anxiety. These may include pacing, excessive sweating, increased heart rate, or other signs of restlessness. They might also show repetitive behaviors known as stereotypies, such as cribbing (biting on fences or stalls) or weaving (swaying side to side).



<h4 id="h-sadness-depression">Sadness/Depression</h4>



Although it's harder to identify than some of the other emotions, horses can also show signs of sadness or depression, particularly if they're kept in poor conditions or are socially isolated. These may include lack of interest in surroundings, low energy, changes in eating or drinking habits, and generally appearing 'down'.



<h4 id="h-relief">Relief</h4>



Horses can show signs of relief, usually through sudden relaxation or a return to normal behaviors after a stressful event.



<h4 id="h-curiosity">Curiosity</h4>



A horse showing curiosity will often have pricked ears, a high head, and a focused gaze. It may approach or inspect new objects, smells, or sounds with caution but interest.



These are just some examples of horse emotions, as interpreted through their behavior and body language. Understanding a horse's emotions can be incredibly helpful in promoting good welfare and positive interactions.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Scientists aim to breed less “spooky” horses

Since horses in the wild had to be continuously alert...

The past half a century has witnessed an increased exodus of human populations from rural to urban areas, with over 55 percent of the world’s population currently living in cities (a percentage expected to rise to 68 percent by 2050). A major effect of this gradual decrease in rural populations is that the land they leave behind leads to a significant increase in abandoned fields and pastures, forestry areas, factories, mines, or even entire human settlements.&nbsp;



A new perspective piece published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adf1099">Science</a> has recently investigated how biodiversity is affected by land abandonment and what this entails for ecology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-are-highly-effective-for-wildlife-conservation/">conservation</a>.



“The factors that drive depopulation and consequently also land abandonment are intensifying due to issues like climate change and the rapidly changing geopolitical landscape,” said study lead author Gergana Daskalova, a research fellow in Biodiversity, Ecology, and Conservation at the <a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/">International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis</a> (IIASA).&nbsp;



“The Russian invasion of Ukraine, for example, has already created new abandonment hotspots. Abandonment is a globally important process. The scale at which this is happening around the world urged us to put the spotlight on the places people have left behind as a potential source of future solutions for conservation, while also protecting human livelihoods.”&nbsp;



Although the precise amount of abandoned land around the globe is unknown, scientists estimate that it could comprise up to 400 million hectares (nearly half the size of Australia). Most of this land is in the Northern Hemisphere, with 117 million ha in the former Soviet Union alone.



According to the experts, the effects such abandoned areas have on biodiversity are complex, and can be both positive and negative. For instance, in abandoned areas that were previously intensively farmed and where biodiversity was low, plant life, birds, and invertebrates which can easily survive in disturbed ecosystems have a new chance to thrive.&nbsp;



Moreover, if the abandonment of such crop fields is coupled with people leaving the region or with wildlife reintroductions, major rewilding can occur, with the possible return of large herbivores and carnivores. However, not all abandoned land can recover without help, and some of the land that used to be intensively farmed may never fully recover.



The researchers emphasize that land abandonment can also have negative consequences for biodiversity. For example, in areas previously used for low-intensity, or subsistence farming for extended periods of time, the close ties between the people and the land have often created interdependent ecosystems that break down after people depart, possibly leading to the loss of locally rare species or the proliferation of only one or two species at the expense of others.



Moreover, any gains in biodiversity on abandoned land can be quickly reversed if land is recultivated or repurposed, as it currently happens with finding new industrial uses for abandoned land, such as large-scale bioenergy, wind, and solar energy production.



Thus, finding the best use for abandoned land needs to balance conservation benefits, human livelihoods, and sustainability. To identify the most efficient ways of balancing these factors, biodiversity changes on abandoned lands should be included in regional and global assessments, policies, and scenarios. Finally, in cases where abandoned land is reused, economic needs should be carefully balanced with restoration and conservation goals.



“It is important for future models and scenarios aimed at predicting the positive versus negative effects of abandonment on biodiversity to take into account whether the land is likely to remain abandoned and what the feedbacks between abandonment, biodiversity, human values, and livelihoods entail," said Daskalova.



As global conversations around this topic continue, we can look to abandoned lands as the product of centuries of interactions between people and nature, and create incentives not just for conservation, but also for land stewardship and the preservation of both social and ecological values."



<h2 id="h-more-about-biodiversity">More about biodiversity&nbsp;</h2>



Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms and ecosystems on Earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and the ecological processes that support them. It encompasses the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels of biological organization. Here are some key points about biodiversity:



<h3 id="h-importance-of-biodiversity">Importance of Biodiversity</h3>



Biodiversity is crucial for the health and stability of ecosystems and provides numerous benefits to humans. It supports the functioning of ecosystems, such as nutrient cycling, pollination, and soil formation. 



Biodiversity also contributes to essential ecosystem services like clean air and water, climate regulation, and natural disaster mitigation. Additionally, it has aesthetic, cultural, and recreational value and serves as a source of food, medicine, and other resources.



<h3 id="h-levels-of-biodiversity">Levels of Biodiversity</h3>



Biodiversity is often described at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.



<h4 id="h-genetic-diversity">Genetic Diversity</h4>



This refers to the variety of genes within a species. Genetic diversity enables populations to adapt to changing environments, enhances resistance to diseases, and improves overall species resilience.



<h4 id="h-species-diversity">Species Diversity</h4>



This refers to the variety of different species present in a particular region or on Earth as a whole. Higher species diversity generally indicates a healthier ecosystem.



<h4 id="h-ecosystem-diversity">Ecosystem Diversity</h4>



This refers to the range of different ecosystems in a given area or across the planet. Ecosystem diversity encompasses various habitats, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coral reefs, and deserts.



<h3 id="h-threats-to-biodiversity">Threats to Biodiversity</h3>



Biodiversity is facing significant threats, primarily due to human activities. Some of the major drivers of biodiversity loss include habitat destruction, deforestation, pollution, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation of natural resources, and unsustainable agricultural practices. 



These factors can lead to species extinctions, disrupt ecosystems, and have cascading effects on the overall functioning of the planet.



<h3 id="h-conservation-of-biodiversity">Conservation of Biodiversity</h3>



Protecting and conserving biodiversity is crucial for the well-being of both ecosystems and human societies. 



Conservation efforts involve the establishment of protected areas, habitat restoration, sustainable land and resource management practices, wildlife conservation initiatives, and international agreements and conventions. Public awareness, education, and participation are also essential for promoting biodiversity conservation.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-hotspots">Biodiversity Hotspots</h3>



Biodiversity hotspots are regions that are exceptionally rich in species but also highly threatened. These areas contain a significant number of endemic species (species found nowhere else) and have experienced significant habitat loss. Examples of biodiversity hotspots include the Amazon rainforest, the Coral Triangle, the Western Ghats of India, and the Cape Floristic Region in South Africa.



<h3 id="h-role-of-indigenous-peoples-and-local-communities">Role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities</h3>



Indigenous peoples and local communities often have profound traditional knowledge and practices that contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Recognizing and involving these communities in conservation efforts can lead to more effective and equitable outcomes.



Preserving and restoring biodiversity is crucial for ensuring the long-term health and sustainability of our planet. It requires collective global efforts, policy interventions, and individual actions to protect and conserve the Earth's rich natural heritage.



—--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does land abandonment affect biodiversity?

The past half a century has witnessed an increased exodus...

A team of astronomers led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> has recently used NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/lift-off-the-james-webb-telescope-is-headed-to-space/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) to examine the warm dust surrounding Fomalhaut – a nearby young star located in the southern constellation of Piscis Austrinus.&nbsp;



The goal was to study the first asteroid belt ever observed outside of our solar system in infrared light. Surprisingly, the images revealed that these dusty structures are much more complex than the so-called Kuiper dust belts from our solar system.



The experts found three nested belts extending out to 14 billion miles (150 times the distance of Earth from the Sun), with the scale of the outermost belt being about twice that of our solar system’s Kuiper belt of small bodies and cold dust beyond Neptune.&nbsp;



The dusty belts are formed by the debris originating from collisions of larger bodies similar to asteroids or comets and are usually described as “debris discs.”



“I would describe Fomalhaut as the archetype of debris disks found elsewhere in our galaxy, because it has components similar to those we have in our own planetary system,” said lead author András Gáspár, an astronomer at Arizona.



“By looking at the patterns in these rings, we can actually start to make a little sketch of what a planetary system ought to look like – if we could actually take a deep enough picture to see the suspected planets.”&nbsp;



Although Fomalhaut’s dust ring was first discovered in 1983 in observations made by NASA’s Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and later on the Hubble Space Telescope, the Herschel Space Observatory, and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) have already taken sharp images of the outermost belt, none of them managed to identify the inner belts.&nbsp;



Now, due to JWST’s capacity of observing infrared light, the researchers finally succeeded to get a fuller picture of Fomalhaut’s dust belts.



“Where Webb really excels is that we’re able to physically resolve the thermal glow from dust in those inner regions. So you can see inner belts that we could never see before,” explained co-author Schuyler Wolff, an expert in planet formation processes at Arizona.



“With Hubble and ALMA, we were able to image a bunch of Kuiper Belt analogs, and we’ve learned loads about how outer disks form and evolve. But we need Webb to allow us to image a dozen or so asteroid belts elsewhere. We can learn just as much about the inner warm regions of these disks as Hubble and ALMA taught us about the colder outer regions.”



According to the scientists, these belts are most probably created by the gravitational forces produced by unseen planets, just as, in our solar system, the outer edge of the Kuiper belt is likely to be sculpted by unseen bodies beyond it that we could not yet identify.



“The belts around Fomalhaut are kind of a mystery novel: Where are the planets?” said co-author George Rieke, the U.S. science lead for JWST’s <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/miri.html">Mid-Infrared Instrument</a> (MIRI), which made these observations. “I think it’s not a very big leap to say there’s probably a really interesting planetary system around the star.”



“We definitely didn’t expect the more complex structure with the second intermediate belt and then the broader asteroid belt,” Wolff added. “That structure is very exciting because any time an astronomer sees a gap and rings in a disk, they say, ‘There could be an embedded planet shaping the rings!’”



Finally, JWST also imaged what Gáspár calls “the great dust cloud,” which may be proof of a collision between two icy protoplanetary bodies in Fomalhaut’s outer ring that gave rise to an expanding cloud of very fine dust particles.



Further observations are needed to clarify the structure and origins of Fomalhaut’s belts and to possibly locate the planets that influence their formation. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-01962-6">Nature Astrology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-dust-belts">More about dust belts</h2>



Dust belts, also known as debris disks or asteroid belts, are rings of dust and debris that circle around a star. The debris in these belts is often the result of collisions between asteroids, comets, and other celestial objects, or leftover material from the formation of the star system.



These belts are frequently found in star systems that may also contain planets. For example, in our solar system, we have the Asteroid Belt located between Mars and Jupiter, and the Kuiper Belt beyond the orbit of Neptune. These belts consist of countless small bodies, remnants from the early solar system.



Dust belts are of interest to scientists for several reasons. First, they can provide clues about the formation and evolution of the star system. The composition and distribution of the dust and debris can tell us about the types of materials that were present when the system formed and how those materials have changed over time.



Second, dust belts are often associated with planetary systems. The presence of a dust belt around a star can suggest that there might also be planets in orbit. Additionally, the patterns and gaps in the dust distribution can potentially indicate the presence of planets that are influencing the belt through their gravitational effects.



Lastly, studying dust belts can also give us insights into the potential for life in other star systems. For instance, the ingredients necessary for life as we know it - water, organic molecules, and so on—might be found within these belts.



Astronomers detect and study dust belts using a variety of methods, including direct imaging with telescopes, spectroscopy (which can reveal the composition of the dust), and the detection of infrared radiation, which dust emits as it is warmed by the star.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, A. Gáspár (University of Arizona). Image processing: A. Pagan (STScI).



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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James Webb reveals the complexity of Fomalhaut's dust belts

A team of astronomers led by the University of Arizona...

In a surprising revelation that adds a new dimension to our understanding of marine biology, a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.add4445">Science</a> suggests that hammerhead sharks have a unique way of maintaining their body temperature while hunting in deep, chilly waters - they "hold their breath."



This unexpected finding, reminiscent of thermoregulation strategies employed by marine mammals, raises intriguing possibilities about similar tactics being prevalent among other deep-diving fish species.



As a scientific journalist, it's my pleasure to dive into the details of this fascinating discovery and shed light on the complexities of life beneath the surface of our oceans.



Most fish, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">sharks</a>, are ectothermic, which means that their body temperatures are largely determined by the environment around them. This poses a physiological conundrum for large predators, who need to maintain a specific body temperature to operate efficiently, yet venture into cold, deep waters in search of food.



Take, for instance, the scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini). These formidable predators, which dwell in warm surface waters of temperate and tropical coastal regions, are known to undertake frequent deep dives, sometimes exceeding 800 meters. In such depths, water temperatures can plummet to a frigid four degrees Celsius.



The question that puzzled scientists was how these sharks managed to maintain their body temperature in such icy waters, given their lack of specific morphological or vascular adaptations to conserve body heat actively.



To unravel this enigma, Mark Royer and his team developed cutting-edge remote biologgers. These devices, implanted internally in adult sharks, recorded an array of data including depth, ambient water temperature, activity rates, body movements, and, crucially, internal body temperature.



The team discovered that the hammerhead sharks maintained a body temperature significantly elevated - up to 20 degrees Celsius above the surrounding water temperatures - throughout the deepest part of each dive. Intriguingly, the sharks only began to lose body heat rapidly when they started their return journey to the surface.



The researchers proposed a compelling explanation for this phenomenon. They suggest that the sharks effectively "hold their breath" while diving by closing their mouths and/or gill slits. This action reduces the flow of cold water across their gills, thereby minimizing heat loss that would typically occur due to the respiration process in cold water.



The swift body heat loss during the sharks' ascent to warmer waters is likely a result of the gill slits reopening, leading to convective heat transfer. While this finding is a significant leap in our understanding, the authors caution that more research is needed to confirm this thermoregulation strategy.



Mark Meekan and Adrian Gleiss, in a related perspective, write, “Given the effectiveness of breath holding and the strong selective forces that shape behavioral and physiological thermoregulation, this strategy could be widespread among other epipelagic and teleost fishes.”



This innovative study offers a fascinating glimpse into the adaptive strategies of one of nature's most intriguing predators, potentially opening doors to better comprehend the survival mechanisms of other marine species.



<h2 id="h-more-about-hammerhead-sharks">More about hammerhead sharks</h2>



Hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks that belong to the family Sphyrnidae. As their name suggests, these sharks are best known for their distinctive head shape, which is flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a cephalofoil. There are nine recognized species of hammerhead sharks. Here's what we know about them:



<h3 id="h-distinctive-appearance">Distinctive Appearance</h3>



Apart from their unique hammer-shaped heads, these sharks are typically gray-brown to olive-green on their dorsal (upper) side and lighter on their ventral (lower) side. Their size can range from 0.9 to 6 meters (3 to 20 feet), depending on the species. The great hammerhead is the largest species, while the bonnethead and the scoophead are among the smallest.



<h3 id="h-cephalofoil">Cephalofoil</h3>



The hammer-shaped head, or cephalofoil, provides several advantages. It increases the shark's sensory perception by spreading the sensory organs over a larger area, enhancing its ability to find prey. The wide head also allows for better maneuverability and the ability to scan larger areas of the ocean floor for food.



<h3 id="h-diet-and-feeding">Diet and Feeding</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are carnivorous and feed on a variety of prey, including fish, squid, octopus, crustaceans, and other sharks. The great hammerhead has a particular taste for stingrays.



<h3 id="h-sensory-systems">Sensory Systems</h3>



Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptive sensory organs known as ampullae of Lorenzini. These allow them to detect the electric fields created by other animals, which is particularly useful when hunting for prey. Their wide-set eyes give them a better visual range than most other shark species.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young. The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac, and once this is depleted, the yolk sac transforms into a structure similar to a mammalian placenta through which the mother provides nutrition.



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are known for their schooling behavior. Large schools, primarily composed of females, can be seen in the open ocean during the day. At night, the sharks disperse to hunt.



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



Many species of hammerhead sharks, including the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini), are considered endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to overfishing and demand for their fins, which are highly prized in the shark fin trade.



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are found in warm waters along coastlines and continental shelves. They're present in various oceans worldwide, including the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.



<h3 id="h-deep-diving-abilities">Deep Diving Abilities</h3>



Some species, like the scalloped hammerhead, are known to make frequent deep dives, sometimes exceeding 800 meters. They're known to maintain an elevated body temperature in these frigid waters, potentially by "holding their breath" to reduce the flow of cold water across their gills - a phenomenon that's currently being studied.



Please note that research is ongoing and our understanding of these remarkable creatures is continually evolving.



—-



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Discovery: Hammerhead sharks hold their breath to stay warm

In a surprising revelation that adds a new dimension to...

A recent study that casts light on early human species' adaptation to varying landscapes and diverse food resources has been published in journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abq1288">Science</a>. The research indicates that such adaptations may have boosted our ancestors' resilience to past climate shifts.



Our genus, Homo, has evolved over the past three million years, a timeline marked by increasingly intense fluctuations between warm and cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-type-influences-athletic-performance-in-different-climates/">climates</a>. Yet, the mechanisms by which early human species adapted to intensifying climate extremes, ice ages, and large-scale shifts in landscapes and vegetation have remained a mystery.&nbsp;



Did our ancestors evolve to cope with local environmental changes over time, or did they migrate to environments that were more stable and rich in food resources? What influenced human evolution more – temporal changes in climate or the spatial characteristics of the environment?



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Aiming to answer these fundamental questions on human evolution and adaptation, the research team used a vast compilation of over 3,000 well-dated human fossil specimens and archeological sites. These sites represent six different human species and are combined with accurate climate and vegetation model simulations covering the past three million years.



Elke Zeller is a Ph.D. student from the <a href="https://ibsclimate.org/">IBS Center for Climate Physics</a> at Pusan National University, South Korea and the lead author of the study. "For the archeological and anthropological sites and corresponding ages, we extracted the local biome types from our climate-driven vegetation model. This revealed which biomes were favored by the extinct hominin species H. ergaster, H. habilis, H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis, and H. neanderthalensis and by our direct ancestors - H. sapiens," explained Zeller.



Biomes – geographical regions defined by similar climates, plants, and animal communities, like the savannah, rainforest, or tundra – were at the center of the scientists' analysis.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Their findings suggest that earlier African groups had a preference for open environments such as grassland and dry shrubland. However, when hominins like H. erectus and later H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis migrated into Eurasia around 1.8 million years ago. There, they developed higher tolerances to other biomes, including temperate and boreal forests.



Study co-author Professor Pasquale Raia from the Università di Napoli Federico II noted: "To survive as forest-dwellers, these groups developed more advanced stone tools and likely also social skills."&nbsp;



This adaptation culminated with the emergence of H. sapiens approximately 200,000 years ago in Africa. Unlike any other species before, our direct ancestors proved to be mobile, flexible, and competitive, surviving in harsh environments such as deserts and tundra.



The experts found a significant clustering of early human occupation sites in regions with increased biome diversity.&nbsp;



Professor Axel Timmermann, director of the IBS Center for Climate Physics, explained: "What that means is that our human ancestors had a liking for mosaic landscapes, with a great variety of plant and animal resources in close proximity." This highlights the pivotal role ecosystem diversity played in human evolution.



<h2 id="h-why-this-study-is-important">Why this study is important</h2>



For the first time on continental scales, the authors demonstrated this preference for mosaic landscapes and proposed a new Diversity Selection Hypothesis: Homo species, especially H. sapiens, were uniquely equipped to exploit heterogeneous biomes.



"Our analysis shows the crucial importance of landscape and plant diversity as a selective element for humans and as a potential driver for socio-cultural developments," said Zeller.



The study offers a unique perspective into human prehistory and survival strategies, showing how vegetation shifts have influenced human sustenance.



The comprehensive climate and vegetation model simulations, which span the Earth's history of the past 3 million years, were carried out on Aleph, one of South Korea's fastest science supercomputers. The research emphasizes the integral role of supercomputing in evolutionary biology and anthropology.



"Supercomputing is now emerging as a key tool in evolutionary biology and anthropology," said Timmermann.



The study, therefore, not only elucidates how our ancestors adapted and thrived in shifting environments but also underlines the importance of cutting-edge technology in revealing the intricacies of human evolution.



Overall, the research offers unprecedented insights into how our ancestors adapted to the world around them. By understanding our past, we can better comprehend our present and future as a species.&nbsp;



The study also serves as a stark reminder of the deep and enduring connection between humans and their environment, a connection that continues to shape our lives today. The more we learn about our past, the better equipped we are to navigate the challenges of the future.



<h2 id="h-what-earth-was-like-3-million-years-ago">What Earth was like 3 million years ago</h2>



Three million years ago, during the Pliocene Epoch, which spans from about 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago, Earth was significantly different from what it is today. Here's a summary of the key characteristics of that period:



<h4 id="h-climate">Climate</h4>



The Pliocene was a time of global warmth compared to the periods preceding and following it. Average global temperatures were estimated to be about 2 to 3 degrees Celsius higher than today, and the Arctic, in particular, was significantly warmer, potentially by as much as 10 degrees Celsius. This led to smaller polar ice caps and higher global sea levels, possibly up to 25 meters higher than present day.



<h4 id="h-flora-and-fauna">Flora and Fauna</h4>



The warmer Pliocene climate supported a diverse array of life forms. On land, coniferous forests and grasslands were widespread. This was also the time when grasslands and savannas started to become more common, especially in Africa, which had a significant impact on the evolution of early human ancestors.



Marine life was also diverse, with the warmer seas supporting a range of species. However, towards the end of the Pliocene, as the Earth started to cool, there was a major extinction of marine species.



<h4 id="h-geography">Geography</h4>



The continents were roughly in the positions we know them to be today, but they were still moving into their present locations. The Isthmus of Panama, for example, was newly formed, connecting North and South America and significantly altering ocean currents and the global climate.



<h4 id="h-early-hominins">Early Hominins</h4>



This was a significant period for human evolution. In Africa, our early hominin ancestors were becoming more adept at walking upright. Species like Australopithecus afarensis show evidence of bipedalism.&nbsp;



The development of stone tool technology also possibly began during this time, although the oldest definitive evidence of tool use is from about 2.6 million years ago, towards the very end of the Pliocene.



Please note that our understanding of geological epochs is continually refined as new evidence comes to light, so future research may alter our understanding of the Pliocene.



Image Credit: Institute for Basic Science



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Human ancestors preferred mosaic landscapes with diverse ecosystems

A recent study that casts light on early human species'...

In famous triathlons epitomizing human endurance, such as Ironman or Norseman, competitors are undertaking nearly 150 minutes of running, swimming, and cycling in grueling conditions.&nbsp;



By analyzing almost 200 Ironman participants over two decades, Ryan Calsbeek – a professor of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> and former Ironmen contestant himself - has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/">performance</a> in such competitions is not only driven by training and resilience, but also by how athletes’ physiques are adapted to shedding or retaining heat in specific climates.&nbsp;



According to Calsbeek, taller and leaner runners with long limbs tended to excel in Ironman events held in warmer climates, while athletes with stockier builds and shorter limbs were more likely to fare better in colder climates. Interestingly, these physiological links were detected in men, but not in women.&nbsp;



This study is among only a few connecting human physiology to what are known as Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules (named for the 19th century biologists Carl Bergmann and Joseph Asaph Allen), which argue that the overall body size of animals, along with the length and thickness of their limbs, correspond to climatic particularities.&nbsp;



More specifically, the rules state that, while cold-adapted species tend to be burlier with thicker and shorter limbs to avoid heat loss, species adapted to hotter climates are sleeker with thinner and longer limbs that help them keep cool efficiently.&nbsp;



Although these rules are generally accepted in the case of animals, research studying them in humans has been scarce, with only a few studies from mid-20th century suggesting a link between human physiology and climate.



In the current study, Calsbeek examined 171 triathletes who competed in at least two Ironmen events – one in a hot and one in a cold climate – during the past two decades. The wealth of available photos of these events allowed him to use software to measure competitors’ morphology based on pictures from the cycling part of the competition.&nbsp;



Moreover, since swimming and cycling are not evolutionary adaptations in humans, participants’ performance in these events could be weighed against their aptitude to running – an evolutionary adaptation – to clarify the influence of body type on performance.



“A triathlon is a great human system to study because there is one event, running in particular, that we know to be important in the evolution of humans and two events - swimming and cycling -&nbsp;that are not, so there’s a great natural control. Male triathletes exhibited the most significant difference in performance based on physiology and the effect was most prominent in the run,” Calsbeek explained.



In his view, the lack of a significant influence of physiology on the performance of women could be explained by evolution. “This effect is likely seen only in males because natural selection acted on running performance in males to be persistence hunters.”



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283282">PLOS ONE</a>, suggest that aspiring endurance male athletes should consider venues in climates for which their physiology is more naturally attuned.



“This study included a broad sample of athletes to account for motivation and training, but the link between performance and physiology was statistically significant in spite of those factors. People attempting a personal best time can think about race locations and average temperatures to pick a venue based on how their body type is adapted to perform,” Calsbeek concluded.



<h2 id="h-how-have-humans-adapted-to-different-climates">How have humans adapted to different climates?</h2>



Humans have adapted to different climates and environments over thousands of years through both biological and cultural adaptations. Here are some examples:



<h3 id="h-biological-adaptations">Biological Adaptations</h3>



These are physical changes in the human body that have evolved over generations to better suit particular environments.



<h4 id="h-skin-pigmentation">Skin Pigmentation</h4>



Darker skin, which has more melanin, provides protection against strong UV radiation prevalent in equatorial regions. Lighter skin, found in populations in higher latitudes, allows for more UVB absorption, which is necessary for the production of vitamin D, especially in regions with less sunlight.



<h4 id="h-body-shape-and-size">Body Shape and Size</h4>



The Bergmann's Rule and Allen's Rule suggest that populations living in colder climates tend to have larger body masses and shorter limbs to minimize heat loss, while those in warmer climates have slimmer bodies and longer limbs to facilitate heat dissipation.&nbsp;



For instance, the Inuit people in the Arctic regions have stockier builds to conserve heat, while groups in the hot, arid climates of Africa and Australia have leaner bodies to stay cool.



<h4 id="h-genetic-adaptations">Genetic Adaptations</h4>



Some populations have developed specific genetic traits to survive in certain environments. For example, some Tibetan people have genes that help them live at high altitudes, where oxygen levels are lower.



<h4 id="h-cultural-adaptations">Cultural Adaptations</h4>



These include behavioral changes, inventions, and technologies that have enabled humans to survive in different climates.



<h4 id="h-clothing">Clothing</h4>



In cold climates, people developed clothing using animal skins and fur for insulation. In hot, sunny climates, loose and light-colored clothing is often used to reflect sunlight and allow air circulation.



<h4 id="h-housing">Housing</h4>



In hot desert climates, people have built houses with thick walls and small windows to keep out the heat, often from materials like mud-brick that have good insulating properties. In contrast, in colder climates, houses are designed to retain heat, such as the igloos of the Inuit people.



<h4 id="h-food-procurement">Food Procurement</h4>



People in different climates have adapted to utilize the resources available to them. In Arctic climates, people rely heavily on hunting and fishing, while in fertile regions, agriculture is common.&nbsp;



Some societies, such as those in desert climates, developed nomadic lifestyles, moving from place to place in search of resources.



<h4 id="h-technology">Technology</h4>



From the development of fire and tools to modern heating, air conditioning, and transportation, technological advancements have allowed humans to live in a wide range of climates.



These adaptations have enabled humans to populate almost every corner of the earth, from the hottest deserts to the coldest polar regions.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Body type influences athletic performance in different climates

In famous triathlons epitomizing human endurance, such as Ironman or...

Playing video games has become a daily occurrence for millions of Americans. While online <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/online-gaming-may-enhance-career-prospects/">gaming</a> can provide entertainment and relaxation, excessive play may also lead to isolation, addiction, and changes in mood or behavior. Moreover, the effects of gaming on social connectivity can vary, and anxiety and depression caused by such activities are growing public health concerns.&nbsp;



In a recent study led by the <a href="https://public-health.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University School of Public Health</a>, experts have suggested that social connectivity and support are critical for online gamers. 



The researchers used social network analysis to examine the social structure of an online football simulation gaming site to assess how social support, a sense of community, and symptoms of depression affect social connections over time. In the game, participants played as the head coaches of football teams, competing against other members of the site for 10 months.



“We wanted to showcase the community building and informal relationships built through these online settings,” said study lead author Tyler Prochnow, an expert in social network analysis and health at Texas A&amp;M. 



“Many people feel a sense of community, support, and comfort through online gaming, and I think we need to do a better job measuring these connections and fostering them to improve mental health in today’s digital age.”



Prochnow and his colleagues collected data on demographic factors, members’ hours spent on the gaming site and playing other video games, as well as their depressive symptoms, perceived ability to talk to someone about problems, and important people in their lives that they communicate with on the site and in real life.



The analysis revealed that social support, sense of community, and depressive symptoms played significant roles in changes to the game’s social structure over time. For instance, people who reported more social support online and less real-life support were more likely to reach out to other members of the site.&nbsp;



Moreover, communication ties were more likely to form when communications were reciprocated or transitive (involving three people groups or clusters), with players who spent more time on the site and reported feeling a greater sense of community being more likely to develop such ties over time.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the importance of social connectivity and support on online gaming platforms, particularly for socially isolated communities in times such as the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic.&nbsp;



However, the researchers warn that members who report greater depressive symptoms may need more formal support, including telehealth mental health care options. Further research in this area could inform interventions to improve social connectivity and mental health for online gamers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2023.2199171">Sociological Focus</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-online-gaming">More about online gaming</h2>



Online gaming refers to any type of game that can be played via the internet. This can include a wide variety of games, from simple card and word games to complex multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPGs). Here are a few key aspects of online gaming:



<h3 id="h-types-of-games">Types of Games</h3>



<h4 id="h-mmorpgs-massively-multiplayer-online-role-playing-games">MMORPGs (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games)</h4>



These are games where thousands of players interact in a virtual world. Players often take on roles or characters in a fantasy or science fiction setting. Examples include World of Warcraft and Final Fantasy XIV.



<h4 id="h-first-person-shooters-fps">First-Person Shooters (FPS)</h4>



These games often involve combat scenarios where players view the game from the first-person perspective. Examples include Call of Duty, Battlefield, and Counter-Strike.



<h4 id="h-real-time-strategy-rts">Real-Time Strategy (RTS)</h4>



These games require strategic thinking and quick decision-making. Players often control entire armies or civilizations. Examples include StarCraft and Age of Empires.



<h4 id="h-mobas-multiplayer-online-battle-arenas">MOBAs (Multiplayer Online Battle Arenas)</h4>



These games involve teams of players who work together to defeat the opposing team. Examples include Dota 2 and League of Legends.



<h4 id="h-casual-games">Casual Games</h4>



These are simple games that can be played in short bursts, often on mobile devices or in web browsers. Examples include Candy Crush Saga and Words with Friends.



<h4 id="h-battle-royale-games">Battle Royale Games</h4>



These games involve numerous players who compete until only one is left standing. They often involve elements of survival, exploration, and scavenging. Examples include Fortnite and PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds (PUBG).



<h3 id="h-platforms">Platforms</h3>



Online games can be played on various platforms including PCs, consoles (like PlayStation, Xbox, Nintendo Switch), and mobile devices (smartphones and tablets).



<h3 id="h-social-aspect">Social Aspect</h3>



Online gaming has a significant social aspect. Many games include chat features, allowing players to communicate with each other. Online gaming can also foster a sense of community, with players forming guilds or teams and working together to achieve common goals.



<h3 id="h-esports">eSports</h3>



eSports, or electronic sports, refer to competitive online gaming. Professional gamers compete in tournaments for prizes, which can reach millions of dollars. Popular eSports games include Dota 2, League of Legends, and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive.



<h3 id="h-business-models">Business Models</h3>



Online games can be free to play, with optional in-game purchases (freemium games), or they can require an upfront purchase. Some games also operate on a subscription model.



<h3 id="h-issues-and-concerns">Issues and Concerns</h3>



Online gaming also has its share of issues and concerns. These can include addiction, cyberbullying, privacy concerns, and the potential for predatory behavior. Many games also feature in-game purchases, which can lead to overspending.



As technology continues to evolve, online gaming is likely to become even more popular and diverse. Developments in virtual reality and augmented reality technologies, for example, are likely to provide new and immersive gaming experiences.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Could online gaming improve social connectivity?

Playing video games has become a daily occurrence for millions...

Whales in the Southern Ocean are losing weight due to global warming

As the chill of winter sets in during June in...

Since utilities in the United States receive limited federal or state investment to cover the costs of infrastructure, treatment, operations, and maintenance, they largely rely on fees charged to households or businesses using their services. Unfortunately, these fees have steadily risen over the past few decades, causing many people significant affordability problems.&nbsp;



For instance, according to a recent study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, in 787 communities served by the country’s largest utilities, 17 percent of households currently struggle to afford basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-evaporation-water-supply/">water</a> services, with 28.3 million people spending more than one day each month working to pay for water and sanitation services.



“Safe, reliable water services are essential for everyone to thrive, but a substantial number of Americans may be finding them difficult to afford,” said lead author Lauren Patterson, a senior fellow in Energy, Environment, and Sustainability at Duke. “When costs rise faster than incomes, it strains the budgets of a wide swath of U.S. households already struggling to make ends meet, as well as utilities trying to adequately serve their customers.”



For their analyses, Patterson and her colleagues assumed 6,000 gallons of water per month to be sufficient to meet the basic water needs of an average U.S. household, defined water services as affordable if they cost less than 4.6 percent of monthly income (equal to a day’s worth of work at minimum wage), and focused primarily on utility systems serving over 100,000 people.&nbsp;



When they repeated the analysis for smaller utility systems serving less than 10,000 people, they discovered that the average customer paid even more each month, making unaffordability even more pervasive.



“If anything, our estimates of the breadth of water unaffordability are on the conservative side,” explained co-author Sophia Bryson, an environmental scientist at <a href="https://www.limno.com/">LimnoTech</a>, a water science and environmental engineering company.&nbsp;



“No matter how strictly we set the parameters, we found households struggling to pay their water bills in every single community in our sample. This is a systemic issue for the water sector that is not limited to a specific region, nor strictly urban or rural communities.”&nbsp;



According to the scientists, many factors play a role in this problematic situation, including low household incomes, increased regulatory and energy costs, aging infrastructure, population loss, climate change, and the increasing costs of capital associated to finance.&nbsp;



To immediately help households unable to pay their bills, utility customer assistance programs and other safety net measures are urgently needed. Over the longer term though, larger approaches incorporating finance, governance, and equity, and spanning from the local to the state and federal scale are necessary to reduce utility costs and income inequality.



“Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974 after a nationwide survey showed 14&nbsp;percent of households were getting drinking water that didn’t meet basic public health guidelines. If that was enough to draw nationwide attention to water quality, then perhaps a similar focus on water affordability is warranted now,” concluded co-author Martin Doyle, a professor of River Science and Policy at Duke.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000123">PLOS Water</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Many Americans cannot afford basic water services

Since utilities in the United States receive limited federal or...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/patient-visitor-guide/minnesota">Mayo Clinic</a> in Rochester, Minnesota has found that people who have sleep apnea and spend less time in deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sleep-makes-people-more-selfish-and-less-generous/">sleep</a> may have brain biomarkers that have been previously associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, cognitive decline, and stroke.&nbsp;



The experts examined the association between sleep factors and two types of biomarkers that provide insights into the health of the brain’s white matter (a network of nerve fibers playing a major role in connecting different areas of the brain). One of these biomarkers - known as “white matter hyperintensities” - represents tiny lesions visible on brain scans, which become more common with age or uncontrolled high blood pressure, while the other one measures the integrity of axons, which form the nerve fibers connecting neurons.



“These biomarkers are sensitive signs of early cerebrovascular disease,” said study lead author Diego Z. Carvalho, a neurologist at the Mayo Clinic. “Finding that severe sleep apnea and a reduction in slow-wave sleep are associated with these biomarkers is important since there is no treatment for these changes in the brain, so we need to find ways to prevent them from happening or getting worse.”&nbsp;



The study involved 140 individuals with an average age of 73 who were diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea, a disorder characterized by repeated episodes of complete or partial blockage of the upper airway during sleep, which leads to a reduction or cessation of breathing.&nbsp;



Among these individuals, 34 percent had mild, 32 percent had moderate, and 34 percent had severe sleep apnea. None of the participants had neurodegenerative disorders before or at the end of the experiment, which consisted of a brain scan and an overnight study in a sleep lab.



The sleep study investigated how long participants spend in slow-wave sleep, which is also known as “non-REM stage 3 sleep” and is considered to be one of the best markers of sleep quality.&nbsp;



The results revealed that, for every 10-point decrease in the percentage of slow-wave sleep, there was an increase in the amount of white matter hyperintensities similar to the effect of being 2.3 years older, and a reduced axonal integrity similar to the effect of being three years older.&nbsp;



Moreover, participants with severe sleep apnea had a higher volume of white matter intensities and more reduced axonal integrity in the brain than those with mild or moderate cases.



Regardless of these statistically significant associations, the researchers stressed that the results do not yet prove a clear causality between sleep disturbances and brain health.&nbsp;



“More research is needed to determine whether sleep issues affect these brain biomarkers or vice versa. We also need to look at whether strategies to improve sleep quality or treatment of sleep apnea can affect the trajectory of these biomarkers,” Carvalho concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://n.neurology.org/content/early/2023/05/10/WNL.0000000000207392">Neurology®</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sleep-apnea">More about sleep apnea</h2>



Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep. These interruptions in breathing can last for a few seconds to minutes and may occur multiple times throughout the night. Sleep apnea can disrupt the normal sleep cycle and lead to various health issues if left untreated.



<h3 id="h-there-are-three-main-types-of-sleep-apnea">There are three main types of sleep apnea:</h3>



<h4 id="h-obstructive-sleep-apnea-osa">Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA)</h4>



This is the most common form of sleep apnea. It occurs when the muscles in the back of the throat fail to keep the airway open, despite efforts to breathe. The airway becomes partially or completely blocked, leading to loud snoring, gasping, or choking sounds as the person struggles to breathe.



<h4 id="h-central-sleep-apnea-csa">Central Sleep Apnea (CSA)</h4>



This condition is less common and occurs when the brain fails to send proper signals to the muscles that control breathing. Unlike OSA, there is no physical blockage in the airway. People with CSA may not snore as much, but they may experience shortness of breath or difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep.



<h4 id="h-complex-mixed-sleep-apnea">Complex/Mixed Sleep Apnea</h4>



This type of sleep apnea is a combination of both obstructive and central sleep apnea. It initially starts as central sleep apnea, but eventually, the condition progresses to include obstructive episodes as well.



<h3 id="h-common-symptoms-include">Common symptoms include:</h3>



<h4 id="h-loud-chronic-snoring">Loud, chronic snoring</h4>



Snoring is a common symptom of sleep apnea, particularly in cases of OSA. The snoring is often loud and may be interrupted by periods of silence when breathing stops.



<h4 id="h-gasping-or-choking-during-sleep">Gasping or choking during sleep</h4>



People with sleep apnea may experience sudden awakenings accompanied by gasping or choking sensations as they struggle to breathe.



<h4 id="h-excessive-daytime-sleepiness">Excessive daytime sleepiness</h4>



Sleep apnea disrupts the normal sleep cycle, preventing restful sleep. As a result, individuals with this disorder often feel excessively sleepy during the day, regardless of how much sleep they get at night.



<h4 id="h-morning-headaches">Morning headaches</h4>



Waking up with a headache is a common symptom of sleep apnea. It is typically caused by the oxygen deprivation that occurs during sleep apnea episodes.



<h4 id="h-fatigue-and-daytime-drowsiness">Fatigue and daytime drowsiness</h4>



Due to the disrupted sleep patterns, individuals with sleep apnea may feel fatigued and excessively sleepy during the day, which can impact their ability to concentrate and perform daily tasks.



<h4 id="h-difficulty-concentrating-and-memory-problems">Difficulty concentrating and memory problems</h4>



Sleep apnea can impair cognitive function, leading to difficulties with concentration, memory problems, and decreased alertness.



<h4 id="h-irritability-and-mood-changes">Irritability and mood changes</h4>



Sleep disorders can contribute to irritability, mood swings, and even depression. The lack of quality sleep can significantly impact a person's emotional well-being.



<h4 id="h-frequent-nighttime-urination">Frequent nighttime urination</h4>



Sleep apnea has been associated with increased nighttime urination, known as nocturia. The frequent awakenings due to breathing difficulties can disrupt the normal sleep pattern and trigger the need to urinate.



Treatment options vary depending on the severity and type of sleep apnea. Lifestyle changes such as weight loss, regular exercise, and avoiding alcohol and sedatives can help in mild cases.&nbsp;



Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) therapy is the most common treatment for moderate to severe cases. It involves wearing a mask over the nose or mouth during sleep, which delivers a constant flow of air to keep the airway open.



Other treatment options may include oral appliances that help keep the airway open, positional therapy, and surgery in certain cases.



If you suspect you or someone you know may have sleep apnea, it is important to consult a healthcare professional for a proper diagnosis and appropriate treatment.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sleep apnea may lead to worse brain health

A recent study led by the Mayo Clinic in Rochester,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...