Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered.



This fossil find from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaurs-the-basics">Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics</h2>



These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. 



Unlike birds or bats, pterosaurs had a unique wing structure formed by a membrane of skin and muscle that stretched from an elongated fourth finger to their body. This created a lightweight and flexible flying apparatus that allowed them to soar and glide.



Different pterosaur species came in an astonishing range of sizes, from tiny creatures the size of sparrows to massive pterosaurs with wingspans around 33 feet wide. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny &quot;flaplings&quot; no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954862"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny "flaplings" no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Some had long, spear-like beaks perfect for fishing, while others sported elaborate head crests that might have been used for display, communication, or even temperature regulation. 



Their bones were incredibly lightweight and hollow, similar to modern bird bones, which helped them achieve flight with minimal energy expenditure.



Pterosaurs were incredibly successful and adaptable creatures that survived for an impressive 160 million years before finally going extinct along with the dinosaurs during the catastrophic asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period. 



Their fossils have been discovered on every continent, revealing that they occupied diverse environments from coastal regions to inland areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-pterosaur-discovery">First pterosaur discovery</h2>



Almost 250 years ago, a fossil unearthed in a Bavarian quarry introduced the world to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-new-species-named-abfab-had-wings-wide-as-car/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a>. 



This fossil, named&nbsp;Pterodactylus, offered the first glimpse into the Mesozoic skies, where these creatures soared above the dinosaurs.



Though the first specimen was modest in size - comparable to a turtle dove - it revolutionized our understanding of prehistoric life and showcased the extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flying reptiles</a>.



Over time, however,&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;faded from public attention, overshadowed by its larger and flashier relatives, such as&nbsp;Pteranodon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus. 



Yet, among scientists,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus genus remained a vital subject of study that played a central role in shaping our understanding of pterosaur anatomy, flight, diet, and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-pterodactylus-family">Finding Pterodactylus family</h2>



Despite its significance, confusion has long surrounded&nbsp;Pterodactylus. 



Fossils attributed to this genus were often mixed with other species, making it challenging to determine which truly belonged to&nbsp;Pterodactylus. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ambiguity</a> persisted for centuries - until now.



Using UV fluorescence, paleontologists Robert Smyth and Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> conducted a meticulous analysis of&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils housed in museums across Europe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954860"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



By shining powerful UV light on fossilized bones, they illuminated previously invisible features that distinguish the&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;family from other pterosaurs. Their work revealed dozens of misclassified fossils, including over 40 specimens that were reidentified as&nbsp;Pterodactylus.



“By examining lots of fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to reidentify more than forty specimens as&nbsp;Pterodactylus,” said lead author Robert Smyth. 



“UV stimulated fluorescence is astonishing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden were glowing in plain sight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-face-of-nbsp-pterodactylus">New face of&nbsp;Pterodactylus</h2>



This discovery has profoundly altered the scientific understanding of&nbsp;the genus Pterodactylus. Previously thought to be a rare find, nearly 50 specimens have now been confirmed.



This expanded collection allows researchers to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pivotal pterosaur</a>. 



Remarkably, soft tissues are preserved in over 20 of the specimens, which provides unprecedented insights into a range of features.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954857"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



“We can now construct a complete and highly detailed skeletal anatomy for this key pterosaur,” explained co-author Dr. Dave Unwin. “Soft tissues are fossilised in more than twenty examples so we can also reconstruct head crests, body shape, foot webs, and even the wings.”



The result is akin to a family portrait, showcasing Pterodactylus at every stage of its life. The smallest hatchlings, endearingly called “flaplings,” were robin-sized. 



These grew into “teenage” forms before reaching adulthood, where they boasted raven-sized bodies and wingspans of up to ten times their body length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-technique">A revolutionary technique</h2>



The study highlights the transformative potential of UV fluorescence in paleontology. 



While the technique is well-known, the combination of advanced light sources and a systematic approach has yielded groundbreaking results in this case.



“UV stimulated fluorescence is a well-known technique,” Dr. Unwin noted. 



“But the difference in this case is that we have been able to combine new, high-quality light sources with a systematic "catch-all" approach, and it's going to have a revolutionary impact on our understanding of pterosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterodactylus-family-and-future-study">Pterodactylus family and future study</h2>



This discovery not only redefines&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;but also highlights the value of revisiting and reexamining existing collections of fossils.



With nearly 50 examples now identified, researchers have an unprecedented opportunity to explore the life history of one of the most important pterosaurs. 



From its early days as a tiny flapling to its commanding presence in the skies,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils provide a vivid window into the Mesozoic era.



As families come together this festive season, paleontologists celebrate their own remarkable reunion - a long-lost family, brought back to light after 150 million years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



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Pterodactylus: New pterosaur family members discovered that lived 150 million years ago

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered. This fossil find from the University of Leicester allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood. Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic...

In a surprising twist of paleontological discovery, scientists have unearthed a new species of mosasaur, an enormous sea-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-pushes-lizard-origins-back-35-million-years/">lizard</a> that thrived during the dinosaur era. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fossils1010002">Fossils</a>.



This new specimen, named Stelladens mysteriosus, is intriguing not just for its size, about double that of a dolphin, but for its peculiar tooth structure, unlike any known reptile.



<h2 id="h-very-unique-set-of-teeth">Very unique set of teeth</h2>



Residing in the Late Cretaceous era in what is now Morocco, Stelladens boasted a unique dental configuration. Its teeth displayed blade-like ridges, assembled in a pattern reminiscent of a star or a cross-head screwdriver.&nbsp;



Contrary to the typical mosasaur tooth structure that includes two bladelike, serrated ridges to slice through prey, Stelladens displayed an astonishing four to six of these blades on each tooth.



Dr. Nick Longrich from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>, who spearheaded the study, expressed his amazement: “It’s a surprise,” he shared. “It’s not like any mosasaur, or any reptile, even any vertebrate we’ve seen before.”



Dr. Nathalie Bardet, a marine reptile expert from the Museum of Natural History in Paris, shared a similar sentiment: “I’ve worked on the mosasaurs of Morocco for more than 20 years, and I’d never seen anything like this before – I was both perplexed and amazed!”



<h2 id="h-these-teeth-were-no-fluke">These teeth were no fluke</h2>



The consistent shape found in several of Stelladens’ teeth implies that this odd structure wasn't a pathology or a mutation but a feature of the species. These teeth, likely facilitating a specialized feeding strategy or diet, open up a mystery about Stelladens' food habits.



“We have no idea what this animal was eating, because we don’t know of anything similar either alive today, or from the fossil record," said Dr. Longrich. The teeth, he noted, look like the tip of a Phillips-head screwdriver or maybe a hex wrench. “So what’s it eating? Phillips head screws? IKEA furniture? Who knows.”



Although small, the mosasaur teeth were robust and showed signs of wear at their tips, suggesting that soft-bodied prey were unlikely targets. However, the teeth weren't sturdy enough to handle heavily armored animals like clams or sea urchins.



“That might seem to suggest it’s eating something small, and lightly armoured - thin-shelled ammonites, crustaceans, or bony fish - but it’s hard to know,” said Longrich.&nbsp;



“There were weird animals living in the Cretaceous- ammonites, belemnites, baculites - that no longer exist. It’s possible this mosasaur ate something, and occupied a niche, that simply doesn’t exist anymore, and that might explain why nothing like this is ever seen again."



Despite their imposing size, mosasaurs were not dinosaurs. They were giant lizards, akin to Komodo dragons, snakes, and iguanas, designed for an aquatic lifestyle. They evolved around 100 million years ago and diversified until 66 million years ago, when a catastrophic asteroid struck the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, instigating a mass extinction event.



This extinction led to the demise of the mosasaurs, dinosaurs, and around 90 percent of all species on Earth. However, the discovery of Stelladens, along with other recent finds from Morocco, hints that mosasaurs and other marine reptiles were evolving rapidly up to their extinction, suggesting they disappeared at their zenith rather than slowly fading away.



<h2 id="h-still-many-unknowns-left-to-be-discovered">Still many unknowns left to be discovered</h2>



The constant discovery of new species in the Cretaceous of Morocco underscores the fact that our understanding of this era is still evolving. Most species are rare, and in a highly diverse ecosystem, finding all of the rare species may take several decades. The authors of the study anticipate many more surprises in the coming years.



“We’re not even close to finding everything in these beds,” said Dr. Longrich. “This is the third new species to appear, just this year. The amount of diversity at the end of the Cretaceous is just staggering.”



Nour-Eddine Jalil, a professor at the Natural History Museum and a researcher at <a href="https://www.uca.ma/">University Cadi Ayyad</a> in Morocco, also echoed the sentiment. He highlighted the astounding number of surprising discoveries, including mosasaurs with teeth arranged like a saw, a turtle with a snout fashioned as a snorkel, a myriad of vertebrates of various shapes and sizes, and now, a mosasaur with star-shaped teeth.



Jalil likened the myriad of discoveries to the "works of an artist with an overflowing imagination." He stressed that Morocco's sites provide an unparalleled glimpse into the extraordinary biodiversity that existed just before the catastrophic end of the Cretaceous period.



The discovery of Stelladens mysteriosus, alongside other recent finds, paints an evolving picture of the Late Cretaceous, offering a tantalizing glimpse into a world that vanished 66 million years ago. This continuing exploration underscores the dynamism of scientific discovery and the endless surprises that the past still holds for the future.



<h2 id="h-more-about-mosasaurs">More about mosasaurs</h2>



Mosasaurs were a group of large, sea-dwelling reptiles that lived during the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 92 to 66 million years ago.&nbsp;



Despite their often dinosaur-like portrayal in popular culture, mosasaurs were not dinosaurs but were actually more closely related to modern-day lizards and snakes. Their closest living relatives include the Komodo dragon and monitor lizards.



<h3 id="h-here-s-a-broad-overview-of-mosasaurs">Here's a broad overview of mosasaurs:</h3>



<h4 id="h-size-and-appearance">Size and Appearance</h4>



Mosasaurs ranged greatly in size, with the smallest species measuring about 3 feet (1 meter) long and the largest, such as Mosasaurus, reaching lengths of up to 50 feet (15 meters) or more. They had elongated, streamlined bodies with paddle-like limbs, a tail fluke similar to that of a shark for propulsion, and a long, powerful jaw filled with sharp teeth.



<h4 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h4>



These reptiles were marine creatures, and their fossils have been discovered all around the globe, indicating that they inhabited a wide range of marine environments. Some species likely preferred near-shore environments, while others may have ventured into the open ocean.



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



Mosasaurs were predators and their diet primarily consisted of other marine creatures. They ate fish, cephalopods like ammonites and squids, other reptiles including smaller mosasaurs, and even birds.



<h4 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h4>



Like modern marine reptiles, mosasaurs gave birth to live young, rather than laying eggs. Fossil evidence suggests that they may have given birth in warm, shallow waters.



<h4 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h4>



Mosasaurs, along with many other species, went extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event about 66 million years ago. This mass extinction is believed to have been caused by a combination of volcanic activity and a large asteroid or comet impact near what is now the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico.



<h4 id="h-fossil-discoveries">Fossil Discoveries</h4>



Mosasaur fossils have been found worldwide. Some of the most notable discoveries include well-preserved specimens with soft-tissue outlines, contents of their last meal, and even embryos, providing valuable information about their biology and ecology.



<h4 id="h-adaptations">Adaptations</h4>



Mosasaurs had several notable adaptations for life in the ocean. Their limbs evolved into flippers, they developed a tail fluke to aid in swimming, and their lungs were adapted to allow them to dive deeply. Some species also had a double-hinged jaw and flexible skull (similar to snakes), which allowed them to eat prey larger than their head.



<h4 id="h-diversity">Diversity</h4>



There were many different species of mosasaurs, exhibiting a wide range of sizes and adaptations. Some had long, slender bodies with needle-like teeth for catching fish, while others were robust with powerful jaws and sharp, conical teeth for tackling larger prey.



<h4 id="h-paleontological-importance">Paleontological Importance</h4>



Mosasaurs are considered important indicators of the health and diversity of Late Cretaceous marine ecosystems. Studying them provides valuable insight into prehistoric marine life and the effects of the K-Pg extinction event.



Image Credit: Nick Longrich



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Giant mosasaur species discovered with strange screwdriver-like teeth

In a surprising twist of paleontological discovery, scientists have unearthed...

In an intriguing turn of events in space exploration, astronomers have revealed the discovery of an Earth-sized exoplanet, designated LP 791-18 d, potentially veiled in volcanic activity.&nbsp;



This distant world may witness volcanic eruptions as frequent as those seen on Jupiter's moon Io, renowned as the most volcanically active body in our solar system.



The discovery was made possible by the relentless work of astronomers who scrutinized data from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/tess-transiting-exoplanet-survey-satellite">NASA's TESS</a> (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) and the retired Spitzer Space Telescope. To further validate their findings, the team also relied on a host of ground-based observatories.



Merrin Peterson, an alumnus of the Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets (iREx) based at the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/">University of Montreal</a>, spearheaded the research. The results of the study were recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



<h2 id="h-what-we-know-about-lp-791-18-d">What we know about LP 791-18 d</h2>



Björn Benneke, an iREx astronomy professor who was a significant contributor to the research, shed light on the planet's unique features.&nbsp;



“LP 791-18 d is tidally locked, which means the same side constantly faces its star,” he explained. “The day side would probably be too hot for liquid water to exist on the surface. But the volcanic activity that we suspect pervades the planet could uphold an atmosphere, which may, in turn, allow water to condense on the night side.”



The exoplanet orbits a petite red dwarf star in the southern constellation Crater, roughly 90 light-years away from us. The team's estimates suggest that LP 791-18 d is just slightly larger and denser than Earth.



Before this discovery, astronomers had already identified two other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/">planets</a> within the same system, tagged as LP 791-18 b and c. The innermost planet, b, surpasses Earth by about 20% in size. Meanwhile, the outer planet, c, is approximately 2.5 times the size of Earth and boasts more than seven times its mass.



The intriguing dynamics of this system emerge during each orbit. Both planets d and c have a close encounter, during which the heavier planet c exerts a gravitational tug on planet d, resulting in a somewhat elliptical orbit.&nbsp;



This gravitational dance causes planet d to deform slightly with each orbit, which in turn could generate sufficient internal friction to heat the planet's core, triggering surface volcanism - a phenomenon akin to the gravitational effects of Jupiter and its moons on Io.



<h2 id="h-lp-791-18-d-lives-inside-the-habitable-zone">LP 791-18 d lives inside the habitable zone</h2>



LP 791-18 d resides on the inner fringe of the habitable zone, the region around a star where scientists theorize the existence of liquid water on a planet's surface. Assuming the planet exhibits as much geological activity as the researchers suspect, an atmosphere could be sustained. This would allow temperatures to plummet enough on the planet's dark side for water to condense.



The team already secured observing time for planet c on the James Webb Space Telescope, and they believe planet d presents an equally promising candidate for atmospheric studies.



Jessie Christiansen, a research scientist at NASA's Exoplanet Science Institute at Caltech, emphasized the implications of these findings.&nbsp;



“A big question in astrobiology, the field that broadly studies the origins of life on Earth and beyond, is if tectonic or volcanic activity is necessary for life,” she said. “In addition to potentially providing an atmosphere, these processes could churn up materials that would otherwise sink down and get trapped in the crust, including those we think are important for life, like carbon.”



<h2 id="h-the-enduring-value-of-the-spitzer-space-telescope">The enduring value of the Spitzer Space Telescope</h2>



Finally, these discoveries underscore the enduring value of Spitzer's mission, despite its decommission in January 2020.&nbsp;



“It is incredible to read about the continuation of discoveries and publications years beyond Spitzer’s end of mission,” said Joseph Hunt, Spitzer project manager at NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California. "That really shows the success of our first-class engineers and scientists. Together they built not only a spacecraft but also a data set that continues to be an asset for the astrophysics community.”



The enduring legacy of the Spitzer Space Telescope is evident in the new findings about LP 791-18 d. The data it collected over its operational lifespan continues to unveil new worlds, fostering a deeper understanding of the universe.



The discovery of LP 791-18 d, a world that might resemble a fiery, volcanic version of our own, stirs up excitement and curiosity in the scientific community. Its unique features and dynamics also open up new questions regarding the conditions required for life to exist.



As our quest for understanding the universe continues, it's discoveries like these that fuel our collective imagination and deepen our knowledge of the cosmos.&nbsp;



Undoubtedly, the study of LP 791-18 d and its system will provide invaluable insights into the mechanisms that govern other celestial bodies, perhaps even shedding light on the mysteries of our own planet.



As we await further observations from the James Webb Space Telescope, the scientific community is abuzz with anticipation, eager to unveil more secrets of LP 791-18 d.&nbsp;



This discovery is not just an achievement in the field of exoplanetary research; it's a testament to human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of understanding the universe that surrounds us.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-hunt-for-habitable-exoplanets">More about the hunt for habitable exoplanets</h2>



The search for habitable exoplanets — planets that orbit stars outside our solar system — is a hot topic in the field of astronomy and astrobiology. Scientists aim to find worlds that could potentially support life as we know it.&nbsp;



This primarily involves seeking planets, such as LP 791-18 d, that are not only within the habitable zone, also known as the "Goldilocks zone," of their respective stars, but also have conditions that could support liquid water - a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.



<h2 id="h-the-goldilocks-zone">The Goldilocks zone</h2>



To begin, the "Goldilocks zone" is a term used to define the region around a star where the conditions are just right - not too hot, not too cold - for liquid water to exist on a planet's surface. This zone's location depends on the star's size and temperature. For instance, a small, relatively cool star's habitable zone would be much closer to the star compared to the habitable zone around a larger, hotter star.



In the hunt for these potentially habitable exoplanets, scientists primarily use two methods: the transit method and the radial velocity method.



The transit method involves observing the light coming from a star and looking for periodic dimming. This dimming suggests that a planet is passing in front of the star, blocking some of its light. NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/overview/index.html">Kepler Space Telescope</a> and TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) have been remarkably successful in finding exoplanets using this method.



On the other hand, the radial velocity method - also known as Doppler spectroscopy - involves observing the star's light for periodic shifts in its color. These shifts suggest that a planet is pulling on the star as it orbits, causing the star to move towards and away from us in a regular pattern.



<h2 id="h-complexity-of-determining-if-life-can-exist-on-an-exoplanet">Complexity of determining if life can exist on an exoplanet</h2>



While these methods can identify exoplanets and provide some information about their size, orbit, and mass, determining whether these planets are truly habitable is a much more complex task.&nbsp;



Scientists use computer models to simulate the planets' potential atmospheres and surface conditions based on their size, distance from their star, and their star's temperature.



The <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> will provide even more sophisticated tools for characterizing the atmospheres of exoplanets. It's expected to detect and analyze the chemical composition of exoplanet atmospheres, offering clues about whether these worlds could support life.



Although LP 791-18 d shows promise being in the "Goldilocks zone,", no exoplanet has been confirmed as habitable, and the search continues. However, several potentially habitable exoplanets have been found. These include Proxima Centauri b, located in the habitable zone of the nearest star to our solar system, and the seven Earth-sized planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system.



The hunt for habitable exoplanets is not just about finding alien life. It's also about understanding the conditions that make life possible and how common these conditions might be in the universe. Each discovery brings us one step closer to answering the fundamental question: Are we alone in the universe?



Image Credit: NASA



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New exoplanet: Earth-sized world, dubbed LP 791-18 d, is covered in volcanoes

In an intriguing turn of events in space exploration, astronomers...

Scientists have announced that the oldest living creature on our planet is a jellyfish-like organism called a ctenophore. It evolved from the same primordial animals that humans did.&nbsp;



This fascinating creature first emerged 700 million years ago, a significant time before the dinosaurs, which appeared only 230 million years ago. The study found that ctenophores are the closest relatives of the first animals and can still be spotted in modern-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-oceans-absorb-much-more-carbon-than-previously-thought/">oceans</a> and aquariums.



A team from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> embarked on a quest to decipher the relationships within the animal tree of life. They wanted to broaden our understanding of the origins and evolution of life on Earth.&nbsp;



This exploration has not only provided a new perspective on the timeline of animal evolution but also quashed a long-held belief that sea sponges were the first animals. Sea sponges were considered the earliest due to their fossils dating back about 600 million years.



<h2 id="h-similar-to-jellyfish">Similar to jellyfish</h2>



Ctenophores are unique creatures. They have eight sets of cilia, akin to tentacles, which they use to propel themselves through the ocean depths, some reaching more than four miles below the surface.



Study co-author Professor Daniel Rokhsar remarked: "The most recent common ancestor of all animals probably lived 600 or 700 million years ago." He noted that it's challenging to know what these ancestors were like as they were soft-bodied creatures and didn't leave a fossil record.&nbsp;



"But we can use comparisons across living animals to learn about our common ancestors. It's exciting - we're looking back deep in time where we have no hope of getting fossils, but by comparing genomes, we're learning things about these very early ancestors."



When most people consider animals, they think of creatures like worms, flies, mollusks, sea stars, and vertebrates. For instance, worms evolved approximately 500 million years ago, and vertebrates appeared about 450 million years ago.&nbsp;



Together, these creatures are known as bilaterians, which have evolved to have a centralized brain, a gut running from mouth to anus, muscles, and other shared features. These features were present by the time of the well-known 'Cambrian Explosion' around 500 million years ago.



Jellyfish are classified as bona fide animals, despite their lack of many bilaterian features. They do not have a defined brain and may not even possess a nervous system or muscles. Nevertheless, they still exhibit the hallmarks of animal life, such as developing multicellular bodies from a fertilized egg.



<h2 id="h-the-oldest-branches-of-life-on-the-evolutionary-tree">The oldest branches of life on the evolutionary tree</h2>



The evolutionary relationships among these diverse animals, specifically the order in which each lineage diverged from the main trunk of the animal tree of life, have been controversial.&nbsp;



"Traditionally, sponges have been widely considered to be the earliest surviving branch of the animal tree," Rokhsar told SWNS. He explained how the sponge lineage seemed to preserve many features of the animal ancestor on the branch leading to all other animals, including humans.



Ctenophores, also known as comb jellies, were the other candidate for the earliest animal lineage. While they look superficially like jellyfish, they are only distantly related. Unlike common jellyfish, ctenophores propel themselves with eight rows of beating cilia arranged down their sides like combs.



The research team had previously found that the chromosomes of sponges, jellyfish, and many other invertebrates carry similar genes, despite over half a billion years of independent evolution. This discovery suggested that the chromosomes of many animals evolve slowly. It enabled the team to computationally reconstruct the chromosomes of the common ancestor of these diverse animals.



"At first, we couldn't tell if ctenophore chromosomes were different from those of other animals simply because they'd just changed a lot over hundreds of millions of years," said Rokhsar. The team needed to determine whether the differences were due to extensive evolution or because the ctenophores branched off before other animal lineages appeared.



<h2 id="h-the-research-team-relied-on-genome-sequencing">The research team relied on genome sequencing</h2>



To investigate this, the researchers combined efforts to sequence the genomes of another comb jelly and sponge, as well as three single-celled organisms outside the animal lineage: a choanoflagellate, a filasterean amoeba, and a fish parasite known as an ichthyosporean.&nbsp;



While rough genome sequences of these non-animal organisms existed, they lacked critical information about chromosome-scale gene linkage - where genes sit on the chromosome.



In an impressive finding, the team discovered that ctenophores and non-animals shared particular gene-chromosome combinations. In contrast, the chromosomes of sponges and other animals exhibited distinctly different rearrangements. This evidence suggested that ctenophores had branched off before these rearrangements occurred in other lineages.



"That was the smoking gun - we found a handful of rearrangements shared by sponges and non-ctenophore animals. In contrast, ctenophores resembled non-animals," explained Professor Rokhsar. "The simplest explanation is that ctenophores branched off before the rearrangements occurred."



This groundbreaking study has reshaped our understanding of the animal tree of life, shedding light on the origins and evolution of life as we know it. It's a remarkable testament to the complexity and diversity of life on Earth.&nbsp;



It’s also a reminder of how much we still have to learn about our planet's rich and diverse past. The humble ctenophore, a jellyfish-like creature, is a living testament to the long evolutionary journey that has resulted in the diverse array of animals we see today.



<h2 id="h-more-about-ctenophores">More about ctenophores</h2>



Ctenophores, commonly known as comb jellies, are a group of marine animals that are characterized by their unique features and fascinating biology. Despite their name, they are not jellyfish, though they share a similar appearance. Here's a comprehensive overview of what we know about these creatures as of my last update in September 2021.



<h3 id="h-classification-and-evolution">Classification and Evolution</h3>



Ctenophores belong to the phylum Ctenophora, which contains around 100 to 150 known species. They are considered one of the earliest branches of the animal evolutionary tree, possibly predating other simple multicellular organisms like sponges.



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



Ctenophores are generally translucent, gelatinous organisms that range in size from a few millimeters to 1.5 meters in length. They are radially symmetrical and have soft, flexible bodies. Most species are bioluminescent, capable of producing light through a chemical reaction.



<h3 id="h-cilia-and-locomotion">Cilia and Locomotion</h3>



A defining feature of ctenophores is their 'combs', or rows of cilia, which they use for locomotion. These cilia, the largest known in the animal kingdom, refract light as they beat, creating a beautiful, shimmering effect. The ctenophores move by beating these cilia, which propels them through the water.



<h3 id="h-feeding-and-predation">Feeding and Predation</h3>



Ctenophores are carnivorous, feeding on a variety of small marine organisms such as larvae, plankton, and sometimes other ctenophores. They use their sticky tentacles to catch prey. Some larger species do not have tentacles and instead swallow their prey whole. 



Interestingly, despite their predatory habits, ctenophores lack a true digestive system. Instead, they have a network of canals that distribute nutrients throughout their bodies.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Most ctenophores are hermaphroditic, meaning each individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs. They can reproduce both sexually, by releasing eggs and sperm into the water for external fertilization, and asexually, through a process known as budding.



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h3>



Ctenophores are found in a wide range of marine environments around the world, from polar to tropical waters. They inhabit both surface waters and the deep sea. Some species are pelagic (living in the open ocean), while others live close to the seafloor.



<h3 id="h-ecological-impact">Ecological Impact</h3>



In some areas, ctenophores have had a significant ecological impact. For example, the introduction of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi into the Black Sea in the 1980s led to a severe decline in fish populations, as the ctenophores consumed the same food as the fish larvae.



<h3 id="h-nervous-system">Nervous System</h3>



Ctenophores possess a nerve net, a simple type of nervous system where neurons are spread throughout the body. However, they do not have a centralized brain. Some research suggests that ctenophores have developed their nervous systems independently of other animals, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution.



<h3 id="h-conservation-status">Conservation Status</h3>



The conservation status of most ctenophore species is unknown. Their gelatinous bodies do not fossilize well, making it difficult to study their evolutionary history and population trends.



The study of ctenophores has provided interesting insights into early animal evolution. Their unique biology and diverse array of behaviors make them a fascinating group of organisms to study.



Image Credit: UC Berkeley 



—-



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Oldest living creature on Earth identified, emerging 700 million years ago

Scientists have announced that the oldest living creature on our...

Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land area, tropical rainforests are the Earth’s largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>, storing between 25 and 40 percent of global soil carbon and thus mitigating to a certain extent some of climate change’s most severe impacts.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) and supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, climate change will significantly affect the carbon storage capacities of tropical rainforests, with persistent drying caused by reductions in rainfall leading to carbon loss from the most fertile soils.



“Tropical forests can be really sensitive to reductions in rainfall and they have some of the largest stores of carbon on Earth. As climate is drying, that carbon is vulnerable,” said study lead author Daniela Cusack, an associate professor of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability at CSU.



“All that carbon that’s stored in rainforests right now is like a bank. We’re banking all that carbon and anything that releases that carbon is going to exacerbate climate change and impact everybody.”



By assessing the effects of natural seasonal drying and persistent reductions in rainfall on carbon fluxes in tropical forests, the experts discovered that these phenomena suppress the release of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



“There was some resilience at first, which makes sense because these are seasonal forests, so they’re used to a dry season,” Cusack explained. “But it seems like after that initial resilience, we’re hitting a threshold where things are shifting more rapidly in some tropical forests.”



The ecosystem model that the experts used predicted that chronic drying would increase the release of carbon dioxide from wetter and more fertile tropical forests, while decreasing carbon dioxide fluxes from drier forests.&nbsp;



“We had predicted that the wettest site would be most sensitive to drying. It’s the least adapted to drier conditions,” Cusack said.



The scientists expected that, as the wettest sites dry down, they would become more favorable for microbes that decompose carbon in soil and turn it into carbon dioxide. Surprisingly though, the investigation revealed that the wettest sites lost the least carbon, while the most fertile ones lost the most.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that different tropical forests will respond differently – and on different time frames - to climate change, and that the most fertile soils across the tropics could be the first to lose high amounts of carbon as the planet keeps warming.



“This research adds to our understanding of the relationship between tropical forest conditions and carbon sequestration,” said NSF’s program director Tom Evans. “Tropical rainforests are an important carbon sink, and this research documents that different types of tropical forest regimes exhibit different responses to changing climate conditions.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007473">Global Geochemical Cycles</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-tropical-rainforests">The future of tropical rainforests&nbsp;</h2>



The future of tropical rainforests is a topic of concern and interest due to their critical importance for biodiversity, climate regulation, and human well-being. Here are some key aspects that are currently being discussed and addressed by scientists, environmentalists, and policymakers:



<h3 id="h-deforestation">Deforestation</h3>



Deforestation remains a significant threat to tropical rainforests. The expansion of agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development, driven by economic interests, poses a severe risk to these ecosystems. Efforts are being made to promote sustainable land-use practices, increase protected areas, and enforce stricter regulations to combat deforestation.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



Climate change is expected to impact tropical rainforests in multiple ways. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can affect the distribution and health of rainforest ecosystems. Mitigating climate change through global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is crucial for the long-term survival of these forests.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-loss">Biodiversity Loss</h3>



Tropical rainforests are home to an incredible array of plant and animal species. However, deforestation and habitat fragmentation threaten biodiversity by reducing available habitats and disrupting ecological processes. Conservation initiatives, such as the creation of protected areas, habitat restoration, and species conservation programs, are vital for preserving biodiversity in rainforest regions.



<h3 id="h-indigenous-rights-and-local-communities">Indigenous Rights and Local Communities</h3>



Recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities who live in or depend on rainforest ecosystems is crucial. Their traditional knowledge and sustainable practices can contribute to the conservation and sustainable management of these forests. Empowering these communities to participate in decision-making processes and supporting their livelihoods are important for the future of rainforest conservation.



<h3 id="h-technology-and-innovation">Technology and Innovation</h3>



Technology can play a significant role in monitoring and managing tropical rainforests. Advances in remote sensing, satellite imagery, and data analysis enable more accurate monitoring of deforestation and forest health. Additionally, sustainable practices such as agroforestry, which combines agriculture and forestry, can provide alternative livelihoods while conserving forested areas.



<h3 id="h-international-collaboration">International Collaboration</h3>



Addressing the challenges facing tropical rainforests requires global collaboration. Governments, organizations, and individuals need to work together to implement effective policies, share knowledge and resources, and support initiatives that prioritize rainforest conservation. International agreements like the Paris Agreement and initiatives like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) aim to address these issues.



It is important to note that the future of tropical rainforests depends on the collective efforts of governments, organizations, and individuals to protect and sustainably manage these invaluable ecosystems. By promoting sustainable practices, reducing deforestation, combating climate change, and supporting local communities, we can contribute to a more positive future for tropical rainforests.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tropical forests are losing their carbon storage capacity

Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land...

Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are currently classified as vulnerable, leading to butterflies declining and other adverse effects on the functional capacity of wildlife habitats and the services they offer to humans. To address this issue, the European Commission has introduced a fresh set of regulations known as the “<a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/nature-restoration-law_en">Nature Restoration Law</a>.” 



This law is a crucial component of the <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en">EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030</a>, which is scheduled to be released in May 2023, and aims to establish binding objectives for the restoration of diverse ecosystems throughout the entire EU. Within two years of the law taking effect, member states are required to submit plans outlining their strategies for achieving these targets and provide evidence of the effectiveness of their implemented measures.



However, this will be far from easy, since there are only a few indicators that can reliably show the state of biodiversity. For most plant and animal species, there is a lack of comparable data across Europe that could be used to assess the status of populations. Fortunately, there are a few exceptions, such as bats, birds, and butterflies, for which a larger amount of data is currently available.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">Butterflies</a> in particular are ideal bioindicators since they live in a wide range of habitats and react sensitively to environmental changes. Moreover, they are attractive and popular, making it relatively easy to motivate volunteers to participate in scientifically oriented butterfly counts.&nbsp;



For instance, since the establishment of the citizen science project Butterfly Monitoring Germany in 2005, such programs have been developed all across Europe, leading to over 5,000 volunteers currently participating in butterfly monitoring efforts, with data collected and analyzed in the central <a href="https://butterfly-monitoring.net/">European Butterfly Monitoring Scheme</a> (eBMS). This data can then be used to track the population development of individual species and identify common trends for the inhabitants of certain habitats.



This is the idea behind the recent “<a href="https://assets.vlinderstichting.nl/docs/290cb16a-e90f-4c5b-a7df-9b954d511cfa.pdf">Butterfly Grassland Indicator 1990-2020</a>,” which is based on the population trends of 17 butterfly species inhabiting Europe’s meadows and pastures.&nbsp;



This indicator currently shows that, across the 27 EU members states, only the Orange Tip&nbsp;(Anthocharis cardamines) butterfly is displaying a moderate increase, while three species - the Large Skipper (Ochlodes sylvanus), the Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas), and the Meadow Brown (Maniola jurtina) - are stable.



Meanwhile, butterflies are declining across five species, including the Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus) and the Wall Brown (Lasiommata megera). 



“The biggest loser in recent years has been the large blue (Phengaris arion), which for example has disappeared completely in the Netherlands,” said Josef Settele, an agricultural ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/">Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ).&nbsp;For the remaining species among the 17 grassland butterflies, there is either no clear trend or insufficient data. If the analysis is extended to Europe as a whole, the situation is even more dire, with no species on the rise and only three currently stable.



According to the experts, the issue of butterflies declining across populations is mainly due to changes in agriculture. In Northwestern Europe, the intensive use of meadows and pastures and the heavy employment of fertilizers have particularly unfavorable effects. On the rest of the continent, the main problem is the complete abandonment of cultivation.



In order to reverse these negative trends, scientists and policymakers should urgently promote the sustainable use of meadows and pastures, while creating new valuable habitats and better connecting the already existing ones. Moreover, effective climate change mitigation could also play a significant role in protecting butterfly populations.



“Despite all efforts, these insects are still declining in many parts of Europe. We hope that the upcoming Nature Restoration Law can stop this decline so that our children can also enjoy butterflies in flower-rich grasslands,” concluded Chris van Swaay, an expert in Conservation Biology at Butterfly Conservation Europe.



<h2 id="h-more-about-why-butterflies-are-declining">More about why butterflies are declining</h2>



Butterfly populations have been experiencing significant declines worldwide for several decades. The causes are multifaceted, and factors contributing to butterfly decline include:



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat Loss and Fragmentation</h3>



This is perhaps the most significant reason for the decline in butterfly populations. Natural habitats are being destroyed at an alarming rate due to human activities such as urbanization, intensive agriculture, and deforestation.&nbsp;



These activities not only reduce the amount of space available for butterflies but also result in fragmented habitats that make it difficult for butterflies to migrate and find the resources they need for survival.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-and-butterflies-declining-populations">Climate Change and butterflies declining populations</h3>



Changes in weather patterns, increased temperatures, and higher frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt butterfly life cycles and affect their survival. Some butterfly species are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, and global warming could lead to mismatches in the timing of butterfly emergence and the availability of food resources.



<h3 id="h-pesticides-and-pollution">Pesticides and Pollution</h3>



The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture can directly kill butterflies or reduce their food sources. Similarly, air and water pollution can have detrimental effects on butterfly populations.



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive Species</h3>



Non-native plants and animals can outcompete native species for resources, change habitats, or even prey on butterflies directly.



<h3 id="h-disease-and-parasites">Disease and Parasites</h3>



Disease and parasites can also contribute to butterfly decline, especially when combined with other stressors that weaken butterfly populations.



To combat this phenomenon of butterflies declining, conservation efforts are being made, such as creating butterfly-friendly habitats, reducing pesticide use, and conducting research to better understand the needs and threats to butterfly species. Many of these efforts involve public participation, like citizen science projects where people help monitor butterfly populations and report sightings.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Grassland butterflies declining all over Europe

Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are...

Unprecedented, scorching temperatures around the world are on the horizon, warns the <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en">World Meteorological Organization</a> (WMO). Greenhouse gases coupled with an impending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-detects-early-warning-signs-of-an-el-nino-event/">El Niño</a> event are anticipated to thrust our planet into new thermal territory over the next five years.



The WMO's latest update presents a daunting 66% likelihood that at least one year between 2023 and 2027 will see the annual average near-surface global temperature exceed 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-dire-warnings-from-the-wmo">Dire warnings from the WMO</h2>



Furthermore, there's a staggering 98% chance that one or more of the upcoming five years will set new warmth records, with the five-year span as a whole anticipated to be the hottest yet recorded.



WMO Secretary-General, Professor Petteri Taalas, clarified, “This report does not mean that we will permanently exceed the 1.5°C level specified in the Paris Agreement which refers to long-term warming over many years."&nbsp;



Nevertheless, the WMO is adamant about the imminent risk of breaching the 1.5°C threshold temporarily with increasing frequency.



“A warming El Niño is expected to develop in the coming months and this will combine with human-induced climate change to push global temperatures into uncharted territory," said Professor Taalas.



<h2 id="h-impact-of-these-scorching-temperatures">Impact of these scorching temperatures</h2>



The impact of this trend, he highlighted, will extend beyond mere scorching temperatures and meteorological records. It also has the potential implications for health, food security, water management, and the environment at large. He urged preparedness in face of these unprecedented climatic challenges.



The UK's Met Office, leading the WMO's climate predictions, indicates that the five-year mean exceeding the 1.5°C threshold holds a less intimidating but still significant 32% likelihood. The odds of breaching the 1.5°C mark, even temporarily, have been on the rise since 2015, when the likelihood was virtually nil. By contrast, between 2017 and 2021, the odds had grown to a notable 10%.



Dr Leon Hermanson, a Met Office expert scientist who spearheaded the report, expressed concern over the forecast. “Global mean temperatures are predicted to continue increasing, moving us away further and further away from the climate we are used to,” he stated.



<h2 id="h-the-report-also-highlighted-several-key-points">The report also highlighted several key points:</h2>



The average global temperature in 2022 stood roughly 1.15°C above the 1850-1900 average. La Niña conditions over the past three years have momentarily slowed the long-term warming, but with La Niña's end in March 2023 and an impending El Niño, the currently scorching temperatures are expected to rise even further in 2024.



Every year between 2023 and 2027 is predicted to record an annual mean global near-surface temperature between 1.1°C and 1.8°C above the 1850-1900 average – a time when industrial activities and human behaviors had yet to contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.



The likelihood of at least one year in the next five breaking the 2016 record temperature - a year of an exceptionally potent El Niño - is 98%.



The five-year average for 2023-2027 surpassing the last five years stands at a similar 98% chance.



The Arctic is warming at an alarming rate, with the temperature anomaly predicted to be over three times the global mean anomaly throughout the next five northern hemisphere winters.



Rainfall patterns from May to September 2023-2027, compared to the 1991-2020 average, predict more rain in the Sahel, northern Europe, Alaska, and northern Siberia, and less in the Amazon and parts of Australia.



<h2 id="h-can-the-paris-agreement-help-prevent-these-scorching-temperatures">Can the Paris Agreement help prevent these scorching temperatures?</h2>



The Paris Agreement, which aims to substantially reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and limit the global temperature increase and the scorching temperatures this century to 2 °C - ideally to



1.5 °C - is even more critical given these projections. Greenhouse gases, primarily human-induced, are causing not only global temperatures to rise but also leading to increased ocean heating and acidification, more rapid melting of sea ice and glaciers, rising sea levels, and an uptick in extreme weather events.



The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change asserts that the risks climate change poses to both natural and human systems are significantly higher for global warming of 1.5 °C compared to the current state, and far more severe at 2 °C.



<h2 id="h-underscoring-the-urgency-of-these-findings">Underscoring the urgency of these findings</h2>



The urgency of these findings is underscored by the timing of the report's release, just ahead of the World Meteorological Congress (22 May to 2 June). The Congress will focus on bolstering weather and climate services to aid in climate change adaptation.&nbsp;



Key items on the agenda include the ongoing Early Warnings for All initiative, aiming to protect people from increasingly extreme weather, and the development of a new Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure to better inform climate mitigation efforts.



The rallying cry from the scientific community is clear: increasing global temperatures are a reality we must face. It's not just about hotter summers; it's about a fundamental shift in our planet's climate system. The question now is, how will we respond? The time for preparation and action is now. After all, our future, as these predictions indicate, is likely to be warmer than our past.



<h2 id="h-more-about-global-warming-and-scorching-temperatures">More about global warming and scorching temperatures</h2>



Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average temperature due to human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). This gradual rise in scorching temperatures, which began during the Industrial Revolution, has accelerated in recent decades, with the warmest years on record occurring since the late 20th century.



The primary driver of global warming is the greenhouse effect. Certain gases in Earth's atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, trap heat from the sun, preventing it from escaping back into space. This natural process is vital for life as it keeps the planet warm enough to sustain it.&nbsp;



However, human activities such as burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and deforestation have increased the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and causing the planet to heat up more than it naturally would.



The effects of global warming are widespread and potentially devastating. They include:



<h3 id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising Sea Levels</h3>



As global temperatures rise, these scorching temperatures have a direct impact on polar ice caps and glaciers melt, adding more water to the oceans. Additionally, the water in the oceans expands as it warms. Both these factors contribute to a rise in sea levels, which can lead to coastal flooding and the loss of habitable land.



<h3 id="h-increased-frequency-and-severity-of-extreme-weather-events">Increased Frequency and Severity of Extreme Weather Events</h3>



Global warming contributes to more frequent and intense weather events such as heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall, and hurricanes. These can have devastating effects on human societies and natural ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean Acidification</h3>



The oceans absorb about a quarter of the CO2 humans produce. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, leading to ocean acidification. This change in ocean chemistry is harmful to marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, shellfish, and some types of plankton.



<h3 id="h-scorching-temperatures-and-their-impact-on-biodiversity">Scorching temperatures and their Impact on Biodiversity</h3>



Global warming affects ecosystems and habitats, threatening wildlife and biodiversity. Some species may be unable to survive or reproduce in warmer conditions or may be unable to move to more suitable habitats, leading to population declines or even extinction.



<h3 id="h-human-health-risks">Human Health Risks</h3>



Warmer temperatures can lead to heat-related illnesses and deaths. They can also contribute to the spread of diseases carried by vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, which thrive in warmer climates.



Addressing global warming requires international cooperation and significant changes in how we produce and consume energy. The Paris Agreement, a global effort to combat climate change, aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the scorching temperatures increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. 



Achieving these goals will require transitioning to renewable energy sources, increasing energy efficiency, protecting and restoring forests, and developing technologies to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.



—--



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Scorching temperatures will soon set new records around the world

Unprecedented, scorching temperatures around the world are on the horizon,...

The animal kingdom is filled with countless wonders and surprises, one of which is a small, vibrant jumping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-can-protect-tomatoes-from-invasive-pests/">spider</a> species, Siler collingwoodi, that has developed not just one, but two strategies to avoid falling victim to predators. 



This colorful creature, known as Siler collingwoodi, uses the trick of camouflaging with plants and adopting an ant's gait to survive in the wild. It's a fascinating display of adaptation, according to a study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106747">iScience</a>.



These spiders mimic ants in the way they move, a survival tactic that researchers have taken an interest in. Ants, unlike many other small creatures, are not a prey of choice for many predators. They have spiny defenses, sharp mandibles, and are unafraid to fight back.&nbsp;



Moreover, many of them are equipped with chemical repellents or venom that make them a less than ideal meal. The fact that Siler collingwoodi, the subject of this study, had already shown ant-like movement intrigued the researchers. 



<h2 id="h-how-convincing-was-siler-collingwoodi-s-mimicry">How convincing was Siler collingwoodi's mimicry?</h2>



The researchers sought to understand just how convincing this mimicry was, whether the spider could mimic more than one ant species, and how effective this tactic was at warding off predators. In addition to movement, the spider's brilliant coloration is a crucial part of its defense strategy.&nbsp;



"Unlike typical ant-mimicking spiders that mimic the brown or black body color of ants, S. collingwoodi has brilliant body coloration," explained study first author Hua Zeng, an ecologist at <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a>.



At first glance, the spider's bright colors seem to blend well with the surrounding plant life, but the researchers wanted to investigate whether this coloration actually served as camouflage against predators.



The researchers embarked on their investigation by gathering samples of wild ant-mimicking spiders from four geographic locations in southern Hainan, China.&nbsp;



To draw comparisons, they also collected another type of jumping spider that does not mimic ants, as well as five species of ants that were suspected models for the spiders' mimicry.



Back in the lab, the researchers observed and compared how the ants and spiders moved. They scrutinized the use of individual limbs, their speed, acceleration, and whether the creatures moved in a straight path or followed a more complex route.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-siler-collingwoodi">What the researchers discovered about Siler collingwoodi</h2>



Interestingly, they discovered that Siler collingwoodi does not move like other jumping spiders. Instead, it mimics ants by raising its front legs to imitate an ant's antennae, bobbing its abdomen, and lifting its legs in an ant-like manner. The spider's gait closely resembled that of three smaller ant species, suggesting a preference for mimicking species similar in size.



"S. collingwoodi is not necessarily a perfect mimic, because its gait and trajectory showed high similarity with multiple ant species," said Zeng. This trait of mimicking more than one ant species may actually benefit the spiders by allowing them to expand their range if the ant models occupy different habitats.



The team then subjected the spider's defenses to two predators: a similarly sized jumping spider, Portia labiata, that preys on other spiders and has color vision, and a praying mantis, Gonypeta brunneri, a generalist predator with a monochromatic visual system.



<h2 id="h-how-siler-collingwoodi-camouflage-plays-a-role">How Siler collingwoodi camouflage plays a role</h2>



To better understand the role of color camouflage, the experts modeled how the two predators would perceive Siler collingwoodi in contrast to other prey species against two plants that the spiders live on - the red-flowering West Indian jasmine (Ixora chinensis) and the Fukien tea tree (Carmona microphylla). 



They found that the ant-mimicking spiders were better camouflaged from both spider and praying mantis predators on the jasmine plant than on the tea tree plant.



When given the choice between the ant-mimicking spider and the other jumping spider, the predatory spider showed a preference for the non-mimic. In 17 trials, the spider initiated five attacks, all of them directed towards the non-mimic. However, the praying mantises didn't show any bias and launched attacks on both prey species equally.



"We initially thought that both predators would behave similarly in the antipredation experiments, but in fact, the simulated ant locomotion of Siler collingwoodi only worked for the jumping spider predator, while the praying mantis showed indiscriminate attacks on both ants and mimics,” noted study senior author Wei Zhang.



This difference in the behavior of predators could be attributed to the potential risk they face when attempting to eat an ant. Praying mantises are significantly larger than their prey and can safely consume spiny ants without risking serious injury. However, the same can't be said for the predatory spiders.



“For the spider predator, a random attack on an ant could result in injury, so they are very careful predators and will only attack if they can distinguish Siler collingwoodi from ants with a high degree of certainty,” explained Zhang.



One intriguing discovery the researchers made was that any impairment to a limb negatively impacted the ant-mimicking spiders’ ability to avoid the predatory spider’s attention. It seems that an injury could hinder their ability to accurately mimic ants, making them more vulnerable to attacks.



In conclusion, the researchers found that the Siler collingwoodi's dual strategy of colorful camouflage and ant mimicry effectively aids in its survival. However, while the mimicry seems to be particularly effective against spider predators, praying mantises appear undeterred.&nbsp;



This fascinating study sheds light on the complex adaptive strategies evolved by small creatures in their struggle for survival.



<h2 id="h-more-about-mimicry-in-the-animal-kingdom">More about mimicry in the animal kingdom</h2>



Mimicry, such as that of Siler collingwoodi, is a fascinating phenomenon in the animal kingdom, where one species evolves to resemble another, often for protection or some other form of advantage. This tactic can be used to deter predators, lure prey, or achieve other beneficial outcomes. There are several types of mimicry, including Batesian, Müllerian, and aggressive mimicry, among others.



<h3 id="h-batesian-mimicry">Batesian Mimicry</h3>



Named after the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates, Batesian mimicry involves a harmless species evolving to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species to ward off predators. A classic example of this is the Viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), which mimics the coloration of the poisonous Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), thereby deterring predators that have learned to avoid the toxic Monarch.



<h3 id="h-mullerian-mimicry">Müllerian Mimicry</h3>



This form of mimicry, named after the German naturalist Fritz Müller, involves two or more harmful species that share common predators evolving to resemble each other. This way, predators quickly learn to avoid all species with a specific warning signal. An example of this type of mimicry can be seen among several species of stinging wasps and bees, which share similar yellow and black banding patterns.



<h3 id="h-aggressive-mimicry">Aggressive Mimicry</h3>



This is a form of mimicry where predators or parasites share similar signals with a harmless species, allowing them to avoid being correctly identified by their prey or hosts. The alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii) is a good example of this. The turtle has a tongue that looks like a worm, and it opens its mouth and wiggles its tongue to lure in fish.



<h3 id="h-automimicry-or-intraspecific-mimicry">Automimicry or intraspecific mimicry</h3>



This happens within a single species, where some individuals mimic other individuals or parts of their body mimic other parts. For example, some snakes have tail markings that resemble their head, potentially confusing predators.



<h3 id="h-mertensian-mimicry">Mertensian Mimicry</h3>



This is a rare form of mimicry where a deadly prey mimics a less harmful but lesson-teaching species. The idea is that a predator that survives an encounter with the less harmful species will avoid the deadly one.



These mimicry mechanisms, as seen with Siler collingwoodi, are a testament to the remarkable adaptability and survival strategies evolved by species over thousands of years. They highlight the intricate complexities of ecosystems and the delicate balance that exists within the animal kingdom.



Image Credit: Hua Zeng



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Beautiful, mysterious creature discovered, but what exactly is it?

The animal kingdom is filled with countless wonders and surprises,...

In a groundbreaking development, Dr. Andrea Harvey of the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/">University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS) has devised an innovative, holistic framework. This pioneering model serves to evaluate the mental and psychological well-being of wild animals, marking a significant stride in the sphere of animal welfare.



This study's importance is rooted in its capacity to revolutionize conservation endeavors. Traditionally, conservation efforts have heavily relied on monitoring population figures and reproductive success rates. However, Dr. Harvey's research introduces a new angle to the field, putting the spotlight on the quality of life of wild animals.



"With a shift in perspective, we can detect early signs of species challenges and population decreases, paving the way for more effective conservation strategies," explains Dr. Harvey.&nbsp;



She observes that while there has been extensive research on the welfare of domestic and farm animals, focusing on emotional states such as stress, pain, and fear, the same attention has not been afforded to wild animals. Dr. Harvey aims to address this disparity, shedding light on the individual lives, feelings, and mental experiences of wild creatures.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-is-done">How the research is done</h2>



Her research, an integral part of her PhD thesis at the UTS Centre for Compassionate Conservation, zeroes in on Australia's free-roaming wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-with-a-trusted-owner-remain-calm-in-new-situations/">horses</a>, known as brumbies. Despite its initial focus, the model she developed presents a flexible approach, allowing for its application across a multitude of wildlife species.



The choice of brumbies for the study was strategic. The welfare of horses in domestic environments has been extensively studied, offering an invaluable gateway into the world of wild animals. Her study was recently featured in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13091507">Animals</a>.



<h2 id="h-the-10-stage-protocol">The 10-Stage Protocol</h2>



Dr. Harvey's novel approach, named the "10 Stage Protocol," encompasses physical and behavioral indicators. It captures both negative and positive mental experiences in wild animals, offering a comprehensive view of their well-being.



"If you have a dog, you're familiar with their routine, preferences, and behavior in different scenarios. You can tell if they're happy, sad, or distressed. This research takes that understanding and applies it to wild animals," explained Dr. Harvey.&nbsp;



"We may never fully know what an animal is thinking or feeling. But we do know that mental experiences stem from physical states, and we can measure these states."



Several elements, including nutrition, physical environment, health, and behavioral interactions, can provide clues to an animal's mental state. These range from negative experiences such as thirst, hunger, heat and cold discomfort, pain, fatigue, anxiety and fear, to positive ones like satiety, exercising agency, physical vitality and positive social interactions.



This inclusive approach amalgamates various scientific disciplines, including neuroscience, behavior, and neuroethology – the study of the neural basis of an animal’s natural behavior. It employs these fields to interpret the collected data and gain insights into animal wellbeing.



<h2 id="h-the-study-extends-to-many-other-animals">The study extends to many other animals</h2>



Dr. Harvey's current collaboration extends to researchers studying Australian water birds, such as the straw-necked ibis and pelicans. As indicators of water quality and wetland health, these birds can provide valuable information to guide management decisions in the Murray Darling Basin.



The well-being of koalas, officially declared endangered in NSW, is also a focal point. Unlike previous koala research that centered mainly on survival and disease, Dr. Harvey's study aims to evaluate koala well-being holistically, a perspective that could influence policy decisions around conservation and habitat protection.



Furthermore, Dr. Harvey is working with other researchers on the welfare of kangaroos and dingoes at a field station in southern Queensland.&nbsp;



This study will focus on the predator-prey relationship, as well as the impact of climate change and drought recovery on these species. Each animal species brings with it unique challenges, including the identification of individuals, evaluation of mental experiences in large populations, and considerations for different environments and habitats.



<h2 id="h-incredibly-complex-task">Incredibly complex task</h2>



Studying the mental experiences of wild animals is a complex task. The lack of close human-animal relationships and the difficulty in observing wild animals for extended periods pose significant challenges. However, Dr. Harvey has leveraged innovative methods such as remote camera traps to collect fine-detail data on wild animal behavior, including body posture and facial expressions.



Dr. Harvey's pioneering research could bring about a transformative shift in the field of conservation biology, offering valuable insights into the mental experiences of wild and endangered animals.



She concludes: “Welfare assessments need to be part of all wildlife monitoring, and ultimately all environmental policy decision making. It is essential to consider not just individual species, but also interactions between different species, and their ecosystems.”



In its entirety, Dr. Harvey's work is an important stride in improving our understanding of wild animal welfare. It opens up new avenues for integrating animal welfare into conservation efforts and policy decisions. The results of this research could potentially redefine how we perceive and approach the wellbeing of wildlife, offering a more empathetic lens to view the lives of these creatures.



<h2 id="h-more-about-animal-emotions">More about animal emotions</h2>



 Animal emotions, often a subject of much debate, are a growing field of study within the larger discipline of animal behavior and cognition. There are several key points to consider:



<h3 id="h-existence-of-emotions">Existence of Emotions</h3>



Scientific consensus increasingly supports the idea that at least some animals likely experience emotions. These animals often include mammals and birds, as they exhibit behaviors that appear to mirror human emotional responses.&nbsp;



However, the precise nature and complexity of these emotions are still largely unknown and a topic of ongoing research.



<h3 id="h-emotion-related-behaviors">Emotion-related Behaviors</h3>



Many animals exhibit behaviors associated with various emotions. Dogs wag their tails when happy, purr or hiss to show contentment or displeasure, and many animals show signs of distress when separated from their social groups. Some animals also display signs of grief when they lose a close companion.



<h3 id="h-neurological-evidence">Neurological Evidence</h3>



Many animals have similar brain structures to humans, which are involved in processing emotions. For example, the amygdala and other parts of the limbic system are associated with emotional processing in humans, and these structures are also found in many other mammals. This suggests that these animals may have the capacity to experience emotions.



<h3 id="h-animal-stress-and-fear">Animal Stress and Fear</h3>



Stress and fear responses have been well-documented in animals. These responses can often be measured physiologically, through changes in heart rate, cortisol levels, and other stress hormones.



<h3 id="h-positive-emotions">Positive Emotions</h3>



There is also evidence suggesting that many animals can experience positive emotions. For instance, rats have been observed to "laugh" or make specific chirping sounds when they play or are tickled. Some animals also show signs of enjoyment during social interactions or while exploring their environment.



<h3 id="h-empathy-and-altruism">Empathy and Altruism</h3>



Some animals show behaviors indicative of empathy or altruism, suggesting they might be capable of complex emotional responses. For example, rats will work to free a trapped cage-mate, even when they can obtain a food reward instead.



<h3 id="h-animal-personality">Animal Personality</h3>



Animals of many species show individual differences in behavior that are consistent over time, a concept often referred to as animal personality. These behavioral differences might be linked to differences in emotional experiences or responses.



<h3 id="h-anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</h3>



It's important to avoid anthropomorphism – attributing human characteristics to animals – when studying animal emotions. While it's tempting to interpret animal behaviors through a human lens, we must be cautious in doing so. Animals might experience emotions, but these emotions might not be exactly like human emotions.



—-



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Scientists can now read the emotions and signs of well-being in wild animals

In a groundbreaking development, Dr. Andrea Harvey of the University...

A remarkable scientific discovery has taken us a step further back in time, shedding light on our ancient human ancestors. Scientists have unearthed what they believe are the oldest human footprints ever found – tracks etched into the earth by an extinct human family as far back as 300,000 years ago.



The footprints, impeccably preserved, once belonged to a small band of "Heidelberg people," an extinct species of humans known formally as Homo heidelbergensis (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/heidelberg-people_footprints2_University-of-Tubingen_1big.jpg">here</a>).&nbsp;



These archaic humans were the pioneers of home-building and large animal hunting. However, roughly 200,000 years ago, they vanished from the face of the Earth. Experts attribute this disappearance to climate change.



<h2 id="h-where-the-footprints-were-discovered">Where the footprints were discovered</h2>



In the Paleolithic site complex of Schöningen, Lower Saxony, Germany, the footprints were discovered. This site is also home to ancient animal imprints, including the region's first evidence of elephants.



The team from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/">University of Tübingen</a> (SHEP) made the groundbreaking discovery, methodically examining the ancient evidence found at the site. They paint a vivid picture of what life might have been like for these prehistoric humans.



"In an open birch and pine forest overgrown with grass, a lake stretches a few kilometers long and several hundred meters wide," the team described. "Herds of elephants, rhinos, and even-toed ungulates frequent its muddy shores to drink and bathe. Amid this scenery stands a nuclear family of the 'Heidelberg people.'"



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The researchers assigned two of the three human traces in Schöningen to young individuals, suggesting a small mixed-age group utilized the lake and its resources.



Dr. Flavio Altamura, the study's lead author, revealed more about the family's lifestyle. "Depending on the season, plants, fruits, leaves, shoots, and mushrooms were available around the lake," he said.&nbsp;



"Our finds confirm that the extinct human species lived on the shores of lakes or rivers with shallow water. This is also known from other sites with Lower and Middle Pleistocene hominin footprints. Due to the footprints of children and young people, it is more of a family outing than a group of adult hunters."



Beyond the human tracks, the researchers delved into a series of elephant tracks from the extinct species Palaeoloxodon antiquus. These straight-tusked elephants, the largest land animals at the time, could weigh up to 13 tons as adult males.



D Jordi Serangeli, who led the excavation in Schöningen, shared details about the elephant tracks. "The elephant tracks we discovered in Schöningen reach a remarkable length of 55 centimeters. In some cases, we also found wood fragments in the ruts that the animals had pressed into the soft ground. One trace also comes from a rhino - Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis or Stephanorhinus hemitoechus - and is the first footprint of this species from the Pleistocene that was found in Europe."



<h2 id="h-earliest-human-footprints-found-in-the-americas">Earliest human footprints found in the Americas</h2>



In 2021, archaeologists unveiled a set of 23,000-year-old human footprints in New Mexico, believed to be the earliest evidence of human activity in the Americas - a full 10,000 years earlier than previously thought.



The footprints were found in soft mud adjacent to Alkali Flat, a dry lakebed at White Sands National Park in southern New Mexico. Radiocarbon dating of seed layers above and below the tracks dated the footprints to at least 2,000 years, with the oldest tracks dating from around 23,000 years ago.



This era, known as the Last Glacial Maximum, saw ice sheets covering much of North America, and sea levels were about 400 feet lower than they are today.&nbsp;



For many years, the widely accepted theory held that homo sapiens first set foot in North America between 13,000 and 16,000 years ago. This migration was made possible after the North American ice sheets melted, opening up new routes for exploration. The findings at White Sands National Park challenge this timeline.



Sally Reynolds, one of the study's co-authors, and her colleagues suggest that human habitation in the Americas could date back much further than the generally accepted 16,000-year mark. Few archaeologists, however, have been able to present conclusive evidence of human habitation that predates this timeframe.



Interestingly, radiocarbon dating of sediments, animal bones, and charcoal from the same site indicated even earlier dates — approximately 33,000 years ago. However, these findings have been met with skepticism. Critics have questioned whether humans truly created the stone samples from this period.



These recent discoveries, from the footprints of the Heidelberg people in Germany to the ancient tracks in New Mexico, have turned our understanding of human history on its head.&nbsp;



As we delve deeper into the past, we learn more about the ancient humans who walked the Earth before us, enriching our understanding of our species' history and evolution. The narrative of human history continues to evolve, and with each new discovery, we come a step closer to understanding our ancient past.



<h2 id="h-more-about-early-humans">More about early humans</h2>



The story of early humans is a complex one, full of twists and turns, and it's all about evolution and migration. The very earliest humans weren't humans as we know them today, but rather a group of beings that would eventually evolve into modern humans.



Hominids, which include all modern and extinct Great Apes (such as gorillas, chimpanzees), as well as all their immediate ancestors, emerged and diversified in Africa about five to eight million years ago.



The first species in the human genus, Homo, appeared in Africa around two million years ago. This species, Homo habilis, is the earliest known species to have made stone tools, and is thus considered the first in the Homo genus.



This was followed by Homo erectus, a species that emerged around 1.9 million years ago. Homo erectus was the first to leave Africa and spread across parts of Asia and Europe. Their remains have been found in various places, including Indonesia and China.



Around 300,000 to 700,000 years ago, Homo erectus gave rise to Homo heidelbergensis in Africa and Europe. This species is likely the ancestor of both Neanderthals in Europe and modern humans.



Neanderthals, or Homo neanderthalensis, lived in Europe and western Asia, from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They lived alongside modern humans for some time before becoming extinct, and recent genetic research indicates that they interbred with our ancestors.



Homo sapiens, our own species, first appeared in Africa about 300,000 years ago. Around 70,000 to 60,000 years ago, a small group of Homo sapiens left Africa and began to spread across the globe, eventually populating every continent.



One of the oldest known Homo sapiens sites is located in Omo Kibish, Ethiopia, where remains have been dated to about 195,000 years ago. Another significant location is Herto Bouri, also in Ethiopia, where Homo sapiens idaltu lived around 160,000 years ago.



Throughout their history, early humans lived in a variety of environments, adapted to different climates, invented many technologies, and developed complex social groups. The discovery of early human fossils, footprints, and artifacts like tools provides a window into this prehistoric world. As new discoveries are made and techniques for analyzing them improve, our understanding of early human history continues to evolve.



image Credit: University of Tübingen&nbsp;



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Earliest human footprints ever found are believed to be 300,000 years old

A remarkable scientific discovery has taken us a step further...

Long-spined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-can-tolerate-hot-acidic-ocean-water/">sea urchins</a> (Diadema antillarum) are vital herbivores that graze on algae. If left unchecked, algae often outcompete corals for space and resources, blanket them, block their light, and ultimately kill them. Thus, by feeding upon them, sea urchins are crucial for maintaining coral health and balance in marine ecosystems.



Unfortunately, in late January 2022, Diadema die-offs started to be reported in St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. By late March, urchins from the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica, and the Mexican Caribbean began to be affected too, and by June mortalities were spiking in most of the Great Antilles, Florida, and Curaçao, leading to declines of 85 to 95 percent in sea urchin populations.



Recently, an international team of 42 scientists funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) has managed to identify the culprit behind these severe die-offs: Philaster apodigitiformis, a unicellular eukaryote belonging to a group of 8,000 species called ciliates. Although P. apodigiformis has been known to infect fish, this is the first time that it was found to infect and cause mass mortality in invertebrates.&nbsp;



“Rarely are we afforded the opportunity to understand marine disease events in this detail, where we can actually work out a cause of it,” said study lead author Ian Hewson, a marine ecologist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.



Although scientists are not yet sure how to treat P. apodigitiformis infections, discovering the identity of this parasite could help them develop strategies for maintaining the health of sea urchins that are currently being raised for restocking efforts across these regions.



“There’s a long history of&nbsp;Diadema&nbsp;die-off; the big one happened in the 1980s, with the cause still unknown, and cascaded into a loss of 80-90 percent of the coral cover in the Caribbean,” said Dan Thornhill, a program director in NSF’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=OCE">Division of Ocean Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“There were a lot of factors involved, but the urchin die-off was the tipping point. It’s an ecological tragedy. It’s fairly rare and exciting to identify the parasite or pathogen behind one of these diseases in marine ecosystems, and to do it this quickly is impressive.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg3200">Science Advances</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-infectious-parasites">More about infectious parasites&nbsp;</h2>



Infectious parasites are organisms that infect hosts, such as humans, animals, and plants, causing various diseases. These parasites can be categorized into three main types: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites.



<h3 id="h-protozoa">Protozoa</h3>



These are microscopic, single-celled organisms that can multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route (for example, through contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact). They can also be transmitted through vectors, such as mosquitoes.&nbsp;



Some common diseases caused by protozoan parasites include malaria (caused by Plasmodium species), amoebic dysentery (caused by Entamoeba histolytica), and giardiasis (caused by Giardia lamblia).



<h3 id="h-helminths">Helminths</h3>



Also known as parasitic worms, these are larger and more complex organisms. They include flatworms (like tapeworms and flukes) and roundworms (like hookworms, pinworms, and trichinella).&nbsp;



Helminths usually cannot multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through soil-transmitted routes (i.e., eggs present in human feces are deposited on soil and can infect others if ingested or if they penetrate the skin).



<h3 id="h-ectoparasites">Ectoparasites</h3>



These are parasites that live on the surface of the host. They include lice, fleas, ticks, and mites. Ectoparasites can transmit diseases from one host to another. Lyme disease (caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and transmitted by ticks) and plague (caused by Yersinia pestis and transmitted by fleas) are examples of diseases transmitted by ectoparasites.



Infectious parasites can cause a range of symptoms from mild discomfort to severe illness and death, depending on the type of parasite, the number of parasites, and the individual's health status. They are more common in areas with poor sanitation and unsafe water sources.&nbsp;



Many preventive strategies focus on improving sanitation, providing safe drinking water, and educating communities about personal hygiene. Treatment usually involves specific anti-parasitic drugs. In some cases, preventive treatments may be administered to at-risk populations.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-urchins">More about sea urchins&nbsp;</h2>



Sea urchins are marine invertebrates found in oceans worldwide. Their interactions with the environment, including their response to climate change, are complex and multifaceted. Here are a few key points to understand:



<h3 id="h-role-in-ecosystems">Role in Ecosystems</h3>



Sea urchins play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, particularly in kelp forests where they are a keystone species. They feed on kelp and help maintain balance in the ecosystem.&nbsp;



However, in the absence of their natural predators (like sea otters or some species of fish and lobsters), their population can explode, leading to overgrazing and what's known as an "urchin barren."



<h3 id="h-climate-change-impact-on-sea-urchins">Climate Change Impact on Sea Urchins</h3>



Climate change has been linked to changes in sea urchin populations and behavior. Warming waters may alter the habitats of sea urchins, pushing them towards the poles.&nbsp;



Additionally, ocean acidification, another result of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, can impact the ability of sea urchins to form and maintain their calcium carbonate shells.



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-and-carbon-sequestration">Sea Urchins and Carbon Sequestration</h3>



Research has suggested that sea urchins may play a role in carbon sequestration. Kelp forests, which sea urchins help regulate, are excellent at capturing and storing carbon.&nbsp;



However, if urchin populations become too large due to a loss of predators or other factors, they can overgraze and destroy these kelp forests, releasing stored carbon back into the atmosphere and negatively impacting this natural carbon sink.



<h3 id="h-effect-of-sea-urchin-s-diet">Effect of Sea Urchin's Diet</h3>



Some studies have shown that the diet of sea urchins might affect their resilience to climate change. For instance, urchins that feed on a certain type of algae seem to be more resilient to ocean acidification.



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-as-a-resource">Sea Urchins as a Resource</h3>



In some regions, sea urchins are harvested for their roe, which is a delicacy in many cuisines. Changes in climate could potentially affect the availability of this resource.



The relationship between sea urchins and climate change is an active area of research, and new insights are likely to emerge as scientists learn more about these intriguing creatures and their role in the marine ecosystem.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Experts identify the parasite causing mass mortality in sea urchins

Long-spined sea urchins (Diadema antillarum) are vital herbivores that graze...

During their foraging trips, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">bumblebees</a> collect solid packets of pollen from flowers on their back legs to transport to their nests. Although bees seem to move from flower to flower with ease, these packets can weigh up to a third of their body weight.&nbsp;



Recently, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that bumblebees carrying pollen experience significant increases in body temperature, raising questions about how these insects will be affected by warmer temperatures due to climate change.&nbsp;



Like other ectotherms, the body temperature of bumblebees is largely determined by their environment. While bumblebees are known to be exceptionally cold tolerant compared to other species of bees, shivering to warm up during cold periods, not much is known about how well they can tolerate heat.&nbsp;



The recent findings - showing that their body temperature rises by&nbsp;0.07°C for every milligram of pollen that they carry, with fully laden bees being 2°C warmer than unladen ones – suggest that carrying a full load of pollen on a hot day may put them at greater risk of heat stress and perhaps even death.&nbsp;



“Getting warmer from carrying pollen could put bumblebees in the range of those stressful, critically hot temperatures,” said lead author Malia Naumchik, who conducted this research during her undergraduate degree in Biological Sciences at NC State and is currently a graduate student at <a href="https://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a>.&nbsp;



“This has important implications for bumblebees and climate change. As environmental temperatures increase, the bees’ operational range of temperatures could shrink significantly.”&nbsp;



Although scientists have recently noticed that bumblebee numbers and species diversity are declining all over the world, particularly in the regions most affected by global warming, the precise mechanisms through which climate change affects these insects have not been clearly understood. The discovery that carrying heavy loads of pollen significantly increases their body temperature could be a major piece of this puzzle.



Since pollen is crucial for every stage of bumblebees’ lives, and without enough pollen, their survival as a species is at risk, better understanding how increased temperatures impact their pollen-carrying capacities is crucial.&nbsp;



The increased risk of heat stress in pollen-carrying bumblebees could have critical implications not only for their health and survival in a warming world, but also for pollination in general, and could ultimately affect not only ecosystems, but also agricultural practices.



“We need to know how bumblebees may change their behavior, to better understand how this could affect how much pollen they collect and how much pollination they perform during hot days,” explained senior author Elsa Youngsteadt, a professor in Applied Ecology at NC State.&nbsp;



“Whether it’s carrying smaller loads of pollen or foraging for shorter times, it could result in less pollen coming to the colony and fewer plants being pollinated. This is particularly important since bumblebees provide critical ecosystem services and are key pollinators for agriculture, especially in the United States and Europe.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0581">Biology Letters</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bumblebees">More about bumblebees&nbsp;</h2>



Bumblebees are large, hairy, social insects belonging to the genus Bombus in the family Apidae. They are known for their round bodies, black and yellow bands, and distinct buzzing sound. 



Bumblebees are native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere and are commonly found in higher altitudes or latitudes. Unlike honey bees, bumblebees can tolerate colder weather, thanks to their large body size and dense pile, or 'fur', which helps insulate them.



Bumblebees live in colonies, typically led by a single queen who is responsible for producing new workers. The size of the colony depends on the species but can range from around 50 to a few hundred individuals. 



The queen lays eggs that develop into female workers, who carry out most of the tasks within the colony, such as foraging for food (nectar and pollen), feeding the larvae, and defending the nest.



Males, or drones, and new queens are produced later in the season. These drones and new queens leave the colony to mate. The fertilized queens then seek out a suitable place to hibernate for the winter, while the rest of the colony, including the old queen, workers, and drones, usually die off with the onset of cold weather.



Bumblebees are important pollinators for both wild and cultivated plants. Their method of pollination is often described as 'buzz pollination' or 'sonication,' where they vibrate their flight muscles rapidly to dislodge pollen from flowers. This vibration is so specific that some plants have evolved to release their pollen only when they detect this frequency.



Like many insects, bumblebees face threats due to habitat loss, climate change, pesticide exposure, and disease. Their decline in certain regions has raised concerns because of their role in pollination and ecosystem function. Conservation efforts are underway in many regions to protect and preserve these important pollinators.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Carrying pollen increases bumblebees’ body temperature

During their foraging trips, bumblebees collect solid packets of pollen...

In the twilight hours of this evening, and for the following week, observers of the night sky will have the chance to witness an ethereal spectacle that has been dubbed the "Da Vinci glow." This enigmatic light show, anticipated to occur around the period of the New Moon on May 19, is named in honor of the Italian genius who first decoded its cause over half a millennium ago.



Leonardo da Vinci, remembered primarily for his extraordinary contributions to art and science, is often associated with masterpieces such as the Mona Lisa and innovative designs that were far ahead of his time. Yet, in the realm of astronomy, he made a remarkable discovery that is less frequently acknowledged.&nbsp;



Da Vinci solved the puzzle of Earthshine, a celestial phenomenon that imparts a ghostly illumination to the Moon's surface.



"When the Moon is a thin crescent, you can often see the dark part of the moon shining faintly. At first glance, this may seem quite mysterious as the crescent is the part of the Moon that is illuminated by the sun – so where does the light from the unilluminated part of the Moon come from? In fact, what we are seeing is light from the Earth being reflected back from the Moon! Hence the name Earthshine," explained Professor Don Pollacco of the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/">University of Warwick</a>.



In essence, Earthshine results from the sun's light reflecting off the Earth's surface and then bouncing back off the Moon's surface into our field of vision. Although this ghostly glow can usually be observed for several days before and after each New Moon, its visibility peaks during springtime at mid-northern latitudes. This increased visibility is due to the Moon's position directly above the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-may-be-the-original-source-of-earths-water/">Sun</a> at the time of its setting each evening.



However, Earthshine can become difficult to perceive as the Moon's illumination intensifies. "As the Moon is more fully illuminated, its brightness increases hugely, and the faint Earthshine gets difficult to see," explained Professor Pollacco.



NASA has recognized Leonardo da Vinci's insightful understanding of the Earthshine phenomenon. The space agency stated: "When you think of Leonardo Da Vinci, you probably think of the Mona Lisa or 16th-century submarines or, maybe, a certain suspenseful novel. That's old school. From now on, think of the Moon."&nbsp;



"Little-known to most, one of Leonardo's finest works is not a painting or an invention, but rather something from astronomy: He solved the ancient riddle of Earthshine."



While Da Vinci was largely accurate in his understanding, he did make a few misinterpretations. He reportedly believed that Earth's oceans were the main source of Earthshine, while modern scientific understanding suggests clouds and sea ice reflect the most light. Yet, these minor inaccuracies, which NASA refers to as "quibbles," do not diminish the significance of da Vinci's central discovery.



Given clear weather conditions, those eager to view the "Da Vinci glow" should look to the eastern sky from May 15 to May 17, before sunrise. As reported by LiveScience, the Moon will be at its lowest illumination of seven percent on Wednesday.&nbsp;



Following the New Moon, Earthshine can be observed in the western sky from May 21 to May 23, with the Moon's illumination being around five per cent on Sunday.



In essence, the "Da Vinci glow" offers us a chance to connect with the past, appreciating not only the beauty of the cosmos but also the enduring impact of Leonardo da Vinci's pioneering scientific inquiries.



<h2 id="h-mysteries-of-the-moon">Mysteries of the Moon</h2>



The Moon, Earth's only natural satellite, has been the subject of wonder, scientific study, and exploration for centuries. Despite our increasing understanding, there are still many aspects of the Moon that remain mysterious:



<h3 id="h-origin-of-the-moon">Origin of the Moon</h3>



The most widely accepted theory about the Moon's origin is the Giant Impact Hypothesis, also known as the Theia Impact. This theory suggests that a Mars-sized body named Theia collided with the early Earth around 4.5 billion years ago, and the debris from this impact eventually coalesced to form the Moon. However, this theory still has its complications and unanswered questions, such as the Moon's isotopic composition being almost identical to Earth's, which is an unexpected outcome of this hypothesis.



<h3 id="h-moonquakes">Moonquakes</h3>



Just like Earth, the Moon experiences quakes. However, the source of these moonquakes is less clear. Some are likely caused by the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon, but others seem to be linked to the cooling and contracting of the Moon's interior, causing it to "crack" and create seismic activity.



<h3 id="h-lunar-water">Lunar Water</h3>



The discovery of water ice in shadowed lunar craters by various lunar missions, including NASA's LCROSS, has raised many questions about the source and extent of lunar water. Understanding how much water is on the Moon, where it's located, and how it got there is crucial for future lunar exploration and potential human habitation.



<h3 id="h-far-side-of-the-moon">Far Side of the Moon</h3>



The Moon's far side (often incorrectly referred to as the "dark side") is very different from the side that faces Earth. It has a thicker crust and is heavily cratered, with a scarcity of lunar maria (large, dark, basaltic plains). The reasons for these differences remain a topic of ongoing research.



<h3 id="h-transient-lunar-phenomena">Transient Lunar Phenomena</h3>



For centuries, observers have reported short-lived changes in the appearance of the lunar surface. These events, known as Transient Lunar Phenomena (TLPs), include reports of unusual light patterns, color changes, or brief obscurations. The causes of TLPs are still not fully understood, with suggested explanations ranging from outgassing to impacts to electrostatic phenomena.



<h3 id="h-magnetic-anomalies">Magnetic Anomalies</h3>



The Moon has a very weak magnetic field compared to Earth, but there are certain regions with localized magnetic fields much stronger than the average lunar field. These "magnetic anomalies" are still not fully understood, but some suggest they are remnants from an earlier period when the Moon had a global magnetic field.



These mysteries, and others, continue to make the Moon a fascinating object of study, as scientists strive to deepen our understanding of Earth's celestial companion.



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The Da Vinci Glow will illuminate tonight's crescent moon

In the twilight hours of this evening, and for the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...