For decades, scientists have been grappling with what is considered to be the most fundamental question about the cosmos: How fast is our universe expanding? 



The rate of expansion influences everything from how galaxies form to how they might one day drift apart.



Determining the expansion rate of the universe, a number called the "Hubble constant," shapes our entire understanding of the cosmos, its age, and its ultimate fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-tension-expansion-conundrum">"Hubble tension" expansion conundrum</h2>



Unfortunately, though many brilliant minds have dedicated their lives to finding the answer to this riddle, all who have tried thus far have failed, running repeatedly into a brick wall that has come to be known as the "Hubble tension."



Adam Riess, a physicist at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> in Baltimore, has been at the forefront of this debate. "With measurement errors negated, what remains is the real and exciting possibility that we have misunderstood the universe," Riess admitted.



Riess, who won a Nobel Prize for discovering that the universe's expansion is accelerating due to dark energy, has been working tirelessly to resolve what's known as the Hubble Tension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-hubble-constant-matters">Why the Hubble constant matters</h2>



But before diving deeper, let's consider why the expansion rate -- called the Hubble constant -- is so crucial. 



Named after Edwin Hubble, who first observed that galaxies are moving away from us, this constant helps us map out the history and future of everything we see in the night sky. 



Determining it with precision has been a major goal of astronomers for decades.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_3-steps_illustration_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_3-steps_illustration_nasa_1s.webp" alt="This illustration shows the three basic steps astronomers use to calculate how fast the universe expands over time, a value called the Hubble constant. All the steps involve building a strong &quot;cosmic distance ladder,&quot; by starting with measuring accurate distances to nearby galaxies and then moving to galaxies farther and farther away. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1951709"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This illustration shows the three basic steps astronomers use to calculate how fast the universe expands over time, a value called the Hubble constant. All the steps involve building a strong "cosmic distance ladder," by starting with measuring accurate distances to nearby galaxies and then moving to galaxies farther and farther away. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



When the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> was launched in 1990, one of its main objectives was to pin down the universe's expansion rate. 



Before Hubble, estimates of the universe's age ranged wildly from 10 to 20 billion years -- a huge uncertainty. 



Thanks to Hubble's observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expansion-rate-of-the-universe-confirmed-by-jwst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cepheid variable stars</a> -- stars that pulsate at regular intervals and serve as cosmic mileposts -- we now have a more precise age of about 13.8 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-to-the-rescue">Webb telescope to the rescue?</h2>



Some scientists wondered if the discrepancies in measurements were due to errors in Hubble's data. Maybe, they thought, the way Hubble measured distances had some hidden flaws. 



Then came the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a>), launched to great fanfare as the successor to Hubble. Webb's infrared observations of Cepheids matched Hubble's optical data perfectly. 



"Combining Webb and Hubble gives us the best of both worlds. We find that the Hubble measurements remain reliable as we climb farther along the cosmic distance ladder," Riess explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-vs-webb-vs-expansion">Hubble vs. Webb vs. expansion</h2>



Despite the new data, the tension between measurements remains. The Hubble and Webb telescopes confirm one universe expansion rate, based on observations of the local universe.



Meanwhile, observations from the early universe, like those from the Planck satellite's mapping of the cosmic microwave background radiation, suggest another. 



This leaves cosmologists scratching their heads. Is there something about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fabric of space</a> we don't yet understand? Does resolving this discrepancy require new physics, or is there another explanation?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brenda-frye-tackles-hubble-and-expansion">Brenda Frye tackles Hubble and expansion</h2>



In October 2024, <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/2024/10/01/webb-researchers-discover-lensed-supernova-confirm-hubble-tension/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">as reported by NASA</a>, Brenda Frye from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and an international team took a different approach. 



They used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-finds-a-second-lensed-supernova-in-a-distant-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitationally lensed supernovae</a> to measure the Hubble constant -- a method independent of previous techniques. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_galaxy-cluster-G165_supernova-H0pe_gravitational-lensing_jwst_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/hubble-constant_galaxy-cluster-G165_supernova-H0pe_gravitational-lensing_jwst_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera) image of the galaxy cluster PLCK G165.7+67.0, also known as G165, on the left shows the magnifying effect a foreground cluster can have on the distant universe beyond. The foreground cluster is 3.6 billion light-years away from Earth. The zoomed region on the right shows supernova H0pe triply imaged (labeled with white dashed circles) due to gravitational lensing. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, B. Frye (University of Arizona)" class="wp-image-1951711"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera) image of the galaxy cluster PLCK G165.7+67.0, also known as G165, on the left shows the magnifying effect a foreground cluster can have on the distant universe beyond. The foreground cluster is 3.6 billion light-years away from Earth. The zoomed region on the right shows supernova H0pe triply imaged (labeled with white dashed circles) due to gravitational lensing. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, B. Frye (University of Arizona)</figcaption></figure>



While observing a densely populated cluster of galaxies, they noticed something unusual. "What are those three dots that weren’t there before? Could that be a supernova?" the team wondered. 



It turned out to be a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Type Ia supernova</a>, an explosion of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf star</a>, magnified and split into multiple images by the gravitational lensing effect of the intervening galaxy cluster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-gravitational-lensing">What is gravitational lensing?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-carousel-lens-galaxy-alignment-reveals-dark-matter-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gravitational lensing</a> is important to this experiment. The lens, consisting of a cluster of galaxies situated between the supernova and us, bends the supernova's light into multiple images. 



This effect not only magnifies the supernova but also allows scientists to measure the time delays between the images, providing another way to calculate the Hubble constant.



Their analyses confirmed that these dots corresponded to an exploding star with rare qualities. 



The team's work provided a Hubble constant value of 75.4 kilometers per second per megaparsec, plus 8.1 or minus 5.5. For context, one megaparsec is about 3.26 million light-years. 



"Our team’s results are impactful: The Hubble constant value matches other measurements in the local universe, and is somewhat in tension with values obtained when the universe was young," Frye concluded.



Another strikeout... add Brenda Frye to the long list of brilliant minds still probing the universe for an answer to Hubble tension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-getting-sad-now-what">This is getting sad, now what?</h2>



So, where does this leave us? 



The Hubble Tension isn't going away. It might be telling us that there's new physics waiting to be discovered. 



Perhaps our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, dark matter, or other fundamental forces needs to be revised. 



"We need to find out if we are missing something on how to connect the beginning of the universe and the present day," Riess pointed out. 



It's possible that new theories or modifications to existing ones could bridge the gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaking-things-up-with-new-theories">Shaking things up with new theories</h2>



Could the solution lie in something entirely unexpected? Perhaps there's a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-consist-of-particles-that-travel-faster-than-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new particle or force</a> that affects the expansion rate. Or maybe the nature of dark energy changes over time. 



Some theories even propose the existence of extra dimensions or modifications to gravity at large scales. It's also worth considering that the universe might not be uniform in all directions. 



If there are variations in the density of matter and energy across vast distances, this could affect expansion rates in ways we haven't fully accounted for. 



Maybe everyone is completely off base and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter doesn't even exist</a>? Or maybe we're looking in the wrong place -- what if the answers can be found by looking for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-now-searching-for-dark-matter-inside-old-earth-rocks-minerals-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter in rocks on Earth</a>?



One thing's for sure: the cosmos isn't giving up its secrets easily. But that's part of the thrill of science. Every answer leads to new questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-constant-hubble-tension-mysterious-universe">Hubble constant, Hubble tension, mysterious universe</h2>



In the end, the universe is reminding us that there's still so much we don't know. The quest to figure out how fast our universe is expanding has led to some fascinating discoveries and even more intriguing questions. 



Scientists like Adam Riess and Brenda Frye have used powerful tools like the Hubble and James Webb Space Telescopes to measure the Hubble constant with increasing precision. 



Their efforts confirm that the local universe is expanding at a certain rate, but this doesn't quite line up with measurements from the early universe.



This mismatch, known as the Hubble Tension, suggests there might be something we’re missing in our understanding of the cosmos. Maybe there are new physics to uncover, or perhaps our current models need some tweaking. 



What's clear is that the universe isn't giving up its secrets easily, and that keeps things exciting for astronomers and physicists alike.



As we look ahead, upcoming missions like NASA's <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> and ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid mission</a> offer hope for new insights. Until then, we can marvel at the fact that we're part of an ever-expanding universe that's still full of surprises.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad1ddd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Webb telescope confirms: What we think we know about the universe is very wrong

For decades, scientists have been grappling with what is considered to be the most fundamental question about the cosmos: How fast is our universe expanding? The rate of expansion influences everything from how galaxies form to how they might one day drift apart. Determining the expansion rate of the universe, a number called the "Hubble constant," shapes our entire understanding of the cosmos, its age, and its ultimate fate. "Hubble tension" expansion conundrum Unfortunately, though many brilliant minds have dedicated their lives to finding the answer to...

The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might be dismissed as mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">fungi</a>, thanks to their peculiar mushroom-like structures. However, these aren't your average mushrooms. They are actually inflorescences, small gatherings of flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-parasitism-nbsp">Extreme parasitism&nbsp;</h2>



Rather than simply taking nutrients from host plants using a haustorium, as seen in many parasitic species, Balanophora takes parasitism to another level. It encourages the host plant's vascular system to grow into its tuber.&nbsp;



This results in an unprecedented underground organ formed from both the host and parasite tissue. It's within this chimeric tuber that Balanophora steals nutrients from its host.



Dr. Xiaoli Chen of <a href="https://www.bgi.com/global" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BGI Research</a> and her team set out to explore the evolutionary origins of these subtropical parasites. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-genomes">Shrinking genomes</h2>



In collaboration with Dr. Sean Graham, a botanist from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, Dr. Chen compared the genomes of Balanophora and Sapria, another extreme parasitic plant. While they belong to different families and have varying appearances, their genomic narratives turned out to be surprisingly similar.



According to the study, both Balanophora and Sapria displayed record shrinkages for flowering plants, losing 28 and 38 percent of their genomes, respectively, as they evolved to full-blown parasitism.&nbsp;



“The extent of similar, but independent gene losses observed in Balanophora and Sapria is striking,” said Dr. Chen. “It points to a very strong convergence in the genetic evolution of holoparasitic lineages, despite their outwardly distinct life histories and appearances, and despite their having evolved from different groups of photosynthetic plants.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-nbsp">Unexpected discovery&nbsp;</h2>



Both plants displayed an almost total loss of genes associated with photosynthesis, which is not surprising given that they give up their photosynthetic ability.&nbsp;



However, what was unexpected was the discovery of the loss of genes vital for other biological functions such as root development, nitrogen absorption, and flower development regulation.&nbsp;



In essence, these parasites seemed to have discarded a significant amount of gene families typically found in green plants, only retaining crucial genes or their copies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-gene-loss">Strategic gene loss</h2>



An astonishing revelation was the parallel loss of genes related to the synthesis of a significant plant hormone - abscisic acid (ABA) - in both plants.&nbsp;



Even in the absence of these genes, ABA hormone accumulation was found in Balanophora's flowering stems, with ABA signaling response genes still intact in both parasites.



"The majority of the lost genes in Balanophora are probably related to functions essential in green plants, which have become functionally unnecessary in the parasites,” said Dr. Graham.&nbsp;



“That said, there are probably instances where the gene loss was actually beneficial, rather than reflecting a simply loss of function. The loss of their entire ABA biosynthesis pathway may be a good example. It may help them to maintain physiological synchronization with the host plants. This needs to be tested in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Highlighting the broader context, Dr. Huan Liu of BGI Research mentioned the 10KP project, which aims to sequence 10,000 plant genomes.&nbsp;



"The study of parasitic plants deepens our understanding of dramatic genomic alterations and the complex interactions between parasitic plants and their hosts," said Dr. Liu.&nbsp;



"The genomic data provides valuable insights into the evolution and genetic mechanisms behind the dependency of parasitic plants on their hosts, and how they manipulate host plants to survive."



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01517-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Extreme parasitism: Balanophora convinces a host to grow into its tissue

The Balanophoraceae family, when stumbled upon in the forest, might...

A new study published by <a href="https://global.oup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University Press</a> uncovers the evolutionary adaptations in bats that may explain their extraordinary capability to ward off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-increases-risk-of-fatal-bacterial-infections/">infections</a> and resist cancer. This discovery, believed to be associated with bats' rapid evolution, may have promising implications for cancer research.



Bats have long fascinated scientists due to their unique attributes. Not only are they the only mammals capable of sustained flight, but they also boast long lifespans, remarkably low cancer rates, and incredibly robust immune systems.&nbsp;



Furthermore, it is widely believed that bats played a pivotal role in the emergence of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus. Their peculiar ability to tolerate various viral infections possibly arises from distinct features in their innate immune response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-health-nbsp">Implications for human health&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of understanding bats are far-reaching, especially for human health. Gaining insights into the bat immune system's mechanisms that enable it to withstand viral infections might pave the way for better strategies in preventing zoonotic disease transmissions to humans.&nbsp;



Furthermore, by comparing the genomic data of bats to other mammals more susceptible to cancer, researchers could unearth new knowledge about cancer's origins and its intricate relationship with immunity.&nbsp;



While mice remain a primary organism for experimental studies due to their ease of manipulation, they lack many attributes relevant to human diseases. In contrast, bats offer a more comprehensive perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



"The ability of bats to tolerate viral infections may stem from unusual features of their innate immune response. Together, these adaptations make bats a powerful system for investigating a wide variety of genotype-to-phenotype relationships, including several with implications for human health," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"For example, by better understanding the mechanisms of the bat immune system that allow them to tolerate viral infections, researchers may be better able to prevent zoonotic outbreaks."



"In addition, comparative genomic analyses of bats and cancer-susceptible mammals may shed new light on the causes of cancer and links between cancer and immunity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



For their investigation, the researchers used the Oxford Nanopore Technologies long-read platform, along with bat samples from the American Museum of Natural History in Belize. The genomes of two bat species, the Jamaican fruit bat and the Mesoamerican mustached bat, were sequenced.&nbsp;



The team conducted an extensive comparative genomic analysis involving various bats and other mammals.



"Our comparative genomic analysis of these genome sequences, which have been released as a public resource, provides several new insights into unique features of innate immune response and cancer resistance in bats," said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-nbsp">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists identified genetic modifications in six DNA repair-related proteins in bats.&nbsp;



Furthermore, 46 proteins related to cancer suppression were found to be altered in bats. These modified genes related to cancer were present over two times more in bats than in other mammals.



“By generating these new bat genomes and comparing them to other mammals we continue to find extraordinary new adaptations in antiviral and anticancer genes,” said study lead author Armin Scheben.&nbsp;



“These investigations are the first step towards translating research on the unique biology of bats into insights relevant to understanding and treating aging and diseases, such as cancer, in humans.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evad148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology and Evolution</a>.



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Unique biology of bats may hold secrets of cancer resistance

A new study published by Oxford University Press uncovers the...

Dolphin,Portrait,Detail,Of,Eye,While,Looking,At,You,From

In a recent study, researchers have discovered that a staggering 72% of cetacean and pinniped stocks under U.S. jurisdiction exhibit high or very high vulnerability to the threats posed by climate change.&nbsp;The main threats to these marine mammals include rising ocean temperatures and changes in water composition. 



Pinnipeds are “flipper-footed” animals such as seals, sea lions, and walruses, while cetaceans are species that cannot survive on land, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/">whales</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/dolphin-everything-you-need-to-know-about-these-magical-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> and porpoises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-marine-mammals">Climate change and marine mammals</h2>



The study, led by Matthew D. Lettrich from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, sheds light on the susceptibility of marine mammals in US waters to the ever-intensifying impacts of a changing climate.



Several factors drive this vulnerability. As the Earth's climate undergoes rapid alterations, the distribution, behavior, and movements of marine mammals are being significantly influenced.&nbsp;



Key agents of this change include warming ocean temperatures, diminished sea ice cover, increased ocean acidity, changing salinity levels, and declining dissolved oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Until now, while <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/climate/climate-vulnerability-assessments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Vulnerability Assessments</a> (CVAs) provided insights into the climate impacts across a spectrum of species, none had specifically delved into US-managed marine mammals.&nbsp;



Recognizing this gap, the researchers embarked on a comprehensive assessment of 108 marine mammal stocks spanning the western North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea.&nbsp;



The goal was to gauge their exposure to climate change and their inherent ability to adapt to its consequences.



To do this, the team used 16 climate-related factors that are likely to influence marine mammals directly or indirectly via their prey or habitat.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-results-for-marine-mammals">Alarming results for marine mammals</h2>



The assessment revealed that a startling 44% of marine mammal stocks were found to have a “very high” climate vulnerability score. Baleen whales, medium-sized whales, toothed whales, and dolphins were found to have the greatest risk.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The primary culprits affecting these species were identified as alterations in ocean temperature, acidity, and dissolved oxygen levels, which have direct repercussions on their prey availability and habitat conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-sound-transmission-nbsp">Changes in sound transmission&nbsp;</h2>



Moreover, a less explored facet of climate change impacts on marine mammals is the changes in sound absorption and transmission in waters due to fluctuating pH and temperature levels.&nbsp;



This has significant implications for species that rely on echolocation for activities like communication, hunting, and foraging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-management-and-conservation">Ecosystem management and conservation</h2>



“These results provide information for researchers, managers, and the public on marine mammal responses to climate change to enhance the development of more effective marine mammal management, restoration, and conservation activities that address current and future environmental variation and biological responses due to climate change," wrote the study authors.



"This vulnerability assessment provides a tool that can complement other marine mammal assessment techniques and support the broader implementation of protected species and ecosystem management and conservation as the climate changes.”



The researchers would like for the marine mammal climate vulnerability assessment to be repeated when enhanced input data is available, such as higher-resolution climate projections and better species-specific biological information.



“Using a systematic approach allowed us to look across all of these stocks and better understand what drives their vulnerability to climate change," said Lettrich.



"We can now go out and look at some of these individual responses to climate change, and explore approaches to reduce the impacts of climate change on these vulnerable populations.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290643">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Marine mammals in U.S. waters are highly vulnerable to climate change

In a recent study, researchers have discovered that a staggering...

The asteroid impact that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossil-suggests-it-was-killed-by-the-asteroid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wiped out</a> most of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago sparked two years of darkness caused by the soot from raging wildfires that filled the sky and blocked the sun. 



This phenomenon further contributed to the wave of extinctions that followed. The findings were presented at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/Fall-Meeting">annual meeting</a> of the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> (AGU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-from-asteroid-impact">Environmental impact from asteroid impact</h2>



While the cataclysm caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs-ignited-massive-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impact extinguished many life forms almost instantly, the impact also caused environmental changes leading to mass extinctions that played out over a longer period of time.&nbsp;



According to research led by the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/scientists/invertebrate-zoology-geology">Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Geology</a> at the California Academy of Sciences, one such extinction trigger might have been the dense cloud of ash and other particles that spread all over the planet after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impact, which enveloped many parts of the Earth in darkness for up to two years. 



During that time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-efficient-enough/">photosynthesis</a> had probably failed, leading to massive environmental collapse, with at least 75 percent of life on Earth completely extinguished.



"The common thinking now is that global wildfires would have been the main source of fine soot that would have been suspended into the upper atmosphere," said study lead author Peter Roopnarine, a curator of Geology at the California Academy of Sciences. 



"The concentration of soot within the first several days to weeks of the fires would have been high enough to reduce the amount of incoming sunlight to a level low enough to prevent photosynthesis."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-periods-of-darkness-destroy-ecosystems">Periods of darkness destroy ecosystems</h2>



Roopnarine and his colleagues believe that ecosystems could recover after a period of darkness of up to 150 days. However, after over 200 days, some species will already start going extinct and patterns of dominance will change. During a darkness interval of 650 to 700 days, extinction levels may reach 65 to 81 percent.



Since it is known that around 75 percent of the species went extinct after the asteroid impact 66 million years ago, the scientists believe that the dark period may have lasted approximately two years. 



"Conditions varied across the globe because of atmospheric flow and temperature variation, but we estimated that the darkness could have persisted in the Hell Creek area [a representative, fossil-rich region dating to the latter part of the Cretaceous and extending over parts of today’s Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming] for up to two years,” concluded Roopnarine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs">More about the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs</h2>



Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid, with a force unlike any other in Earth's recent history, struck our planet and dramatically altered its trajectory of life. This event, often referred to as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous-Paleogene</a> (K-Pg) extinction event, led to the decline and eventual extinction of roughly 75% of Earth's species, most notably the non-avian dinosaurs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fateful-asteroid-impact">The fateful asteroid impact</h3>



This colossal asteroid, estimated to be about 10 kilometers (6 miles) in diameter, plummeted towards Earth at a blistering speed. When it collided with what is now the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, it created the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-chicxulub-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicxulub crater</a>, a massive depression more than 150 kilometers (93 miles) in diameter.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immediate-aftermath-of-the-asteroid-impact">Immediate aftermath of the asteroid impact</h3>



The impact released an estimated energy equivalent to billions of atomic bombs. This tremendous force ignited wildfires hundreds of miles away and released vast amounts of sulfur into the atmosphere, leading to a significant drop in temperatures. 



Earth plunged into a "nuclear winter" scenario: dark, cold, and inhospitable. The plummeting temperatures and widespread darkness, which resulted from the dust and soot released, severely disrupted the food chain. Photosynthesizing plants could not survive in such conditions, leading to a cascade of extinction events up the food chain.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-term-effects">Longer-term effects</h3>



But the asteroid's impact did more than just throw up dust and soot. It also resulted in widespread acid rain, which further disrupted ecosystems. The ash from the impact blocked sunlight for an extended period, cooling the planet and disrupting the climate for several years.



Oceans didn't escape unscathed either. The fallout from the asteroid severely affected marine ecosystems. The change in temperatures led to a decline in marine plankton, the primary food source for many marine species. The collapse of this foundational layer of the marine food chain had catastrophic effects on the marine species that depended on it.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-and-evolution-s-new-course">Recovery and evolution's new course</h3>



Although the aftermath was devastating, life proved resilient. The extinction event paved the way for mammals, which had previously lived in the shadows of the dinosaurs, to rise in prominence and diversify. These mammals would eventually evolve into a vast array of species, including humans.



Over time, the Earth's atmosphere and climate stabilized, and life began to recover and evolve in new directions. The void left by the dinosaurs allowed for the rise of new dominant species, reshaping the evolutionary trajectory of the planet.



The asteroid that struck Earth 66 million years ago dramatically changed the course of life on our planet. While it marked the end for the dinosaurs and many other species, it also opened up evolutionary opportunities for others. The story of this asteroid serves as a stark reminder of the power of extraterrestrial events and their potential to reshape the very fabric of life on Earth.



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Asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs sparked two years of darkness

The asteroid impact that wiped out most of the dinosaurs...

The reason humans and other animals yawn has long been a mystery. Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.suny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State University of New York</a> (SUNY) has argued that yawning might have evolved to make us more vigilant to threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-vigilance">Group vigilance</h2>



According to the experts, yawning has evolved as a signal to the group that one of its members is tired. When noticing this signal, other group members become more alert to cover for the tired – and thus more vulnerable – member of the group.



“The group vigilance hypothesis proposes that seeing someone yawn should trigger neurocognitive changes to enhance the vigilance of the observer as a means of compensating for the reduced alertness of the yawner,” the authors explained.&nbsp;



“The tendency to be attuned to, and affected by, the yawns of others may have evolved due to the outcome this had on enhancing survival within groups.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To test this hypothesis, the researchers investigated whether seeing other people yawn could improve the detection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lions-are-dangling-precariously-on-the-brink-of-extinction-immediate-action-is-needed/">lions</a> – which were most probably a common threat to the survival of humans during evolutionary history – compared to impalas, a species of antelope that would not have posed a significant danger to our ancestors.



The experts enrolled 27 participants who were first showed videos of people either yawning or with neutral facial expressions.&nbsp;



Afterwards, in a random order, the researchers repeatedly showed the participants pictures of either a lion or an impala alongside a variety of other distracting images and asked them to find the target animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



“Following exposure to people yawning, participants were faster at detecting lions and slower in their search of impala,” the authors reported.



These findings are consistent with those from a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33386468/">previous study</a> conducted by the same university in which the researchers discovered that seeing someone yawn increases the ability to detect snakes.&nbsp;



By replicating the experiments with a different animal, the scientists were able to provide evidence that this effect was not specific to snakes, but occurs similarly across different contexts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-findings">Confirming the findings</h2>



“Replications are important to ensure that the original findings were not spurious or due to some chance events or statistical anomalies. When we are able to replicate previous experiments, as we have done here, we gain confidence that the findings represent true effects,” said Andrew Gallup, a professor of Biopsychology and Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences at SUNY, who was involved in both studies.



“In this case, we also wanted to replicate the previous study to ensure that the effects observed in the original study were not due to the specific type of stimulus used (i.e., snakes)."



"By performing a conceptual replication, we show that seeing other people yawn enhances threat detection, i.e., it improves vigilance, across different contexts."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ebs">Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences</a>.



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Yawning evolved as a mechanism for threat detection

The reason humans and other animals yawn has long been...

Imagine the sheer magnitude if entire countries like France, Germany, and Spain were fully covered in forests, and then, almost suddenly, all those trees disappeared. This is the scale of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> from 2001 to 2020, with implications that are hard to fathom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staggering-effects">Staggering effects</h2>



The detrimental effects of deforestation are staggering. First, deforestation significantly drives climate change, contributing anywhere from six to 17 percent of the worldwide greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;



Moreover, since trees act as carbon sinks, they draw CO2 out of the atmosphere, which has a cooling effect on the planet. Finally, forests are also sanctuaries of biodiversity.



“Climate change and biodiversity make this a global problem, not a local problem,” said <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) economist Ben Olken and senior author of a recent study describing way of tackling global biodiversity. “Deciding to cut down trees or not has huge implications for the world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-issue">Monitoring the issue</h2>



However, the economic allure of deforestation is undeniable, leading to its unabated continuation. With technological advancements in the past 25 years, we can now monitor this issue more closely.&nbsp;



Devices like the Landsat satellites have revolutionized our ability to track changes in forests since 2000 with incredible detail.



“Part of this revolution in measurement is accuracy, and the other part is coverage,” explained lead author Clare Balboni, an assistant professor of Economics at the <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/">London School of Economics</a> (LSE).&nbsp;



“On-site observation is very expensive and logistically challenging, and you’re talking about case studies. These satellite-based data sets just open up opportunities to see deforestation at scale, systematically, across the globe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-problem">Understanding the problem</h2>



But how could global deforestation be curbed effectively? According to the experts, a first step in this direction is understanding the problem.



Several intellectual heavyweights from the past, including renowned MIT economist Paul Samuelson in the 1970s, devised models that viewed forests as sustainable resources.&nbsp;



The primary purpose behind these models was to optimize the balance between deforestation and reforestation. However, the current wave of deforestation, especially in tropical regions, exhibits a different trend. Regrowing forests is not the norm anymore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-dilemma">Economic dilemma</h2>



As Balboni and Olken stress, the economic reasons behind deforestation have evolved. The immediate profits now stem not just from lumber but from clearing woods to make way for agriculture.&nbsp;



For instance, in Brazil there is a positive correlation between rising agricultural prices and deforestation rates, while in Indonesia, surging global palm oil prices have pushed companies to convert forests into palm orchards.



This rampant deforestation poses an economic dilemma: The global consequences of climate change due to deforestation are external costs imposed on the masses by a few.&nbsp;



“The relevance of global externalities is very important, and the conceptualization of alternate land uses is very important,” Olken said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-solution">What is the solution?</h2>



Various solutions to effectively curb deforestation have been proposed, ranging from levying taxes on those responsible to compensating landowners to preserve forests. The <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/">UN’s REDD+ program</a>, for example, involves Payments for Environmental Services (PES). Yet, its efficacy varies across regions and situations.



“There’s mixed evidence from many of these [studies],” says Balboni, emphasizing the need to evaluate each policy’s real-world impacts.



While paying individuals might seem a straightforward solution, this method faces significant challenges in some parts of the world.&nbsp;



For instance, while cash subsidies in Indonesia led to a 30 percent reduction in deforestation in certain areas, a similar scheme in Mexico had unintended consequences, inadvertently promoting further deforestation.



The seemingly straightforward method of outrightly banning deforestation also has its complexities. Even with designated protected regions, illegal deforestation often simply shifts to other unprotected areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unconventional-approaches-nbsp">Unconventional approaches&nbsp;</h2>



However, some unconventional approaches have been more successful. For instance, in Brazil, the Amazon Soy Moratorium, where grain traders pledged not to source soy from deforested areas, significantly curtailed deforestation without merely shifting it elsewhere.&nbsp;



Similarly, a 2008 policy in Brazil tightened the criteria for availing agricultural loans, demanding adherence to environmental norms. This led to a dramatic 60 percent reduction in deforestation over almost ten years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predominant-challenges">Predominant challenges</h2>



When dissecting the root causes of deforestation, Balboni and Olken pinpoint two predominant challenges. Firstly, the ambiguity in forest land ownership often exacerbates deforestation. Secondly, political dynamics play a significant role in forest conservation (or the lack thereof).



Politics and policy intertwine deeply when it comes to deforestation. Analyzing the Amazon between 2001 and 2005, the experts found that conservation policies significantly curbed deforestation in Brazil compared to neighboring regions.&nbsp;



However, a change in political leadership in 2014 saw a resurgence in deforestation. Another example is Brazil’s satellite-based DETER system. A study showcased that municipalities that increased its usage saw a 25 percent reduction in deforestation from 2006 to 2016.



“The research there is aiming to understand what the political economy drivers are, with the idea that if you understand those things, reform in those countries is more likely,” Olken explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-research-nbsp">Evolving research&nbsp;</h2>



As the world grapples with the deforestation crisis, Balboni and Olken believe that evolving research could be of great help for finding ways to stop massive forest losses. However, the onus now lies on merging accumulated knowledge with actionable policy measures.



“To the extent that there’s ambiguity across different contexts with different findings, part of the point of our review piece is to draw out common themes - the important considerations in determining which policy levers can [work] in different circumstances. That’s a fast-evolving area," said Balboni.



"We don’t have all the answers, but part of the process is bringing together growing evidence about [everything] that affects how successful those choices can be."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-090622-024705">Annual Review of Economics</a>.



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Global deforestation crisis: How can we stop massive forest losses?

Imagine the sheer magnitude if entire countries like France, Germany,...

View,From,The,Mariana,Trench,,The,Deepest,Depths,In,The

In a recent study, experts describe a new virus that was found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-meltwater-sediments-speed-up-ice-loss-in-greenland/">sediment</a> dug up from the Mariana Trench, the world’s deepest oceanic chasm. The research team was led by marine virologist Dr. Min Wang from the <a href="http://eweb.ouc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean University of China</a> in Qingdao.



"Viruses play crucial roles in the ecosystem by modulating the host community structure, mediating biogeochemical cycles, and compensating for the metabolism of host cells," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-microorganisms-nbsp">Unique microorganisms&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariana Trench</a>, the world’s deepest hadal habitat, harbors a variety of unique microorganisms that have adapted to its extreme conditions of low temperatures, high pressure, and nutrient scarcity.&nbsp;However, our knowledge about isolated hadal phage strains in the hadal trench is still limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deepest-known-isolated-phage">Deepest known isolated phage</h2>



According to the researchers, the newly discovered virus targets bacteria that are usually found in deep ocean.&nbsp;



Sourced from a depth of 8,900 meters in the trench, this bacteriophage stands as the "deepest known isolated phage in the global ocean,” said Wang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteriophages">Bacteriophages</h2>



Bacteriophages, or simply phages, are viruses that thrive by infecting and replicating inside of bacterial cells. Often overlooked, these phages are believed to outnumber any other life form on Earth.&nbsp;



The virus targets the Halomonas bacteria, which are commonly associated with deep-sea sediment and hydrothermal vents – underwater geysers that spout heated water from the Earth's crust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Wang said the group’s analysis of the viral genetic material points to existence of a previously unknown viral family in the deep ocean, as well as new insights into the diversity, evolution and genomic features of deep-sea phages and phage-host interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study builds on previous research where metagenomic analysis was employed to delve into viruses that prey on bacteria, particularly those within the Oceanospirallales order, including Halomonas.&nbsp;



For the analysis, the researchers collaborated closely with marine virologist Dr. Yu-Zhong Zhang, who focuses on microbial life in the world's most extreme habitats. The experts looked for viruses in bacterial strains collected and isolated by Dr. Zhang’s tram.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, the genomic structure of the newly discovered virus, labeled as vB_HmeY_H4907, indicates its widespread presence in the oceans and reveals its symbiotic coexistence with its host.&nbsp;



Unlike many viruses, this particular phage is lysogenic, meaning it typically doesn't kill its bacterial host. Instead, as the bacteria multiply, so does the viral genetic material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



With this discovery, Wang emphasized the need to further explore the interactions and survival strategies of viruses in these harsh, secluded realms.&nbsp;



Wang said the group plans to investigate the molecular machinery that drives interactions between deep-sea viruses and their hosts.&nbsp;



The researchers are also searching for other new viruses in extreme places, “which would contribute to broadening our comprehension of the virosphere,” Wang said. “Extreme environments offer optimal prospects for unearthing novel viruses.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/spectrum.01912-23">Microbiology Spectrum</a>.



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New virus discovered in the deepest part of the ocean

In a recent study, experts describe a new virus that...

Researchers have discovered a potential link between the consumption of ultra-processed foods, particularly those containing artificial sweeteners, and an elevated risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-increases-the-risk-of-stroke/">depression</a>.



While ultra-processed foods have been associated with physical health issues such as heart attacks, strokes, and hypertension, this is the first comprehensive study to hint at a possible correlation with increased instances of depression.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-artificial-sweeteners-and-mental-health">Studying artificial sweeteners and mental health</h2>



The findings are drawn from data encompassing more than three decades of dietary and mental health records of over 30,000 middle-aged women. All participants initially did not have any diagnosed depression.&nbsp;



The study, executed jointly by <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> and <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/">Harvard Medical School</a>, observed the dietary habits of these women from 2003 to 2017.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The researchers meticulously analyzed consumption patterns of various ultra-processed foods, including grain foods, sweet and savory snacks, ready-made meals, beverages with artificial sweeteners, processed meat, dairy products, fats, and sauces.



Adjustments were made for potential confounders such as socioeconomic status, lifestyle choices, and other health-related factors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-nbsp">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2809727">JAMA Network Open</a>, indicated a staggering 49% elevated risk of developing depression in those who consumed nine or more portions of ultra-processed foods daily, compared to those who ingested fewer than four portions.



Moreover, individuals who decreased their ultra-processed food consumption by at least three servings daily showcased a diminished risk of depression compared to those maintaining a consistent intake.



The researchers highlighted a notable observation regarding artificial sweeteners. Experimental studies have hinted that these sweeteners might instigate specific signaling mechanisms within the brain, pivotal for mood regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research-on-artificial-sweeteners">More research on artificial sweeteners</h2>



However, experts in the field voiced varying opinions on the findings. Keith Frayn, a distinguished professor from the University of Oxford, emphasized the conspicuous connection between artificial sweeteners and depression, advocating for further investigations into this matter.&nbsp;



“The relationship between artificial sweeteners and depression stands out clearly. This adds to growing concerns about artificial sweeteners and cardiometabolic health. The link with depression needs confirmation and further research to suggest how it might be brought about,” said Professor Frayn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underlying-predisposition">Underlying predisposition?</h2>



Professor David Curtis from the University College London Genetics Institute commented that the sole dietary component linked with an elevated depression risk in the study was artificial sweeteners.&nbsp;



He added that higher consumption might be an outcome of an underlying predisposition towards depression rather than a direct cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study-nbsp">Significance of the study&nbsp;</h2>



“The strength of our study is that we were able to assess diet several years before the onset of depression. This minimizes the likelihood that our findings are simply due to individuals with depression being more likely to choose ultra-processed foods," said study co-author Professor Andrew T. Chan from Massachusetts General Hospital.



The research lays the foundation for more in-depth explorations into the potential implications of dietary choices on mental health. With depression becoming increasingly prevalent globally, understanding such connections could be pivotal in preventive strategies and holistic well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-future-of-artificial-sweeteners">Implications for the future of artificial sweeteners</h2>



“These findings suggest that greater ultra-processed foods intake, particularly artificial sweeteners and artificially sweetened beverages, is associated with increased risk of depression,” the authors concluded.



“Experimental studies have shown that artificial sweeteners may trigger the transmission of particular signaling molecules in the brain that are important for mood.”



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Artificial sweeteners linked to higher risk of depression

Researchers have discovered a potential link between the consumption of...

NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has unveiled a magnificent bridge of gas and dust suspended between two galaxies poised on the brink of convergence. This celestial bridge, a connector of galactic proportions, has been identified within a system named Arp 107.



A joint mission by <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and the <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> (ESA), the Hubble Space Telescope’s mission's primary objective is to focus on the lesser-known members of Arp 107. The system, located approximately 465 million light-years away from our planet, holds some intriguing secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seyfert-galaxy-in-arp-107">Seyfert Galaxy in Arp 107</h2>



Prominently featured in the recently captured image is a Seyfert Galaxy – a unique celestial entity characterized by its active galactic nucleus. Dominated by a large spiral arm that gracefully arches around its core, the Seyfert Galaxy is a marvel to behold. 



This spiral arm gleams brilliantly, thanks to the numerous nascent stars dotting its length. Interestingly, the birth and luminance of these stars are facilitated by the rich reserve of materials sourced from the smaller galaxy, with which it is on the verge of merging.



However, the wonders of the Seyfert Galaxy don't just end there. Its active galactic nuclei present a dazzling display, a radiant glow indicative of materials being consumed by the central black hole. Such is the intensity of this radiation that it can potentially overshadow the collective luminance of every single star within the galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fainter-galaxy-is-being-eaten">Fainter galaxy is being eaten</h2>



Contrasting the Seyfert Galaxy is the smaller galaxy. While its core is quite bright, its spiral arms are considerably fainter, suggesting the process of its absorption into the larger Seyfert Galaxy.



ESA officials shed light on the significance of Seyfert galaxies in a recent statement: "Seyfert galaxies are notable because despite the immense brightness of the active core, radiation from the entire galaxy can be observed. This is evident in this image, where the spiraling whorls of the whole galaxy are readily visible. Part of the intention of the observing programme was to provide the public with images of these spectacular and not-easily-defined galaxies."



But what adds another layer of intrigue to this discovery is that both these galaxies are constituents of Arp 107. This system is an integral member of the 'Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies', a compilation made back in 1966 by Halton Arp.



The recent photo, apart from its breathtaking beauty, also offers a profound understanding of the cosmos, its mysteries, and the grandeur of celestial evolution. As these galaxies inch closer to a merger, the anticipation is palpable – what wonders and secrets will the union of these two entities unveil? Only time, and perhaps further Hubble observations, will tell.



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New Hubble image captures two merging galaxies in Arp 107

NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has unveiled a magnificent bridge of...

Serious,Calm,Careful,Young,Black,Mom,Sitting,On,Sofa,Bed

Researchers at <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/our-community/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Grossman School of Medicine</a> have shed new light on the biology behind a mother's ability to release breast milk in response to her baby's cries. 



Published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06540-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal Nature</a>, the study explores the complex neurological processes that occur in mothers upon hearing the sound of their newborns' wails, triggering a surge of oxytocin -- the hormone responsible for milk ejection. The research may pave the way for novel interventions for mothers who struggle with breastfeeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-about-breast-milk-release">Key findings about breast milk release</h2>



Historically, it has been observed in humans and other mammals that a baby's cries alone can prompt its mother to release <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-pass-a-unique-set-of-breast-milk-antibodies-to-her-baby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breast milk</a>. However, this is the first study to delve into the underlying mechanisms at play.



According to the study's findings, the cry of a mouse pup travels as sound information to a specific area in the mother's brain known as the posterior intralaminar nucleus of the thalamus (PIL). This sensory hub then signals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-promotes-cooperation-among-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin</a>-releasing neurons in the hypothalamus, a key control center for hormone activity. 



This surge of hormones lasts for approximately five minutes, which is usually enough time for the infant to feed until they are full or resume crying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-lockdowns-and-gatekeepers">Molecular lockdowns and gatekeepers</h2>



The researchers also found that under normal conditions, the hypothalamus neurons are restricted by proteins that act as gatekeepers to prevent false alarms and wasted milk. However, after 30 seconds of consistent crying, signals from the PIL accumulate enough to overpower these proteins, initiating the release of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-satisfaction-increases-with-age-thanks-to-oxytocin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin</a>.



“Our findings uncover how a crying infant primes its mother’s brain to ready her body for nursing,” said study co-lead author Habon Issa, a graduate student at <a href="https://nyulangone.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Langone Health</a>. “Without such preparation, there can be a delay of several minutes between suckling and milk flow, potentially leading to a frustrated baby and stressed parent.”



This study deployed a relatively new type of molecular sensor, iTango, to measure actual oxytocin release from brain cells in real time, marking a significant advance in the field. Previously, researchers relied on indirect measurements, as oxytocin degrades rapidly due to its small molecular size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-nursing-implications-for-parenting-behavior">Beyond nursing: Implications for parenting behavior</h2>



Another fascinating discovery was that the oxytocin boost only occurs in mother mice and not in females who have never given birth. Furthermore, the study found that the mother's brain circuitry was only activated by the cries of her own pups and not by computer-generated tones mimicking natural wails.



The researchers extended their study to assess the impact of this brain circuitry on maternal behavior. They discovered that inhibiting the PIL's communication with oxytocin neurons led to mothers tiring and ceasing to fetch their straying young. However, when this system was reactivated, the mothers persevered despite their fatigue.



“These results suggest that the crying-prompted brain circuit is not only important for nursing behavior, but also for maintaining a mother’s attention over time and encouraging effective care of her young even when she is exhausted,” said study senior author <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/faculty/robert-c-froemke" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Robert C. Froemke</a>, who also emphasized the potential human applications of these findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caveats-and-future-directions">Caveats and future directions</h2>



It's important to note that the study focused on hormone release, rather than the act of lactation itself. Dr. Froemke expressed that understanding how this oxytocin system functions -- or malfunctions -- in humans may offer new insights into aiding mothers who face difficulties with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutrition-for-neurons-the-role-of-breast-milk-in-shaping-our-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breastfeeding</a>.



This seminal study provides invaluable insights into the sensory experiences and neural pathways that enable mothers to nurse their young. As we learn more about these processes, we move a step closer to helping human mothers who struggle with the natural, yet sometimes challenging, act of breastfeeding.



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What triggers the release of breast milk in mothers?

Researchers at NYU Grossman School of Medicine have shed new...

3d,Illustration.,Mind,Halo,Series.,Virtual,Human,Head,Against,Background

Although scientists have long known that living things act with purpose, the origins of the sense of purpose has remained a mystery.&nbsp;



Fundamental questions of agency (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-voice-gives-us-a-greater-sense-of-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acting with purpose</a>) - such as where does purpose come from and how do humans make sense of their relation with the environment and realize their capacity to change things around them - have puzzled experts like Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Erwin Schrödinger, or Niels Bohr for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infants-and-a-sense-of-purpose">Infants and a sense of purpose</h2>



Now, by using an unusual and largely untapped source – human infants – a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) has shed new light into the origins of agency.&nbsp;



Since goal-directed agency emerges in the first months of life, the scientists used human infants as a case study to clarify how spontaneous movement transforms into purposeful action.



The infants started the experiment as disconnected observers. Yet, when the researchers connected one of the infants’ feet to a crib-mounted baby mobile, infants soon discovered that they could make the mobile move.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-agency">The birth of agency</h2>



In order to uncover the dynamic and coordinative features marking the “birth of agency” the experts measured infant and mobile movement in three-dimensional space by employing state-of-the-art motion capture technology.&nbsp;



The analysis and dynamic modeling of these experiments suggests that agency arises from the coupled relation between the organism (infant) and the environment (mobile).&nbsp;



More specifically, when an infant’s foot is connected to the mobile, each foot movement causes the mobile to move. The more the mobile moves, the more the infant is stimulated to move, producing even more mobile motion, in a feedback process from which the sense of purpose emerges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intentional-behavior-nbsp">Intentional behavior&nbsp;</h2>



“Positive feedback amplifies and highlights the cause-and-effect relationship between infant and mobile motion,”&nbsp;said senior author Scott Kelso, an expert in Human Brain and Behavior at FAU’s&nbsp;<a href="https://ccs.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“At some critical level of coordination, the infant recognizes its causal powers and transitions from spontaneous to intentional behavior. This aha! moment is marked by an abrupt increase in infant movement rate.”



Aliza Sloan, a postdoctoral fellow in Kelso’s lab and the study’s lead author, developed a quantitative “aha! detector” to identify sudden increases in infant movement rate related to infants’ discovery of their sense of agency.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sense-of-purpose-is-a-dynamical-system">Sense of purpose is a dynamical system&nbsp;</h2>



This method provided proof that the birth of agency could be understood as a “eureka-like,” pattern-changing phase transition within a dynamical system spanning the infant, the brain, and the environment.&nbsp;



This system switches from a less correlated state to a state in which the movements of the mobile and the tethered foot are highly coordinated as the infant discovers its functional connection with the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coordination-dynamics-nbsp">Coordination dynamics&nbsp;</h2>



Although such experimental setups have been used in developmental psychology since the 1960s, studies traditionally focused only on infant activity, treating the infant and the environment as two separate entities.&nbsp;



By contrast, this new study frames agency as an emergent property from the functional coupling between the organism and the environment, and describes it through the lens of Coordination Dynamics, a theory explaining how complex living beings resonate with the environment and how function and order emerge from such interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-organizing-process-nbsp">Self-organizing process&nbsp;</h2>



While scientists expected that infants would discover their control over the mobile through their coordinated action with the mobile, patterns of infant pausing were a striking discovery.&nbsp;



Thus, the emergence of agency appears to be a punctuated self-organizing process, with meaning found both in movement and stillness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-s-implications">Study's implications</h2>



“The babies in our study have revealed something really profound: that there is action in the midst of inaction, and inaction in the midst of action. Both provide meaningful information to the infant exploring the world and its place in it,” Kelso explained.&nbsp;



“The coordination dynamics of movement and stillness jointly constitute the unity of the baby’s conscious awareness – that they can make things happen in the world. Intentionally.”&nbsp;



The analysis also revealed that infants navigate functional coupling with the environment in different ways.&nbsp;



The scientists detected distinct clusters in the timing and degree of bursts of infant activity, suggesting that behavioral phenotypes (observable features) of agentive discovery do exist, and can be described through coordination dynamics.&nbsp;



In the future, this cutting-edge method could be used for preventive care and early treatment of infants at risk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306732120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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When do infants gain conscious awareness?

Although scientists have long known that living things act with...

Freshwater mussels, known for their sensitivity to water quality changes, may be at heightened risk due to the impacts of increasing sea levels on coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hypoxia-is-a-serious-problem-in-rivers-worldwide/">rivers</a>.&nbsp;



A recent investigation has shed light on the potential dangers that these species, along with other salt-sensitive organisms, face in the wake of climate-induced sea level changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The goal of the research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etc.5731">Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>, was to understand the threshold of sea salt concentration that could jeopardize the survival of juvenile mussels.&nbsp;



This information is crucial in understanding the implications of rising sea levels on these species and the ecosystems they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-salinity-levels-nbsp">Increased salinity levels&nbsp;</h2>



"Sea levels across the planet are rising, particularly along the eastern coast of the United States. Climate-induced sea level rise can result in the inundation and intrusion of seawater into freshwater drainages. This would alter salinity regimes and lead to the salinization of coastal freshwater ecosystems," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Increased salinity levels in freshwater can negatively affect freshwater-dependent species, including native mussels belonging to the order Unionida, which are highly sensitive to changes in water quality."&nbsp;



"Sea salt is largely made up of sodium and chloride ions, forming sodium chloride, a known toxicant to freshwater mussels. However, sea salt is a mixture that also contains other major ions, including potassium, sulfate, calcium, strontium, and magnesium, among others."



"Freshwater mussels exposed to sea salt would be exposed to each of the sea salt ions at the same time, resulting in a mixture toxicity effect. The mixture toxicity of these ions on early life stages of freshwater mussels is largely unknown because most research to date has evaluated individual salt ions in relative isolation."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



To investigate, the researchers conducted acute toxicity tests on early life stages (glochidia and juvenile) of three freshwater mussel species.&nbsp;



The southeastern coast of the US became the focal point of the study, given that this region has observed a consistent sea-level rise, ranging from 2 to 6mm annually.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that salt water is toxic to both glochidia and juvenile life stages of freshwater mussels, with glochidia being the most sensitive life stage.



This is consistent with previous research that has shown glochidia to be the most sensitive life stage and that glochidia are more sensitive to sodium chloride than juveniles, noted the researchers.



By identifying the toxic levels of salt water for mussels at different stages of their life cycle, the study offers a roadmap for conservation initiatives. Such insights could pave the way for developing better strategies that factor in the challenges of sea level rise and the subsequent saltwater intrusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Joseph McIver from North Carolina State University emphasized the global significance of the issue.&nbsp;



“Climate change represents a serious threat to our aquatic ecosystems worldwide and the organisms that live there,” said McIver.&nbsp;



“Protecting and conserving our already highly imperiled freshwater mussels is of paramount importance and our research on the effects of salinity and sea level rise will hopefully contribute valuable information toward these goals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The potential ramifications of sea level rise stretch beyond mussels and could reshape the balance of entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



As freshwater sources face the threat of increased salinity, a ripple effect may be felt throughout the food chain, impacting not only salt-sensitive species but also the larger web of life they support.



Protecting vulnerable species like freshwater mussels may be a small piece of a much larger puzzle, but it is a critical step towards preserving the delicate balance of our planet's ecosystems.



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How freshwater mussels are threatened by sea-level rise

Freshwater mussels, known for their sensitivity to water quality changes,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...