This,Is,A,3d,Illustration,Of,Cosmic,Microwave,Background,,Electromagnetic

Dark energy has long been seen as the invisible force behind our Universe’s accelerating expansion. This mysterious component was thought to make up nearly 70 percent of the cosmic energy budget. A new study, however, raises a different idea: maybe the Universe is expanding in a “lumpy” manner, which means dark energy might not be needed to explain those puzzling measurements of distant supernovae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-energy-and-expansion">Dark energy and expansion</h2>



For almost a century, scientists have assumed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-dark-energy-comes-from-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a> spreads out uniformly in every direction, with dark energy speeding up that expansion. The notion was adopted after researchers saw exploding stars, known as supernovae, appearing farther away than expected. 



When calculations showed that galaxies seemed to be drifting apart too quickly, dark energy became an easy placeholder for the unknown physics.



Professor <a href="https://profiles.canterbury.ac.nz/David-Wiltshire" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Wiltshire</a> from the <a href="https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canterbury</a> in Christchurch, New Zealand has been examining this challenge in more detail. 



His research team’s <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article/537/1/L55/7926647" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of supernova light curves suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-the-universe-may-reveal-secrets-of-dark-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a> may be more uneven than we assumed.



Their approach leads to a fresh explanation for the changes in light we see, one that focuses on how time passes differently in various gravitational conditions rather than appealing to an unseen substance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-many-have-relied-on-dark-energy">Why many have relied on dark energy</h2>



Dark energy has been tied to the so-called Lambda Cold Dark Matter model, or <a href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/univ_evol.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ΛCDM model</a>. 



This model has served as the bedrock of modern cosmology for decades. Scientists had no direct means to detect or measure dark energy, so they relied on the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/aca5fa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apparent acceleration</a> seen in distant supernovae. They also looked to patterns in the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Cosmic_Microwave_Background_CMB_radiation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cosmic Microwave Background</a>, which is often described as the faint afterglow of the Big Bang. 



Over the years, more data have hinted that there could be tension between early and recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expansion</a> rates, sparking serious questions about whether we are missing some major puzzle piece.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enter-the-timescape-model">Enter the timescape model</h2>



The new work supports something called the timescape model, which does not need dark energy to explain cosmic acceleration. Instead, it notes that local physics can vary depending on how mass is distributed. One clock drifting through a sparse region of the cosmos might tick faster than the same clock inside a galaxy packed with more gravitational pull. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/dark-energy_doesnt-exist_history-of-universe-graphic_credit-NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/dark-energy_doesnt-exist_history-of-universe-graphic_credit-NASA_1s.webp" alt="This graphic offers a glimpse of the history of the universe, as we currently understand it. The cosmos began expanding with the Big Bang but then around 10 billion years later it strangely began to accelerate thanks to a theoretical phenomenon termed dark energy. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1954661"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This graphic offers a glimpse of the history of the universe, as we currently understand it. The cosmos began expanding with the Big Bang but then around 10 billion years later it strangely began to accelerate thanks to a theoretical phenomenon termed dark energy. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The team’s findings were featured in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters.



“Our findings show that we do not need dark energy to explain why the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a> appears to expand at an accelerating rate,” noted Professor David Wiltshire, who led the study. 



He sees this approach as an opportunity to rethink the way we average cosmic expansion. “The Universe’s biggest mystery could be settled by the end of the decade,” Professor Wiltshire claimed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-tension-and-the-lumpy-universe">Hubble tension and the lumpy Universe</h2>



Part of the growing dispute involves something called the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble tension</a>.



<a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2020/09/aa33910-18/aa33910-18.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Measurements</a> of the early cosmos from the Cosmic Microwave Background suggest a certain rate of expansion, while observations of supernovae in the present day reveal a faster pace. This inconsistency has triggered re-examinations of old assumptions. Adding to that, the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/aca5fa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI</a>) has discovered that the standard ΛCDM model may not line up perfectly with some of its new high-precision data. Researchers are looking into models where dark energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">might change over time</a>, but the timescape idea takes a different path: it challenges the uniformity assumption at its core.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-dark-energy">Rethinking dark energy </h2>



If the Universe is lumpy, with matter clumping in some regions and emptier voids in others, then local gravitational effects might skew the calculations that gave dark energy its place in cosmic theory. <a href="https://www.astro.uvic.ca/~jwillis/teaching/astr405/astr405_lecture6.pdf?utm_blank" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Traditional equations</a> used to describe expansion were first introduced almost a hundred years ago, so some researchers argue that the Universe’s complex structures were overlooked. This new study insists that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniform expansion</a> might not be the full story. When you allow for different gravitational influences, dark energy becomes optional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-fresh-data">Looking ahead to fresh data</h2>



Several upcoming projects are on the horizon. 



The European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> satellite launched in July 2023, and future missions like the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/roman-space-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> promise more comprehensive observations of supernovae. The timescape team believes that at least 1,000 high-quality supernova measurements could be enough to show if their approach really works. 



If timescape ideas pass these tests, the so-called “biggest mystery” might get resolved sooner than people think.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, the Universe is more intricate than any simple map might reveal. If the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011MNRAS.413..367S/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timescape model</a> holds up under further scrutiny, there could be wide-ranging effects on cosmic models, especially those that rely on dark energy as a key ingredient. Astronomers, physicists, and cosmologists will be watching closely as more data come in from cutting-edge surveys and instruments. 



These results might bring clarity to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble tension</a> or uncover new clues about the structure and history of everything around us.



Dark energy has been the leading explanation for cosmic acceleration for decades. Yet, if local gravitational differences and variable clock speeds can account for what we see, the door may be open to a more nuanced story of cosmic growth. There is no shortage of skepticism within the scientific community, but unexpected solutions to old puzzles are often how we expand our understanding of the Universe. 



If the timescape approach stands the test of fresh observations, future textbooks might look a little different.



The full study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article/537/1/L55/7926647" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters</a>.



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Timescape: Dark energy doesn't exist, resulting in 'lumpy' universe expansion

Dark energy has long been seen as the invisible force behind our Universe’s accelerating expansion. This mysterious component was thought to make up nearly 70 percent of the cosmic energy budget.A new study, however, raises a different idea: maybe the Universe is expanding in a “lumpy” manner, which means dark energy might not be needed to explain those puzzling measurements of distant supernovae. Dark energy and expansion For almost a century, scientists have assumed that the cosmos spreads out uniformly in every direction, with dark energy speeding...

The narrative of life on Earth has been built upon billions of years of existence, with therapsids playing a crucial role in this evolutionary story.



These ancient creatures are the direct predecessors of one remarkable group: the mammals.



Mammals, relatively recent additions to the evolutionary timeline, trace their inception to nearly 200 million years ago, amidst the prolific era of dinosaurs.



However, even mammals have antecedents, all categorized under the collective term "therapsids."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-therapsids-the-basics">Understanding therapsids -- the basics</h2>



Therapsids thrived during the Permian period, which was over 250 million years ago. They came in all shapes and sizes, from small, nimble hunters to larger, plant-eating giants. 



What made therapsids special was their mix of reptile-like and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-will-happen-if-modern-large-mammals-become-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal-like features</a>, such as differentiated teeth and more advanced jaw structures, which set the stage for the evolution of true mammals later on.



For instance, therapsids had openings on the sides of their skulls to anchor jaw muscles, as well as structures in their jawbones that eventually evolved into the distinct middle ear bones found in mammals.



As time went on, therapsids started to dominate the land, filling niches that today’s mammals occupy. 



Some therapsids even showed early signs of having warm-blooded metabolisms and better ways to regulate their body temperatures, which are key traits of mammals. 



Unfortunately, most therapsids didn’t make it past the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>, the biggest mass extinction in Earth’s history. 



However, a few lineages survived and eventually evolved into the diverse mammals we see today. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorgonopsians-and-saber-teeth">Gorgonopsians and saber teeth</h2>



In a recently published paper, scientists are buzzing about the find of a lifetime -- an ancient therapsid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a>, potentially the most ancient of its kind, that hails from an era perhaps far older than any therapsid discovery thus far.



This fossil belongs to a group known as the "gorgonopsians," and its features suggest something akin to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mummified-baby-saber-toothed-cat-found-with-fur-and-toes-intact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed</a> predator with a slightly canine touch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/gorgonopsian_oldest-mammal-ancestor_saber-tooth-fossil_credit-Anna-Sole_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/gorgonopsian_oldest-mammal-ancestor_saber-tooth-fossil_credit-_1s.webp" alt="Saber tooth of the therapsids gorgonopsian (cast). Credit: Anna Solé / Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont" class="wp-image-1954542"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Saber tooth of the therapsids gorgonopsian (cast). Credit: Anna Solé / Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont</figcaption></figure>



The newly found fossil, yet to receive a species name, introduces an exciting anomaly into the therapsid fold.



Gorgonopsians, according to Ken Angielczyk, MacArthur Curator of Paleomammalogy at the Field Museum's <a href="https://nirc.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Negaunee Integrative Research Center</a>, are closer relatives to mammals than any other living species we are aware of.



"They don't have any modern descendants and, while they're not our direct ancestors, they're related to species that were our direct ancestors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-age-records">Breaking age records</h2>



Prior to this discovery, the record for the oldest known gorgonopsian was set at approximately 265 million years. 



The new fossil, however, has potentially pushed this benchmark back even further, dating back to somewhere between 270 and 280 million years ago.



"It is most likely the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorgonopsian</a> on the planet," proclaims Josep Fortuny, a senior author of the study and head of the Computational Biomechanics and Evolution of Life History group at Spain's Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont (<a href="https://www.icp.cat/index.php/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICP</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-amount-of-bones">Surprising amount of bones</h2>



The surprising find was unearthed on the Mediterranean island of Mallorca, which is part of modern-day Spain.



During the age of the gorgonopsians, however, Mallorca was a strip of land nestled within the supercontinent of Pangea. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/gorgonopsian_oldest-mammal-ancestor_fossil-fragment-outline_credit-Nat-Commun_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/gorgonopsian_oldest-mammal-ancestor_fossil-fragment-outline_credit-Nat-Commun_1s.webp" alt="The silhouette of the described animal showing the different anatomical elements recovered during the excavation. Credit: Eudald Mujal / SMNS" class="wp-image-1954540"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The silhouette of the described animal showing the different anatomical elements recovered during the excavation. Credit: Eudald Mujal / SMNS</figcaption></figure>



“The large number of bone remains is surprising. We have found everything from fragments of skull, vertebrae, and ribs to a very well-preserved femur," explains Rafel Matamales, curator of the Museu Balear de Ciències Naturals (MUCBO | MBCN), research associate at the ICP, and first author of the study.



"In fact, when we started this excavation, we never thought we would find so many remains of an animal of this type in Mallorca.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-past">A glimpse into the past</h2>



These skeletal remnants have allowed scientists to piece together what this ancient beast might have looked like. 



"If you saw this animal walking down the street, it would look a little bit like a medium-sized dog, maybe about the size of a husky, but it wouldn't be quite right," detailed Angielczyk.



"It didn't have any fur, and it wouldn't have had dog-like ears," "But it’s the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-of-earths-earliest-animals-found-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oldest animal</a> scientists have ever found with long, blade-like canine teeth."



The elongated, blade-like canine teeth were a distinct feature, suggesting it was likely a top predator in its ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapsids-and-mammal-evolution">Therapsids and mammal evolution</h2>



The existence of this ancient gorgonopsian that predates its closest relatives by tens of millions of years, redefines when scientists believe therapsids first evolved.



This significant milestone also alters our understanding of the eventual emergence of mammals, shedding light on our own evolutionary history. 



"Before the time of dinosaurs, there was an age of ancient mammal relatives. Most of those ancient mammal relatives looked really different from what we think of mammals looking like today," acknowledges Angielczyk. 



"But they were really diverse and played lots of different ecological roles. The discovery of this new fossil is another piece of the puzzle for how mammals evolved."



---



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-54425-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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World's oldest mammal ancestor ever discovered had 'saber teeth'

The narrative of life on Earth has been built upon...

Extreme rainfall events, defined as the heaviest 5% of rain occurrences in a specific area, are increasing globally. 



As air temperatures rise, scientists expect such events to intensify because warmer air holds more moisture. Recent years have provided alarming examples, with more extreme rainfall fueling widespread flooding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-extreme-rainfall">What is extreme rainfall?</h2>



Extreme rainfall refers to precipitation events significantly heavier than average for a specific region or period. These events, often defined as the heaviest 5% or 10% of recorded rainfall, vary by location and are influenced by unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-gets-an-unpredictable-boost-from-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic conditions</a>.



Several meteorological factors drive extreme rainfall. Atmospheric rivers, narrow bands of concentrated moisture, often cause intense downpours. 



Tropical cyclones and convective storms - driven by rising warm, moist air - also contribute to heavy rainfall over localized or widespread areas.



Global warming intensifies these events, as the atmosphere can hold approximately 7% more moisture for every 1°C (1.8°F) rise in temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-extreme-rainfall">Impact of extreme rainfall</h2>



The frequency and severity of extreme rainfall have increased in recent decades, with significant impacts on ecosystems and communities. 



Beyond flooding, these events cause soil erosion, reduce agricultural productivity, contaminate water supplies through runoff, and increase the risk of landslides in vulnerable regions. 



Notable instances include Hurricane Harvey in 2017, which brought record rainfall to Texas, and the 2018 Kerala floods in India.



Predicting and mitigating the effects of extreme rainfall require advanced climate models, early warning systems, and sustainable infrastructure. 



Measures such as improved urban drainage systems and adaptive urban planning can help reduce damage and protect communities from the growing risks of extreme rainfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-extreme-rainfall">Unexpected pattern in extreme rainfall</h2>



When scientists studied the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy rainfall</a> and local temperatures in different regions, they discovered an unexpected trend. 



In tropical and mid-latitude areas, they observed that extreme rainfall events became less intense when the mean daily temperature exceeded 23°C–25°C (73.4°F–77°F).



This finding was surprising because the prevailing theory suggests that global warming should lead to more intense rainfall events due to increased evaporation and atmospheric moisture. 



Instead of aligning with this theory, the data showed a decline in rainfall intensity at higher temperatures, raising questions about the factors influencing these regional patterns. This result highlights the complex and region-specific nature of climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-effect-of-clouds">Cooling effect of clouds</h2>



Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry identified clouds as the key reason behind this puzzling discrepancy.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rain</a> forms from clouds, which not only produce precipitation but also block sunlight, cooling the ground beneath them. 



This cooling effect alters the recorded air temperature, creating a bias in the observed link between rainfall intensity and temperature. 



The phenomenon is especially noticeable in tropical regions, where clouds reflect large amounts of sunlight back into space. This reflection amplifies the cooling effect, further complicating the interpretation of temperature and rainfall data in these areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-extreme-rainfall">Factors behind extreme rainfall </h2>



In a study published in&nbsp;Nature Communications, the researchers devised a method to remove the cooling effect of clouds from mean air temperature data. 



The experts utilized satellite-derived radiation datasets to refine their analysis. Once they corrected for the cloud-induced bias, the relationship between extreme rainfall rates and rising temperatures aligned closely with theoretical predictions and climate model projections.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"This confirms what is widely expected: Extreme rainfall intensifies in a globally warmer climate," noted Dr. Sarosh Alam Ghausi, lead author and PostDoc at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>. 



"While heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/september-2024-was-the-second-hottest-month-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> increases mostly everywhere, we found the largest increases in high temperature-driven heavy rainfall events in tropical humid areas such as in India, Northern Australia, and the Amazon."
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threat-of-flooding">Growing threat of flooding</h2>



As temperatures continue to rise due to climate change, extreme rainfall events are likely to become even more intense. 



Without proactive measures, the risk of devastating floods increases significantly. The findings highlight the need for adaptive strategies to address these heightened risks.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"These results support the physical expectations that the whole hydrological cycle becomes more intense and extreme with warmer temperatures," noted Dr. Axel Kleidon, senior author and group leader at the Max Planck Institute.



"We will not only see more extreme rainfall rates, but also more intense and longer dry spells in the future."
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-warming-on-extreme-rainfall">Impact of warming on extreme rainfall </h2>



This study resolves a key uncertainty in understanding how extreme rainfall responds to warming temperatures. 



By accounting for and removing the biases caused by cloud-induced cooling, the researchers confirmed that extreme rainfall patterns align with established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate predictions</a>. 



The results highlight a crucial reality: as global warming intensifies, the hydrological cycle becomes more extreme. This means heavier rainfall events in some regions, alongside longer and more severe droughts in others. 



With climate change progressing rapidly, these findings emphasize the urgent need for societies to adapt and prepare for increasingly volatile and extreme weather conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55143-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Extreme rainfall increases as a direct result of global warming

Extreme rainfall events, defined as the heaviest 5% of rain...

Have you ever noticed how plants wilt visibly during a dry spell? Now, imagine that happening on a much larger scale, affecting entire ecosystems. It's easy to overlook how deeply wildlife depends on rainfall - until a severe drought strikes, leaving a lasting and significant impact.



A recent study reveals that wildlife in the continental United States will face a staggering increase in year-long and multi-year droughts in the coming decades. 



Specifically, year-long droughts are expected to become nearly five times more common from 2050 to 2080 compared to historical levels (1950–2005). Even more dramatically, the frequency of three-year droughts could increase nearly sevenfold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-frequency-and-greenhouse-gases">Drought frequency and greenhouse gases</h2>



“The degree of increased drought exposure for each species in our analysis strongly depends on future greenhouse gas concentrations,” explained Dr. Merijn van den Bosch, the lead author of the study.



The research highlights a grim reality: even with lower greenhouse gas emissions, virtually all vertebrate species will face increased exposure to prolonged droughts. This spells trouble for species already struggling to adapt to occasional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought conditions</a>.



“For example, the endangered giant kangaroo rat, which is native to dry habitats in California, has adapted to occasional short droughts,” noted Dr. van den Bosch.



“However, populations can plummet after multi-year droughts, compounding existing threats, including a loss of nearly all their historic habitat.”



This study predicts that much of the remaining habitat for the giant kangaroo rat will soon experience more frequent and longer droughts. “That does not bode well for this already-endangered species,” said van den Bosch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-in-wildlife-management">Drought in wildlife management </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drought conditions</a> are not just a concern for endangered species. The ranges of many game animals - such as ducks, other waterfowl, and ungulates like elk - are also projected to face a significant increase in year-long and three-year droughts.



This trend poses challenges for wildlife management and conservation efforts, potentially disrupting ecosystems and hunting industries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-hotspots-under-threat">Biodiversity hotspots under threat</h2>



To help mitigate the impact of these changes, the researchers focused on areas with high biodiversity and significant projected increases in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought frequency</a>.



By identifying these regions, they aim to guide adaptive water management and habitat restoration efforts to protect wildlife more effectively.



The scientists used advanced modeling to predict temperature and moisture scenarios based on six different climate projections. They compared these projections with the geographic ranges of 349 bird, 339 mammal, 280 amphibian, and 253 reptile species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-most-drought-threatened-region">The most drought-threatened region</h2>



The study revealed that the southwestern United States stands out as the most drought-threatened region.



After adjusting for land area, the Southwest had the highest biodiversity, the most drought-threatened species, and the greatest predicted increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-sensors-can-detect-dehydration-before-it-destroys-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought exposure</a>.



“Some of the areas expected to see the greatest increase in drought, such as the southwestern U.S., are already quite dry,” said Dr. Zack Steel, senior author of the study. 



“Many species living in these regions are adapted to periodic droughts, but the concern is that if they are already near the limit of what they can tolerate, the large increase in drought we’re expecting can have grave consequences for these ecosystems and the wildlife that depend on them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-wildlife-in-drought-prone-regions">Protecting wildlife in drought-prone regions</h2>



This research highlights the urgent need for proactive measures to address the escalating challenges posed by drought. Adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water management</a>, habitat restoration, and conservation strategies tailored to drought-prone regions could help mitigate the impact on wildlife.



The study was conducted by Dr. Merijn van den Bosch, a post-doctoral scientist at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> and the Rocky Mountain Research Station, and senior author Dr. Zack Steel, a research ecologist with the <a href="https://research.fs.usda.gov/rmrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a>. 



Their work highlights the pressing need for innovative approaches to safeguard wildlife in an era of increasing environmental stress.



The message is clear: addressing the root causes of climate change while implementing conservation strategies is essential to protecting vulnerable species. 



As droughts become a more frequent feature of life in the United States, their effects on ecosystems and wildlife cannot be ignored.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01880-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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Wildlife will struggle to adapt to increasing droughts in the U.S.

Have you ever noticed how plants wilt visibly during a...

The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets about its formation. Among its fascinating residents is Chiron, a centaur orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune. 



New findings by scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) shed light on this hybrid of comet and asteroid, revealing unprecedented insights into its surface chemistry and activity.



The study was led by Dr. Noemí Pinilla-Alonso of the University of Oviedo and Dr. Charles Schambeau from the University of Central Florida (UCF). Their findings could reshape our understanding of centaurs and the solar system’s early history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-capsules-of-the-solar-system">Time capsules of the solar system </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-objects-called-centaurs-29p-continue-to-perplex-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centaurs</a> are objects with dual characteristics, straddling the line between asteroids and comets. 



Chiron, discovered in 1977, is unique even among centaurs. It exhibits comet-like behavior, including a coma - a cloud of gas and dust - alongside distinct surface and interior features.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso emphasizes that centaurs act as “time capsules,” preserving information about the solar system’s formation. "All small bodies in the solar system talk to us about how it was back in time,” she explained. 



Chiron’s activity, driven by solar heating, offers a rare opportunity to explore these preserved secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-chemical-diversity-in-a-centaur">Unprecedented chemical diversity in a centaur</h2>



Using <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>, the team discovered that Chiron's surface hosts carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide ice. Its coma contains methane and other gases, marking the first detection of such diversity in a centaur. 



“These results are like nothing we’ve seen before,” noted Dr. Schambeau from <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCF</a>.



JWST’s advanced capabilities allowed the researchers to study Chiron even at its farthest point from the Sun. This distance usually limits the activity of similar objects, such as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comet-will-be-visible-for-the-first-time-in-50000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> closer to the Sun, Chiron’s thinner coma offers clearer insights into its surface chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chiron-s-ice-and-gas-dynamics">Chiron's ice and gas dynamics</h2>



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that Chiron’s dual nature makes it invaluable for studying processes in both comets and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a>. 



"What is unique about Chiron is that we can observe both the surface and the coma,” she said.



This dual observation provides critical information about the ice layer's thickness, porosity, and chemical properties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1s.webp" alt="Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida." class="wp-image-1954508"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida.</figcaption></figure>



JWST’s observations revealed the coexistence of primordial ices, such as methane and water, and newer compounds formed through surface processes. 



“Every active centaur we observe shows some peculiarity,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso. Understanding these peculiarities may uncover patterns across these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-lifetime-comet-will-be-easily-visible-this-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enigmatic objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-oddball-among-centaurs">An oddball among centaurs</h2>



Chiron stands out due to its unusual behavior, including comet-like activity and potential rings of debris. 



Dr. Schambeau describes it as “an oddball” with a unique thermophysical process. He analyzed methane in Chiron’s coma, linking its outflow to sun-heated regions on its surface.



These findings deepen our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-chiron_debris-disk_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">centaurs’ evolution and behavior</a>. 



Chiron’s dynamic environment provides clues about how solar heating influences its surface and subsurface, offering a glimpse into processes shaping similar bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-future-of-chiron">Origins and future of Chiron</h2>



Chiron likely originated in the TNO region before moving into its current orbit. Gravitational interactions with giant planets alter the paths of centaurs, exposing them to varied environments.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso explained that centaurs typically remain in the giant planets’ region for about a million years before being ejected. “They may end their lives as Jupiter Family comets or return to the TNOs region."



Chiron’s journey across the solar system exposes it to solar radiation, driving surface changes and creating its unique chemical composition. 



Understanding this evolution provides valuable insights into the early solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-chiron-s-discovery">Broader implications of Chiron’s discovery</h2>



The study’s implications extend beyond Chiron. Identifying gases and ices on distant objects enhances our understanding of the solar system’s building blocks. 



These findings could also inform future research on centaurs and other icy bodies.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that JWST’s spectra revealed intricate details about Chiron’s ices and their interactions. "Based on our new JWST data, I’m not so sure we have a standard centaur."



Further studies may uncover shared traits among centaurs, offering a clearer picture of their origins and diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-more-about-centaurs">Learning more about centaurs</h2>



The researchers from <a href="https://www.uniovi.es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oviedo</a> and UCF plan to continue observing Chiron as it approaches the Sun.



Closer proximity will enable more detailed studies of its surface and coma, potentially uncovering new chemical and physical properties.



Future research may also explore seasonal variations and illumination effects on Chiron’s ice reservoir. Such studies could refine our understanding of how centaurs interact with their environments and evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mysteries-of-the-solar-system">Unveiling the mysteries of the solar system</h2>



The JWST, an international collaboration led by NASA, has revolutionized space science. 



Its ability to observe distant objects like Chiron is solving long-standing mysteries about the solar system and beyond. These discoveries highlight the telescope’s transformative impact on planetary science.



“JWST has made these detections accessible. These results enhance our understanding of Chiron’s interior composition and its unique behaviors,” concluded Dr. Schambeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-solar-system-exploration">New chapter in solar system exploration</h2>



Chiron’s unique chemistry and activity mark a significant milestone in understanding the solar system’s origins. 



The ongoing research, powered by JWST’s capabilities, promises to unravel more secrets about this enigmatic centaur and its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">counterparts</a>.



Through Chiron, scientists are not just uncovering the past - they are laying the groundwork for future exploration of icy bodies across the solar system.



“The analysis of Chiron’s gases and ices opens new frontiers and opportunities for exciting research,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/12/aa50124-24/aa50124-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Rare asteroid-comet hybrid is unlike anything ever seen before

The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets...

Mexican,Ajolote,Or,Ambystoma,Mexicanum,Or,Old,Amphibian

You may have come across axolotls - those smiling amphibians with pink, plume-like gills - in pet stores, as plush toys, or even featured in video games. 



Yet, their growing presence in popular culture has emerged just as the wild population of this remarkable species faces critical endangerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-axolotls-have-become-a-cultural-icon">Axolotls have become a cultural icon</h2>



James Monaghan, a biology professor at <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a>, has long studied axolotls and their extraordinary regenerative capabilities. “Axolotls have just exploded in popularity the past couple of years,” he said. 



Monaghan recalled that when he began his PhD studies, the general public had little idea what an axolotl was.&nbsp;



“No one knew in the general public what an axolotl was, so I'd have to explain,” he remembered, contrasting that with today’s situation: “Now I just can say, 'Oh, I work on axolotls,' and everyone just lights up.”



Monaghan noted that young people, in particular, have been drawn to axolotls, most likely due to their aesthetic charm.&nbsp;



“They're pink, they have feathers,” he said. “Well, they don't really have feathers, but their gills are feathery. They have a constant little smile on their face. If you were to create a cute animal that you couldn't think existed naturally, it's kind of the axolotl. It's got the vibes of a dragon, but a nice dragon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ancient-roots-to-gaming-stardom">From ancient roots to gaming stardom</h2>



The axolotl is no newcomer to cultural significance. “It's named after an Aztec god, Xolotl,” Monaghan explained, referencing its deep ties to Mexican heritage. Initially found in Lake Xochimilco near Mexico City, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian</a>’s recent surge in popularity has transcended borders.



Its presence in mainstream culture can be traced in part to its introduction into the world of Minecraft, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-violent-video-games-impact-the-human-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video game</a> of immense popularity.&nbsp;



“Minecraft is enormously popular for young players. The game allows for social play, exploration, sandbox style play where you can make anything,” said Northeastern assistant professor of computer science Alexandra To. By featuring axolotls, the game inspires curiosity and a desire to learn.&nbsp;



“Minecraft provides players great intrinsic motivation to discover more about any new elements that are added to the game,” To added.



In some cases, this might involve players constructing elaborate environments to house every in-game creature. “As my own partner did, in embarking on a project to create an enormous zoo with every in-world animal,” she remarked.



Monaghan suggests that axolotls may have also influenced other media. “I don't know if it's actually the motivation for 'How To Train Your Dragon,'” he said, pointing out that the character Toothless resembles an axolotl with its perpetual smile and ear-like flaps suggesting feathery gills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-axolotls-nbsp">Scientific significance of axolotls&nbsp;</h2>



While their looks and cultural presence have captured public affection, axolotls are scientifically remarkable as well. Their regenerative powers extend beyond limbs. Monaghan’s lab has found that they can regenerate a large portion or their lung.&nbsp;



“They are notoriously resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancers</a>, never get infections after an injury,” he said, and can live for up to two decades - qualities that have made them valuable subjects of study for generations.



“Axolotls are the longest standing lab animal of any animal, longer than flies, longer than worms, longer than mice,” Monaghan said. First collected in 1864 from Lake Xochimilco, their initial appeal stemmed from their unusual, fully aquatic life cycle.&nbsp;



Over time, they became critical for studies on genetics, development, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-light-on-the-pathways-of-plant-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>. With modern genetic tools like CRISPR, researchers can now pinpoint which genes drive their regenerative capabilities.



All lab and pet axolotls today descend from that original 19th-century population, and this lineage includes the distinct white axolotl familiar to fans worldwide.&nbsp;



“The white axolotl, which seems to be pretty much every stuffed animal that's out there, is actually a mutation of a single animal that was collected in 1864,” Monaghan explained. “You can get color variants, but the pink variety - that's from one founding animal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-in-peril">A species in peril</h2>



As axolotls capture hearts around the globe, their wild counterparts hover on the brink of extinction. Once, locals could easily scoop them from Lake Xochimilco’s waters.&nbsp;



“Maybe up to the 1950s, you could put a net in Lake Xochimilco, the canal system, and pull up adult axolotls. And then every decade since, it's just crashed,” Monaghan said. “To the point now that they're critically endangered, and it takes weeks to even find one.”



They are exquisitely sensitive to environmental changes. “Being an amphibian, you're at the whim of your environment. You're taking in everything through your water,” he explained.&nbsp;



Climate change warms these waters, making survival harder, while pollution and introduced species further destroy fragile habitats and devour axolotl eggs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-conservation">The challenge of conservation</h2>



Given their success in captivity, one might assume we could simply return these lab and pet lineages to Lake Xochimilco. But it’s not that simple.&nbsp;



“It's probably not the best strategy to take a species that's been inbred since 1864 and reintroduce it into its natural habitat,” Monaghan said.&nbsp;



The modern axolotl has adapted to controlled conditions, while its original environment has changed drastically.&nbsp;



“We can't take the current axolotl and put it into the environment in Mexico City and expect them to thrive the same way as the original collection in 1864. The environment's changed, but the animals themselves have changed.”



Still, rising awareness may help efforts to protect the axolotl’s wild habitat. According to To, the team behind Minecraft has embraced conservation as part of its mission.&nbsp;



“Mojang has been pretty transparent about conservation as one of their core values,” she explained. “The inclusion of axolotls and their in-game rareness mirroring their real-world endangered status is a fantastic example of how game mechanics can reinforce educational messages.”



Monaghan is involved as well, serving on the advisory board of the Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center to support both scientific understanding and conservation. “Those direct efforts could really go a long way toward saving the axolotl,” he said.



All this attention suggests that the axolotl’s time has arrived. “All of a sudden, it seems to be absolutely everywhere,” Monaghan said.&nbsp; Yet, for all the joy and fascination these creatures provide, the work to secure their future in the wild is only just beginning.



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Axolotls have exploded in popularity, but they are also fighting extinction

You may have come across axolotls - those smiling amphibians...

Ants are capable of amazing feats, such as moving objects many times their size. A team of researchers in South Korea has introduced a swarm of magnetic robots that can replicate the extraordinary abilities of ants - and take them even further.



These tiny marvels aren't just mimicking nature; they're set to revolutionize how we approach complex tasks, from medical applications to industrial solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-robots-for-big-tasks">Tiny robots for big tasks</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.hanyang.ac.kr/web/eng" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hanyang University</a> in Seoul, South Korea, have replicated the power of a colony of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> through an army of microbots. 



These tiny, magnetic robots can work together to perform tasks that would be impossible for a single robot. Peak performance by the microbots was observed when they were grouped in high aspect ratio assemblies.



These microbot armies proved capable of scaling obstacles five times their own length. They could even leap over obstacles one by one, like a sprinter jumping over a hurdle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mighty-microbots-in-action">Mighty microbots in action</h2>



Picture a battalion of 1,000 microbots forming a raft that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microrobots-tested-as-clean-up-crew-for-polluted-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floats on water</a>. This synthetic raft could wrap itself around an object like a pill that weighs in at a whopping 2,000 times the weight of a single microbot.



The raft allowed the microbots to "transport" the pill through a liquid medium. But their usefulness isn't limited to water-based tasks.



On dry land, the microbots could also transport cargo that was 350 times heavier than each individual bot.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="tBvsOuomdi-4152689-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-efforts-to-overcome-obstacles">Collaborative efforts to overcome obstacles</h2>



Inspiration for the design of the microbots was drawn from ants, which are known for their collaborative efforts to overcome obstacles and ensure their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective survival</a>.



Just like ants, these robots can perform their programmed tasks despite their individual failures, eventually achieving the goal through collective effort.



"Swarm robotics has emerged as a promising methodology for accomplishing complicated tasks through collective behavior of multiple robots," wrote the researchers.



"A key feature of swarm robotics is fault tolerance: while a single robot or multiple robots in a swarm may fail to complete an allocated mission, other robots continue to perform their programmed motions until the mission succeeds."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovation-in-robot-design">Innovation in robot design</h2>



Instead of using a conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-design-and-build-walking-robots-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot design</a>, the team opted for cube-shaped microbots.



The change in shape allowed a larger surface area - the entire face of each cube - to make contact. This enabled stronger magnetic attractions between the microbots.



Each of these microbots stands only 600 micrometers tall and contains ferromagnetic neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) particles. This unique design allows them to respond to magnetic fields and interact with their fellow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-cannot-outrun-animals-but-theyre-evolving-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a>.



Manipulating the angle at which these microbots were magnetized resulted in the formation of different configurations. 



According to study co-author Jeong Jae Wie, a cost-effective mass-production method involving onsite replica molding and magnetization was developed to ensure uniform geometry and consistent performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-microbot-swarms">Future of microbot swarms</h2>



Despite the promising results, there are still improvements to be made. 



Although the microbots can climb, throw things over an obstacle and lift objects, they currently require external magnetic control and lack the ability to navigate independently in complex spaces such as actual narrow arteries.



However, upcoming research aims to enhance the autonomy level of these microbot swarms, focusing on real-time feed control of their movements and trajectories.



The work of the South Korean scientists captures the beauty of innovation at its finest - turning the ordinary into extraordinary.



As we watch the future of medical technology unfold, one thing is clear - these mighty microbots are just the beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications-beyond-medicine">Potential applications beyond medicine</h2>



While the magnetic microbots are making waves in medical technology, their potential applications extend far beyond the confines of healthcare.



The tiny robots could revolutionize industries such as environmental cleanup and manufacturing.



For instance, their ability to form rafts and transport objects could be adapted to help collect microplastics in oceans or deliver precise doses of chemicals in agriculture.



Additionally, their magnetic responsiveness makes them ideal candidates for assembling intricate components in electronics or even assisting in delicate tasks like repairing machinery in hard-to-reach areas.



Future advances in microbot autonomy could enable them to navigate complex environments independently, opening doors to breakthroughs in swarm-based logistics systems, disaster response technologies, and more.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666998624005830" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Device</a>.



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Magnetic microbots can replicate the extraordinary abilities of ants

Ants are capable of amazing feats, such as moving objects...

It is a fascinating fact that a swirl of stars, light-years away from us, shares an uncanny resemblance to our home galaxy, the Milky Way.



A group of astronomers has stumbled upon a galaxy in the making that appears to be a mirror image of what our Milky Way might have resembled during its early stages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-firefly-sparkle-and-the-milky-way">Firefly Sparkle and the Milky Way </h2>



Nestled among the cosmos, this nascent galaxy, known as the "Firefly Sparkle," presents an awe-inspiring spectacle. Its unique similarity to a fledgling Milky Way has sparked curiosity among astronomers worldwide.



What makes this discovery even more interesting is the striking timeframe in which the galaxy seems to have come into existence - a mere 600 million years after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, the cosmic event that created the universe as we know it.



This is around the same era that our own galaxy started to form, which adds an additional layer of fascination.



The splendor of the Firefly Sparkle is vividly showcased through images that have been captured by NASA's James Webb Space Telescope.



The images reveal the spectacular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clusters of stars</a> that form the galaxy, each twinkling into existence at different periods. This multifarious formation is another attribute that the Firefly Sparkle shares with the Milky Way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-significance-of-the-discovery">The significance of the discovery</h2>



Study co-lead author Professor Lamiya Mowla, a distinguished astronomer at <a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellesley College</a>, emphasized the importance of the discovery.



"These remarkable images give us an unprecedented picture of what our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> might have looked like when it was being born," said Professor Mowla.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="8TcC2iHHun-4152626-12187" type="single"]</div>



Adding to the significance of the discovery, the size of the Firefly Sparkle mirrors the estimated mass of the Milky Way during its early developmental stages.



This feature sets the newly found galaxy apart from other celestial bodies detected in the same era, which are considerably larger in mass.



"By examining these photos of the Firefly Sparkle, we can better understand how our own Milky Way took shape," explained Professor Mowla.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-galaxies-in-the-early-universe">Evolution of galaxies in the early universe</h2>



The mission of observing and understanding the structure and evolution of astronomical bodies in the early universe is of paramount importance. 



This type of research requires a deep investigation into the development of stars, star clusters, galaxies, and galaxy clusters in the early universe and their transformation over time.



"I didn't think it would be possible to resolve a galaxy that existed so early in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> into so many distinct components, let alone find that its mass is similar to our own galaxy's when it was in the process of forming," said Professor Mowla.



The tiny Firefly Sparkle galaxy, with its wide array of star formation stages, is shedding new light on our own Milky Way and its past. The images will serve as the basis for extensive study and learning for years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-firefly-sparkle-and-galaxy-formation">Firefly Sparkle and galaxy formation</h2>



The discovery of the Firefly Sparkle is not just a marvel in itself but also a foundation for unraveling the broader mysteries of galaxy formation and evolution.



By analyzing its unique star clusters and mass distribution, astronomers can trace the intricate processes that likely occurred during the Milky Way's infancy. 



These findings allow scientists to refine existing models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, and offer a clearer timeline of how cosmic structures transitioned from chaotic gas clouds to the organized systems we see today.



Moreover, the Firefly Sparkle provides a rare opportunity to study star formation in an environment untouched by later cosmic influences, such as galactic mergers or dark matter interactions. 



This glimpse into a pristine galaxy in the early universe helps researchers identify the key factors that shaped not only the Milky Way but also other spiral galaxies scattered across the cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-the-james-webb-space-telescope">The power of the James Webb Space Telescope </h2>



As the James Webb Space Telescope prepares to reveal even greater insights, the Firefly Sparkle may mark the beginning of a series of unprecedented discoveries, each deepening our understanding of the universe's distant past.



“This is just the first of many such galaxies JWST will discover, as we are only starting to use these cosmic microscopes,” noted Maruša Bradač from the <a href="https://www.uni-lj.si/en/university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ljubljana</a>. 



“Just like microscopes let us see pollen grains from plants, the incredible resolution of Webb and the magnifying power of gravitational lensing let us see the small pieces inside galaxies.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08293-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)



Video Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center



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Young galaxy shows us what the early Milky Way looked like

It is a fascinating fact that a swirl of stars,...

The Moon, Earth’s eternal companion, continues to captivate scientists. Despite decades of research and lunar missions, one fundamental question remains unresolved: how old is the Moon? 



Current estimates suggest the Moon formed around 4.35 billion years ago, but some evidence hints at an older age that is closer to 4.51 billion years.



This discrepancy has fueled debates and inspired new research, including a recent study proposing that the Moon underwent a "volcanic facelift" billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-moon-s-age">Mystery of the Moon's age</h2>



Lunar rock samples brought back by missions like <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/apollo50th/missions.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Apollo</a> have provided crucial insights. These samples indicate that the Moon formed about 200 million years after the solar system’s formation.



However, this timeline seems inconsistent with the chaotic early days of the solar system, during which debris coalesced into planets. 



By the time the Moon supposedly formed, most debris had already merged into larger celestial bodies, making a late-forming Moon improbable.



Adding to the mystery, zircon minerals on the Moon suggest an age of up to 4.51 billion years. This mismatch between lunar rock ages and thermal models has puzzled researchers for years. 



Now, scientists may have an explanation: a massive remelting event caused by tidal forces could have "reset" the Moon's geological clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-tidal-heating">The role of tidal heating</h2>



In a paper published in the journal Nature, a team led by Professor Francis Nimmo from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a> explored how tidal forces may have reshaped the Moon's geological history.



“We predict that there shouldn't be any lunar rocks that are older than 4.35 billion years because they should have experienced the same resetting,” said Nimmo.



Tidal heating occurs when gravitational forces create internal friction within a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial body</a>, which generates heat. In the Moon's early history, its proximity to Earth likely amplified these effects.



The researchers propose that around 4.35 billion years ago, the Moon's orbit became unstable, leading to intense tidal forces. This caused widespread volcanic activity that altered the Moon’s surface and reset the age of its rocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-jupiter-s-moon-io">Insights from Jupiter's moon Io</h2>



The study draws parallels between the Moon’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-captured-the-moon-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past</a> and the current volcanic activity on Jupiter’s moon Io, the most volcanically active body in the solar system.



Io’s elliptical orbit around Jupiter creates tidal forces that heat its interior, driving constant eruptions. Similarly, early tidal heating could have caused the Moon’s mantle to churn, thus melting and reshaping its crust.



The intense volcanic activity likely erased evidence of earlier impacts and geological features. 



According to the researchers, this explains why fewer impact basins are visible on the Moon’s surface than are predicted by models for an older Moon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-the-moon-s-age">New perspective on the Moon's age</h2>



Using advanced modeling, Nimmo’s team showed that tidal heating events could have melted significant portions of the Moon’s crust, resetting the ages of most lunar rocks to around 4.35 billion years. 



This process left only a few heat-resistant zircons as remnants of the Moon's earlier history.



“The strong volcanism likely reset the Moon's geological clock,” said Thorsten Kleine, a co-author of the study.



The findings suggest that the Moon itself formed between 4.43 and 4.51 billion years ago, but intense volcanic activity reshaped its crust around 4.35 billion years ago.



This revised timeline resolves contradictions between lunar rock samples, thermal models, and the scarcity of impact basins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data-from-unexplored-lunar-regions">Valuable data from unexplored lunar regions</h2>



The study highlights the importance of tidal heating in shaping the Moon’s geological history. 



Nimmo emphasized the need for more detailed simulations and new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-lost-its-mini-moon-2024-pt5-may-have-come-from-our-main-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> samples to refine these findings. "We hope that our findings will spark further discussion and exploration,” he said. 



Upcoming missions, like China’s Chang’e 6, are expected to provide valuable data from previously unexplored lunar regions.



These fresh samples could confirm whether a global remelting event did indeed reset the Moon’s geological clock. 



The researchers also plan to investigate how tidal heating affected the Moon’s interior and surface composition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanism-reset-the-moon-s-age">Volcanism reset the Moon's age</h2>



The new findings offer a unifying explanation for several longstanding lunar mysteries. They indicate that volcanism may have reset the ages of lunar rocks and also erased evidence of early impacts and altered the composition of the Moon’s mantle.



“The new results mean that all the pieces of the puzzle that previously didn’t fit together now form a coherent overall picture of the Moon's formation,” said Kleine.



Determining the Moon’s age is crucial for understanding not just its history but also the broader story of the solar system. 



If the Moon’s true age remains elusive, it raises questions about the accuracy of dating methods used for other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-composition-of-moons-interior-core-its-not-green-cheese/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial bodies</a>. 



With ongoing and future lunar missions, scientists are hopeful that the Moon will finally reveal its secrets, illuminating the early history of our cosmic neighborhood.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08231-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Earth's moon is much older than we thought, according to new evidence

The Moon, Earth’s eternal companion, continues to captivate scientists. Despite...

Desert locusts are notorious for their ability to transform from solitary insects into devastating swarms under specific environmental conditions. 



Triggered by events like intense rainfall, these swarms can devastate crops, pushing food prices higher and leading to starvation and unrest. But now, a new study offers hope for controlling this menace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extent-of-the-problem">The extent of the problem</h2>



Locust swarms are one of nature's most destructive phenomena. Under favorable conditions, locusts form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/locusts-have-brains-built-for-complex-odor-processing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large groups</a>, known as swarms, that can devastate entire regions. 



These swarms can grow so massive that they resemble plagues, consuming staggering amounts of crops in their path.



To put this into perspective, a swarm covering just one square kilometer can eat enough food in a single day to feed 35,000 people.



This destruction severely impacts smallholder farmers, who rely on their crops for food and income. Regions like Africa and Asia, where food security is already fragile, are especially vulnerable. The loss of crops not only disrupts local economies but also threatens millions with hunger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-locust-swarms-are-becoming-more-frequent">Locust swarms are becoming more frequent </h2>



The problem is worsening due to climate change. Increased cyclones and heavy rainfall, driven by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-are-in-a-race-against-time-to-save-our-food-supply-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, create ideal breeding conditions for locusts. These events bring moisture to arid regions, encouraging vegetation growth that provides food for locusts. 



As a result, locust outbreaks are becoming more frequent and severe, posing an even greater threat to food security in vulnerable regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-locust-swarms-in-advance">Predicting locust swarms in advance</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> have developed a predictive model to tackle locust swarms.



Using weather forecast data from the UK <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a> and computational models of locust behavior, the system predicts where swarms will move in their search for food and breeding sites. The results enable early interventions, such as targeted pesticide applications.



"During a desert locust outbreak, we can now predict where swarms will go several days in advance, so we can control them at particular sites," said Dr. Renata Retkute, the lead researcher from Cambridge’s Department of Plant Sciences. 



"And if they're not controlled at those sites, we can predict where they'll go next so preparations can be made there."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-locust-control">New era of locust control</h2>



Until now, locust swarm predictions have been inconsistent. The researchers’ model represents a shift toward more effective responses. 



By integrating real-time data on locust lifecycles, breeding behaviors, and weather patterns, the model offers both short- and long-term predictions.



"The important thing is to respond quickly if there's likely to be a big locust upsurge, before it causes a major crop loss. Huge swarms can lead to really desperate situations where people could starve," said Professor Chris Gilligan, senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-locust-swarms">Lessons from past locust swarms</h2>



The urgency of this innovation stems from a massive locust upsurge from 2019 to 2021, which stretched from Kenya to India.



This event devastated key crops like wheat, maize, and sugarcane, leaving many communities struggling. The response was hampered by disjointed information, revealing the need for a comprehensive model.



"The response to the last locust upsurge was very ad-hoc, and less efficient than it could have been. We've created a comprehensive model that can be used next time to control this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating</a> pest," said Retkute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tested-and-reliable-tool">A tested and reliable tool</h2>



The new model has undergone rigorous testing using surveillance and weather data from the 2019-2021 upsurge. It now stands ready to inform surveillance, early warnings, and management strategies. 



The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (<a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>) and national agencies will use it to improve preparedness and response.



"Countries that haven’t experienced a locust upsurge in many years are often ill-prepared to respond, lacking the necessary surveillance teams, aircraft, and pesticides," noted the researchers. 



Climate change further complicates the picture, altering the movement and spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cicadas-set-to-emerge-in-historic-u-s-invasion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swarms</a>, making proactive measures like this model essential.



By combining advanced technology and comprehensive data, the predictive model will help mitigate the devastation caused by desert locust swarms. Using this tool, nations can act quickly and decisively, preventing crop loss and protecting food security for millions of people. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Locust swarms threaten food security for millions of people

Desert locusts are notorious for their ability to transform from...

A recent study sheds light on Mars's ancient past, revealing how variations in crustal thickness influenced the planet's magmatic evolution and hydrology.



This research challenges long-standing assumptions about Mars, and suggests that the thick crust under its southern highlands supported granitic magmas and underground aquifers billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-mars-s-dynamic-crust">Evolution of Mars’s dynamic crust</h2>



Led by Cin-Ty Lee of <a href="https://www.rice.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a>, the study uncovers the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’s southern highlands - where crustal thickness reached up to 80 kilometers (50 miles) during the Noachian and early Hesperian periods (3-4 billion years ago).



Advanced thermal modeling revealed that radioactive heating in these thick crustal regions caused partial melting in the lower crust, and produced felsic magmas like granites.



“Our findings indicate that Mars’s crustal processes were far more dynamic than previously thought,” said Lee.



“Not only could thick crust in the southern highlands have generated granitic magmas without plate tectonics, but it also created the thermal conditions for stable groundwater aquifers - reservoirs of liquid water - on a planet we’ve often considered dry and frozen.”



The research team used advanced computer models to simulate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions of the Martian</a> crust during its ancient epochs, focusing on three critical factors: radioactive heat generation, mantle heat flow, and crustal thickness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-granite-formation-on-mars">Granite formation on Mars</h2>



Radioactive elements in the crust naturally decayed, releasing heat over time, while additional warmth from the planet's mantle contributed to heating the crust from below. 



In areas where the crust exceeded 50 kilometers (31 miles) in thickness, this combination of factors led to partial melting of the lower crust. This process generated granitic magmas, which are rich in silica.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-underground-water-reservoirs">Stable underground water reservoirs </h2>



The heat flow from the thick crust also supported stable underground water reservoirs, or aquifers, beneath a frozen surface layer. These aquifers extended several kilometers below the surface, retaining liquid due to the sustained warmth in the thick crustal regions.



Occasionally, volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts may have disrupted these underground reservoirs, causing water to emerge onto the surface in episodic flooding events. 



The interplay between heat, crust dynamics, and water highlights a much more geologically active and hydrologically dynamic Mars than previously believed. The findings have major implications for the planet’s potential habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-granite-on-mars">Significance of granite on Mars</h2>



The research debunks the assumption that granites are unique to Earth’s plate tectonics and water recycling processes. 



“Granites aren’t just rocks; they’re geological archives that tell us about a planet’s thermal and chemical evolution,” said Rajdeep Dasgupta. 



“On Earth, granites are tied to tectonics and water recycling. The fact that we see evidence for similar magmas on Mars through deep crustal remelting underscores the planet’s complexity and its potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hosting life in the past</a>.”



Hidden beneath basaltic flows in the southern highlands, these granites offer crucial insights into Mars’s geological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-water-and-implications-for-habitability">Ancient water and implications for habitability</h2>



The study suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-makes-surprising-find-under-martian-rock-sulfur-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’s southern highlands may have been more hospitable to life in the past than scientists once believed.



Granitic magmas formed in these regions of the Martian crust are known to contain elements essential for life, such as potassium and phosphorus.



Additionally, the presence of stable underground water reservoirs beneath the highlands adds another layer when considering potential habitability. These liquid water aquifers, protected beneath a frozen surface layer, could have provided a stable environment for microbial life to exist.



The combination of these factors significantly changes how we view Mars’s potential to support life, offering new insights into the planet’s past environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roadmap-for-future-exploration">Roadmap for future exploration</h2>



The southern highlands present a promising target for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marss-space-debris-should-be-regarded-as-historical-artifacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> missions. Large craters and fractures in this region could expose hidden granitic rocks or ancient water reservoirs. 



“Every insight into Mars’s crustal processes brings us closer to answering some of the most profound questions in planetary science, including how Mars evolved and how it may have supported life,” noted study co-author Kirsten Siebach.



”Our research provides a roadmap for where to look and what to look for as we search for these answers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-complex-red-planet">A more complex Red Planet</h2>



This study paints a picture of Mars as a more dynamic and complex planet than previously imagined. 



The interplay of thick crustal regions, granitic magmas, and underground aquifers highlights a planet rich in geological and hydrological processes.



These discoveries could reshape our approach to studying Mars and our assessment of whether it could have hosted life in the distant past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X24005879?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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Mars has granite that contains the elements essential for life

A recent study sheds light on Mars's ancient past, revealing...

Like parents passing down their distinctive nose or eye color to their children, young planets were thought to be formed after inheriting their chemical makeup directly from the swirling disks of gas and dust that gave birth to them. But nature, it seems, had other plans.



A remarkable study led by Chih-Chun "Dino" Hsu, a postdoctoral associate at Northwestern University's Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), suggests that we still have alot to learn about how planets form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-front-row-seat-to-planet-formation">Front row seat to planet formation</h2>



Most planets that we find outside of our solar system are already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fully formed</a>, with their birth materials long since scattered to the cosmic winds.



That's what makes the PDS 70 system so special. Located 366 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this stellar nursery gives scientists a "front-row seat" to planet formation in action.



The system features two baby gas giants, similar to Jupiter, that are still in their formative years. At just 5 million years old, these planetary toddlers - named PDS 70b and PDS 70c - are still surrounded by their natal disks, the very materials from which they are forming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-surprise-in-a-forming-planet">Chemical surprise in a forming planet </h2>



When the research team studied PDS 70b's atmosphere, they found something unexpected. The ratio of carbon to oxygen didn't match what they saw in the surrounding disk of gas and dust.



"For observational astrophysicists, one widely accepted picture of planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a> was likely too simplified," said Hsu.



"According to that simplified picture, the ratio of carbon and oxygen gases in a planet's atmosphere should match the ratio of carbon and oxygen gases in its natal disk - assuming the planet accretes materials through gases in its disk. Instead, we found a planet with a carbon and oxygen ratio that is much lower compared to its disk."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faint-planets-next-to-bright-stars">Faint planets next to bright stars </h2>



Studying a planet that is forming next to its bright parent star is no small feat. It's like trying to spot a firefly next to a spotlight.



Jason Wang is an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> who co-developed the technology used in the study.



"These new tools make it possible to take really detailed spectra of faint objects next to really bright objects. Because the challenge here is there's a really faint planet next to a really bright star. It's hard to isolate the light of the planet in order to analyze its atmosphere," explained Wang.



The experts used specialized photonics technologies to capture the planet's spectrum - which is essentially its chemical fingerprint. This allowed the team to measure the amount of carbon monoxide and water in the atmosphere of PDS 70b, and calculate the ratio of carbon to oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-explanations-for-the-mismatch">Possible explanations for the mismatch</h2>



The mismatch between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-giant-planets-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's</a> composition and that of its natal disk poses an interesting puzzle. The research team proposes two possible explanations.



First, the planet might have formed before its disk became enriched with carbon. Think of it like baking a cake. The finished product's ingredients depend on what was available in your kitchen when you started baking - not what you added to your pantry later.



The second possibility involves solid materials. The planet might have grown by absorbing large amounts of ice and dust, not just gas. When these solid materials evaporated, they could have altered the final ratio of carbon to oxygen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vega-star-system-discovery-forces-us-to-rethink-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's atmosphere.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-planet-formation">A better understanding of planet formation </h2>



This study marks the first time scientists have been able to compare information from an exoplanet, its natal disk, and host star. But it's just the beginning. The team plans to study PDS 70c next, hoping to understand better how this entire system formed.



"By studying these two planets together, we can understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newborn-planet-is-still-glowing-from-the-heat-of-its-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">system's formation</a> history even better," said Hsu. "But, also, this is just one system. Ideally, we need to identify more of them to better understand how planets form."



This discovery reminds us that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> often defies our expectations. As we continue to peer deeper into space, we are likely to find more surprises that challenge our understanding of how planetary systems come into existence.



The research was supported by the Heising-Simons Foundation, the Simons Foundation, and the National Science Foundation. The findings are published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad95e8">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: ESO/A. Müller et al.



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How planets form: It's much more complicated than we thought

Like parents passing down their distinctive nose or eye color...

Our teeth, the essential guardians of our oral health, are constantly subjected to the demands of chewing and grinding.



Their outer layer, enamel, is an exceptionally hard substance and the most durable material in the human body. While it provides vital protection, enamel lacks the ability to regenerate or self-repair, unlike other tissues in the body.



Unfortunately, this enamel isn't immune to the ravages of time. A team of researchers has recently explored how enamel morphs with age.



The ultimate goal of the research is to devise ways to maintain the strength and vigor of our teeth for as long as possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-contain-more-fluoride-with-age">Teeth contain more fluoride with age</h2>



The study, led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> and the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>, scrutinized the atomic makeup of enamel samples taken from the teeth of a 22-year-old and a 56-year-old.



Interestingly, the older tooth harbored increased levels of ion fluoride - an element often added to our drinking water and toothpaste as a protective measure for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-holds-a-record-of-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enamel</a>.



The researchers investigated how fluoride integrates into enamel as we journey through life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-teeth-cracks-begin">Where teeth cracks begin</h2>



Study lead author Jack Grimm is a UW doctoral student in materials science and engineering and a doctoral intern at PNNL.



"We know that teeth get more brittle as people age, especially near the very outer surface, which is where cracks start. There are a number of factors behind this - one of which is the composition of the mineral content," said Grimm.



"We're interested in understanding exactly how the mineral content is changing. And if you want to see that, you have to look at the scale of atoms."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-structure-of-enamel">Microscopic structure of enamel</h2>



Enamel is composed mostly of minerals arranged in microscopic structures ten thousand times tinier than the width of a human hair, which makes it a challenge to study.



Earlier studies were conducted on a larger scale - about a tenth of the size of a human hair - which made it impossible to discern the relative distribution of minerals and organic portions in enamel's crystalline structure.



To investigate the microscopic structure of enamel more deeply, Grimm collaborated with Arun Devaraj, a materials scientist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). Together, they used a sophisticated technique called "atom probe tomography."



This cutting-edge method enabled them to create a 3D map of each atom within a sample, revealing differences in element compositions across three key areas: the nanocrystal core, the shell coating the core, and the space between the shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-fluoride-as-teeth-age">The role of fluoride as teeth age</h2>



The team found that samples from the older tooth had enhanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/too-much-fluoride-in-tap-water-supply-might-lower-kids-iq-by-few-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluoride</a> levels, predominantly in the shell regions.



Study co-author Cameron Renteria is a postdoctoral researcher in oral health sciences at the University of Washington.



"We are getting exposed to fluoride through our toothpaste and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a>, and no one has been able to track that in an actual tooth at this scale," said Renteria. "Is that fluoride actually being incorporated over time? Now we're starting to be able to paint that picture."



According to the researchers, the strength of their work lies in its interdisciplinary nature. By combining the expertise of different scientific fields, they were able to uncover fascinating insights.



Going forward, the team plans to investigate how the protein composition of enamel evolves over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-enamel-changes-over-time">How enamel changes over time</h2>



Enamel, though resilient, undergoes subtle but impactful transformations as we age. The study revealed that the mineral composition in older enamel is more compact but also more brittle.



Over the years, cycles of demineralization and remineralization, influenced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> and exposure to fluoride, lead to structural shifts.



Interestingly, these processes primarily affect the outermost shell of enamel’s nanocrystals, where increased fluoride levels were most evident in older teeth. This outer layer, while stronger against acid attacks, becomes more prone to cracks due to its rigid nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-strength-of-teeth">Preserving the strength of teeth </h2>



Such changes highlight the delicate balance between strengthening enamel and preserving its flexibility - a challenge that future dental treatments aim to address.



Dentistry offers a clear recommendation: fluoride and fluoridated products are effective in preventing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-water-fluoridation-still-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth decay</a>. But when it comes to how aging influences teeth overall, it seems the jury is still out.



The research highlights a key consideration as we grow older - our teeth may become more brittle, requiring us to chew with greater care.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43246-024-00709-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Materials</a>.



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What happens to our teeth as we age? New details have emerged

Our teeth, the essential guardians of our oral health, are...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...