You've undoubtedly noticed that the Moon has two distinct sides, right? The near side that we see from Earth and the far side that remains a mystery because it is never turned towards us.



This unusual lunar characteristic -- a global dichotomy -- is what a team of scientists led by Professor XU Yigang from the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry (<a href="http://english.gig.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GIGCAS</a>) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has been investigating.



They have been studying lunar soil samples collected from the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin on the far side of the Moon, and returned to Earth by China's <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANG-E-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chang’e-6 mission</a>.



These invaluable samples have allowed them to investigate the Moon's peculiar dichotomy and the results have shed light on some of its secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-chang-e-6">What is Chang’e-6?</h2>



The Chinese space program launched Chang'e 6, their latest Moon mission, on May 3, 2024. The spacecraft blasted off from Wenchang Satellite Launch Center on a Long March 5 rocket at 9:27 UT (that's 5:27 PM Beijing time). 



Their goal? To grab about four pounds (2 kg) of Moon rocks from the far side - something no one had done before.



The lander touched down in a huge crater called the South Pole Aitken Basin. The team used both a scoop and a drill to dig up surface samples and even went 2 meters deep into the lunar soil. 



They also sent out a small rover that cruised around taking snapshots of the lander doing its work.



Once they collected the samples, the crew packed them into an ascent vehicle sitting on top of the lander. 



On June 3 at 11:38 PM UT (7:38 AM Beijing time the next day), this vehicle shot up from the Moon's surface and met up with the orbiter waiting above. They made the handoff on June 6, 2024.



After ditching the ascent vehicle (which crashed back into the Moon), the return vehicle hung around in orbit for a couple weeks before heading home. 



It pulled off a tricky skip-entry through Earth's atmosphere and landed in Inner Mongolia's Siziwang Banner region on June 25 at 6:07 UT (2:07 PM Beijing time). 



The final haul? Roughly 4.2 pounds (1.9 kg) of Moon rocks and soil from the far side -- marking another big win for China's space program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-side-vs-visible-side-of-the-moon">Far side vs. visible side of the Moon</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon's</a> dichotomy is visible in its topography, chemical composition, crustal thickness, evidence of volcanism and, most noticeably, in the difference in geomorphology between its near and far sides.



The near side of the Moon is home to the familiar "man in the moon" maria - the dark "seas" that are the result of ancient volcanic activity. 



These areas were flooded with molten lava that created rocks known as mare basalts.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_diagram_credit-YANG-Muhan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_diagram_credit-YANG-Muhan_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of distinct volcanic episodes on the Moon’s farside. The remote sensing image highlights the Chang’e-6 landing site along with nearby mare and cryptomare basaltic units. Credit: Image by YANG Muhan" class="wp-image-1950782"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of distinct volcanic episodes on the Moon’s farside. The remote sensing image highlights the Chang’e-6 landing site along with nearby mare and cryptomare basaltic units. Credit: Image by YANG Muhan</figcaption></figure>



How about the far side? Well, here's where it gets intriguing. Only about 2% of this hidden part of the Moon is covered in the basalts, compared to around 30% on the near side.



This inexplicable difference is a vital part of the lunar global dichotomy that the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program aims to unravel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-moon-s-far-side">Secrets of the Moon's far side</h2>



Thanks to the Chang’e-6 lunar soil samples, Professor XU's team discovered the existence of two different types of mare basalts, low-Ti, and very low-Ti (VLT). 



“The samples returned by Chang’e-6 provide a best opportunity to investigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> global dichotomy,” said Professor XU.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-eruptions_basalt-types_credit-GIGCAS_1s.webp" alt="The two types of basalts in Chang’e-6 soils and isochrons of the Chang’e-6 low-Ti basalt. Credit: GIGCAS" class="wp-image-1950784"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The two types of basalts in Chang’e-6 soils and isochrons of the Chang’e-6 low-Ti basalt. Credit: GIGCAS</figcaption></figure>



Let's not dismiss the aspect of dating these samples either. With high-precision Pb-Pb dating techniques, the team determined that the low-Ti basalt dates back to around 2.83 billion years ago.



This attests to the presence of "young" magmatism or volcanic activities on the far side of the Moon. But of course, young is a relative term when we talk about 2.83 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-history-of-volcanoes">Mapping the history of volcanoes</h2>



With such valuable information now in our hands, we can clearly chart the volcanic timeline on the far side of the Moon. 



Led by Professor LI Qiuli, the team conducted radioisotope dating on 108 basalt fragments, with 107 of them revealing a consistent formation age of 2807 million years ago.



But there's more. One fragment, a high-aluminum basalt, was dated to a monumental 4203 million years ago, making it the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvest-moon-2024-will-feature-a-partial-lunar-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> basalt for which age has been precisely determined.



This implies elevated levels of volcanic activity on the far side of the Moon for at least 1.4 billion years - between 4.2 billion and 2.8 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



These findings, available for everyone to dissect, can help recalibrate the existing lunar crater chronology models. 



Christopher Hamilton, an independent planetary volcano expert, emphasized the importance of obtaining samples from this previously unchartered lunar territory.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_Change-6-mission_landing_credit-CLEP_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_Change-6-mission_landing_credit-CLEP_1s.webp" alt="China's Chang’e-6 mission spacecraft landed on the far side of the Moon. Credit: CLAP" class="wp-image-1950787"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">China's Chang’e-6 mission spacecraft landed on the far side of the Moon. Credit: CLAP </figcaption></figure>



More than just understanding the Moon, these lunar soil samples also have implications for some broad astronomical theories.



The new data indicates a constant impact flux after 2.83 billion years, which can offer new insights into planet migration in the early Solar System. 



So, by looking at the Moon, we are indirectly learning about our own cosmic neighborhood as well!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



With more missions like the Chang'e-6, the future will undoubtedly bring many enlightening discoveries about our constant celestial companion.



In the end, we see that the Moon, despite its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-captured-the-moon-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">familiar appearance</a>, still hides untold secrets waiting to be discovered. 



These lunar missions represent a new age of lunar and planetary exploration that pushes the boundaries of our understanding.



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The researchers from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> express their gratitude for the support received from various institutes such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the National Natural Science Foundation of China. These institutions' enduring support enables such important lunar explorations.



The study is published in the journals <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08382-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt1093" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Far side of the Moon had volcanic eruptions for over one billion years

You've undoubtedly noticed that the Moon has two distinct sides, right? The near side that we see from Earth and the far side that remains a mystery because it is never turned towards us. This unusual lunar characteristic -- a global dichotomy -- is what a team of scientists led by Professor XU Yigang from the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry (GIGCAS) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has been investigating. They have been studying lunar soil samples collected from the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin on the far...

In the vast expanse of the universe, nearly every massive galaxy houses a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a> at its core. These cosmic behemoths often come into close contact during galaxy mergers, potentially forming binary black holes locked in a mutual orbit.



The fate of such pairs -- whether they eventually merge -- has puzzled astronomers for decades. Recent research published in The Astrophysical Journal sheds light on this cosmic conundrum, offering new insights into the behavior of supermassive black hole binaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-a-cosmic-enigma">Unveiling a cosmic enigma</h2>



A fascinating study utilizing the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/gemini-observatory/gemini-north/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini North telescope</a>, part of the International Gemini Observatory operated by NSF’s NOIRLab, has focused on a supermassive black hole binary within the elliptical galaxy B2 0402+379. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/binary-black-holes_reveal-secrets_NOIRLab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This binary</a> is notable for being the only one resolved with enough detail to observe both black holes separately, boasting the smallest separation ever directly measured at just 24 light-years. 



Despite this close proximity, which typically indicates an imminent merger, the binary black hole has remained at a standstill for over three billion years. This unusual phenomenon prompted researchers to investigate what might be causing this delay.



The team analyzed archival data from the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (<a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/gmos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GMOS</a>) to study the velocity of stars near the black holes, revealing crucial information about the system's dynamics. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-binary-black-holes-don-t-always-merge">Why binary black holes don't always merge</h2>



Professor Roger Romani of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, a co-author of the study, highlighted the instrumental role of GMOS's sensitivity in mapping the stars' velocities, enabling the team to estimate the binary's total mass at a staggering 28 billion solar masses. 



This makes it the heaviest binary black hole ever measured, offering key insights into the binary system's formation and the history of its host galaxy.



The massive combined mass of the binary system supports theories suggesting that the weight of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-black-hole-is-spinning-in-the-nearby-galaxy-m87-study-confurms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> plays a significant role in delaying mergers. 



Martin Still, NSF program director for the International Gemini Observatory, emphasized the wealth of untapped scientific discovery within the data archive, with the mass measurements of this binary serving as a prime example of the potential breakthroughs waiting to be uncovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-formation-of-a-supermassive-binary">The formation of a supermassive binary</h2>



The formation of this binary is believed to be the result of multiple galaxy mergers, with B2 0402+379 being a 'fossil cluster' -- the product of a galaxy cluster merging into a single massive galaxy. The binary's significant mass implies a history of amalgamations from smaller black holes belonging to multiple galaxies.



The process leading up to a merger involves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-supermassive-black-hole-found-in-the-shadows-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> slingshotting past each other, gradually losing energy and drawing closer until gravitational radiation triggers the final merge. While this has been observed in stellar-mass black holes, a supermassive binary merger remains unrecorded. 



The study suggests that a vast number of stars would have been necessary to decelerate the binary's orbit to its current proximity, with the black holes expelling nearly all surrounding matter in the process. This has left the galaxy's core devoid of stars and gas, stalling the merger.



Professor Romani explained that lighter black hole pairs typically have enough surrounding mass to drive a quick merger. However, the exceptional mass of this binary required a much larger amount of stars and gas, ultimately scouring the central galaxy of such materials and leaving the merger in limbo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead-for-b2-0402-379">What lies ahead for B2 0402+379</h2>



The future of this binary, whether it will eventually merge or remain in orbital stagnation, is still uncertain. A successful merger would produce gravitational waves far more powerful than those from stellar-mass black hole mergers. 



The possibility of another galaxy merger or the introduction of a third <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> could provide the necessary material to prompt the merger, though B2 0402+379's status as a fossil cluster makes this scenario unlikely.



The research team, led by Stanford undergraduate Tirth Surti, plans to conduct follow-up investigations to determine the presence of gas in B2 0402+379's core. This could offer further insights into whether the supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-black-hole-ever-discovered-dates-back-to-the-dawn-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> will ultimately merge or remain eternally separated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study-of-binary-black-holes">Implications and future study of binary black holes</h2>



In summary, the study of the supermassive black hole binary within galaxy B2 0402+379 has expanded our understanding of the cosmic forces at play in the universe by focusing on the invaluable role of archival data in unlocking the mysteries of space. 



By meticulously analyzing the dynamics of this stalled binary system, astronomers have shed light on the intricate dance of gravity and mass, offering insights into the potential future of such colossal entities. 



This research poses new questions about the nature of galactic mergers and the fate of supermassive black holes while setting the stage for future discoveries that could further unravel the fabric of our cosmos.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad14fa">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Binary black holes reveal some of their secrets

In the vast expanse of the universe, nearly every massive...

A recent study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber from the UFZ has brought a paradigm shift in our understanding of nitrogen and phytoplankton growth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-struggling-to-maintain-oxygen-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, challenging the long-held belief that phosphorus is the sole nutrient limiting this growth. 



Traditionally, lake management strategies worldwide have been focused on controlling phosphorus inputs to prevent eutrophication -- a process that leads to excessive algae growth and deteriorates water quality. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phosphorus-the-long-standing-villain-in-lake-health">Phosphorus: The long-standing villain in lake health</h2>



However, this approach has repeatedly fallen short in combating eutrophication, prompting scientists to question the existing model.



<a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=43298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Graeber</a> explains, "it was previously assumed that phytoplankton growth in lakes is mostly limited and driven by the availability of phosphorus. In this explanatory model, nitrogen plays no role. This is based on the fact that specific cyanobacteria in the water can bind the nitrogen contained in the air and introduce it into the lake. This would therefore preclude a long-term nitrogen deficiency in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>." 



This discovery points to a more complex interaction between nutrients than previously thought, with both nitrogen and phosphorus influencing the growth of phytoplankton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-lake-nutrients">New perspective on lake nutrients</h2>



The study, which also involved limnologist Dr. Thomas A. Davidson from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, analyzed long-term monitoring data from 159 shallow lakes across North America, Europe, and New Zealand. 



"This model forms the basis for lake management worldwide, where the emphasis has been on controlling phosphorus inputs to counteract lake eutrophication," explains Dr. Davidson. 



"Reducing phosphorus inputs repeatedly fails to prevent eutrophication. This therefore gave rise to the question of whether the water equation included yet another unknown," Davidson concluded.



Shallow lakes, which constitute about 89 percent of the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, provided a comprehensive dataset for examining the relationship between nutrient ratios and phytoplankton biomass, measured by the concentration of chlorophyll-a.



"We wanted to determine the long-term relationships between the ratio of the two nutrients and phytoplankton growth," explains Dr. Graeber. 



"The idea for our study originated with several outliers in a prior study of the ecology of shallow lakes. In some of the lakes, we did not see a linear correspondence between the measured nutrient and a respective increased or decreased chlorophyll-a concentration," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-impact-of-nitrogen-in-lake-ecosystems">Surprising impact of nitrogen in lake ecosystems</h2>



The research revealed that in 60 percent of the studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-contaminate-all-lakes-and-freshwater-environments-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a>, both nitrogen and phosphorus were limiting factors for phytoplankton growth, a finding that significantly deviates from traditional limnological consensus.



The implications of this study are profound for the field of limnology and lake management practices. 



"The relationships were so clear that I couldn't even believe it at first. They corresponded exactly to what was known from laboratory experiments -- this was truly astounding," says Graeber. 



"The result withstood thorough testing of the statistics: The data were robust. Our results confirm the hypothesis that nitrogen is not a passive participant in lake ecology. And we were able to prove with a broad database for the first time that this clearly applies to lakes worldwide," Graeber continued.



This dual-nutrient limitation model not only challenges existing theories but also emphasizes the necessity of incorporating nitrogen into lake management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integrating-nitrogen-into-lake-management-strategies">Integrating nitrogen into lake management strategies</h2>



Dr. Graeber and his team urge for a reevaluation of lake management practices, suggesting a more comprehensive approach that considers the impacts of both nitrogen and phosphorus. 



"We need a long-term investigation of the nutrient ratios to ensure the success of efficient and effective eutrophication management. This requires a greater focus on inputs from agriculture, which generally have a high nitrogen content," Graeber recommends.



In summary, the study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber and his team marks a significant turning point in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake ecosystems</a>. They demonstrated that both nitrogen and phosphorus play critical roles in phytoplankton growth and, consequently, in the eutrophication process. 



This revelation challenges the traditional phosphorus-centric approach to lake management and provides new recommendations for research and policy-making that encompass a more holistic view of nutrient impacts. 



By advocating for the inclusion of nitrogen in management strategies, this finding paves the way for more effective and sustainable solutions to combat eutrophication, ensuring the long-term health and balance of lake ecosystems worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-45115-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Nitrogen is an overlooked component of lake ecosystems

A recent study led by Dr. Daniel Graeber from the...

Over the last quarter century, the Arctic has witnessed a dramatic reduction in summer sea ice, shrinking by more than one million square kilometers. This transformation has left extensive parts of the Arctic Ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/">ice-free</a> during the summer months with a significant increase in sunlight exposure. 



This phenomenon has drawn the attention of the scientific community worldwide, who are keenly observing its impact on sunlight penetration and the resultant effects on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-ecosystems-survive-extinctions/">marine ecosystems</a> of the far north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-sunlight-availability-on-the-arctic-seafloor">Increased sunlight availability on the Arctic seafloor</h2>



Karl Attard, a prominent marine scientist and assistant professor in the Department of Biology at the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, is at the forefront of a global research initiative that delves into the implications of increased sunlight availability on the photosynthetic activity of the Arctic seafloor, a region less studied in this context. 



The team's research places a spotlight on the Arctic Ocean's extensive shelf regions. These areas of the seafloor, which are relatively shallow and seldom exceed depths of 200 meters, account for about half the Arctic Ocean's surface area. This makes them particularly intriguing for studying how seafloor ecosystems adjust as sea ice continues to recede.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthetic-activity-nbsp">Photosynthetic activity&nbsp;</h2>



Primary producers like microalgae, seaweeds, and seagrasses, which are capable of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/">photosynthesis</a>, rely on sunlight along with water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients. These organisms are foundational to the ocean's food web, underpinning commercially vital fisheries and supporting large predators such as polar bears.



Given the expanding areas of the seafloor now exposed to sunlight, one might intuitively expect an increase in the abundance of these primary producers. However, the experts reached a counterintuitive result.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-reaching-the-arctic-seafloor-nbsp">Sunlight reaching the Arctic seafloor&nbsp;</h2>



“It might seem reasonable to assume that the abundance of primary producers on the seafloor in the shallower regions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-ocean-has-been-warming-for-more-than-100-years/">Arctic Ocean</a> would increase as more sunlight reaches the bottom," noted Attard.



"In fact, our research suggests that since 2003, the seafloor area exposed to sunlight has been increasing rapidly at around 47,000 square kilometers per year.&nbsp;



Curiously, however, we do not see an increase in the total amount of sunlight reaching the Arctic seafloor."



This observation, based on two decades of satellite data, indicates that despite the expanded ice-free areas, there isn't a corresponding increase in sunlight reaching the seafloor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decrease-in-water-transparency-nbsp">Decrease in water transparency&nbsp;</h2>



The study reveals that water transparency in many parts of the Arctic Ocean has decreased, impeding sunlight from penetrating to the seafloor.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-reduces-sunlight/">Sunlight</a> that enters the ice-free ocean is rapidly absorbed by phytoplankton, sediments, and dissolved substances, thus limiting its reach to the ocean floor. Despite these regions now being ice-free and receiving sunlight at the surface, the models predict variable impacts on primary production across different areas.



The decline in water clarity is attributed to the influx of river water, carrying sediments from distant regions like Mongolia or central North America, into the Arctic Ocean. These sediments, along with dissolved organic molecules, cloud the water, reducing sunlight penetration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-availability-and-primary-production">Sunlight availability and primary production</h2>



The researchers' models reveal regional disparities in biomass production on the newly exposed ocean floor, with some areas experiencing an increase in primary production while others not.&nbsp;



“The question then arises: why does sunlight availability and primary production increase in some areas while diminishing in others?” Attard said. “Unfortunately, our models do not provide a clear answer as to what specifically is driving this change, and obtaining this information necessitates investigating individual regions and validating our models with more observational data."



“The latest models suggest that seaweeds and eelgrass will establish themselves on the shallow coastal seafloor and will expand into the Arctic Ocean as the ice further diminishes and water temperature increases. Here too, more observations are needed to test the uncertainties in the models,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-nbsp">Complex interactions&nbsp;</h2>



This study underscores the complex interplay between climate change, sunlight availability, and primary production in the Arctic Ocean. As the Arctic continues to warm, the influx of species from lower latitudes might lead to a more productive marine environment than currently exists, albeit at the expense of the Arctic's unique character.&nbsp;



"Our study suggests that the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-arctic-climate-change-is-much-more-difficult-since-russia-invaded-ukraine/">climate change</a> on sunlight availability and primary production in the Arctic Ocean are complex. Additionally, as the Arctic Ocean continues to warm, we may witness more species migrating from lower latitudes, potentially leading to a more productive marine environment than what exists today - at the cost of losing what is special for the Arctic,” Attard concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2303366121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Less ice and more sunlight will drastically alter the Arctic Ocean

Over the last quarter century, the Arctic has witnessed a...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-highlights-urgent-need-to-protect-migratory-species/">migratory animals</a> refine their navigational strategies as they age, indicating that learning from experience plays a crucial role in successful migration. According to the experts, although genetics and social learning significantly influence migratory behaviors, knowledge gained through experience also contributes to shaping these journeys.



Ellen Aikens, who led this research with a joint appointment at UW's Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources and UW’s School of Computing, explores the intersection of animal behavior and data science, an investigation made possible by the advancements in computing and data analytics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-migratory-behaviors">Understanding migratory behaviors</h2>



This study marks a significant advancement in understanding migratory behaviors. Working with specialists from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>, the research meticulously tracked over 250 white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storks-are-attracted-to-the-smell-of-freshly-mowed-grass/">storks</a> from five breeding sites in southern Germany and Austria from 2013 to 2020 through advanced tracking technology.



This detailed tracking not only identified the storks' migratory paths but also assessed their travel timing, speed, and energy consumption during flight.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-behaviors-become-more-focused">Migratory behaviors become more focused</h2>



The findings revealed a notable transition: while younger storks displayed curiosity in exploring new territories during their migration, as they aged, their journeys became more focused, favoring faster and more direct routes that necessitated greater energy expenditure.



"As the birds age and gain more experience, older individuals stop exploring new places and instead move more quickly and directly, resulting in greater energy expenditure during migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flight-inspires-the-design-of-future-aircraft/">flight</a>,” said Aikens. “During spring migration, individuals innovated novel shortcuts during the transition from early life into adulthood, suggesting a reliance on spatial memory acquired through learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-experience">Learning from experience</h2>



“Although information has largely been overlooked as a currency shaping migratory behavior, gaining information and using it to incrementally refine migration behavior through learning could play an important role in saving both energy and time,” the authors explained. “The landscapes that animals move through are complex and dynamic, requiring that migrants learn where and when favorable conditions that facilitate movement occur and how to exploit them efficiently.”



While the scientists acknowledge the importance of genetics and cultural inherited mechanisms in animal migration, they argue that the recent findings point to individual experience as another major factor.&nbsp;



"Whether the first migration is guided by genetics or results from following informed individuals, learning within a lifetime represents an additional and complementary mechanism shaping animal migration,” they concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-migratory-behaviors-nbsp">Fascinating migratory behaviors&nbsp;</h2>



Migratory behaviors in animals are diverse and fascinating, often driven by the search for food, mating opportunities, or more hospitable climates. Here are a few examples of remarkable migratory behaviors across different species:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterflies">Monarch butterflies</h3>



Perhaps one of the most visually stunning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-migrations-are-shifting-as-temperatures-rise/">migrations</a>, North American monarch butterflies travel up to 3,000 miles from the northeastern United States and Canada to the fir forests of central Mexico for the winter.&nbsp;



This journey is not only long but also remarkable because the butterflies that return to Mexico in the fall are the great-grandchildren of the ones that left the previous spring, navigating using a combination of circadian rhythms and the position of the sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-terns">Arctic terns</h3>



Holding the record for the longest migration of any animal, Arctic terns migrate from their Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back each year, covering a distance of about 71,000 kilometers (44,000 miles). This round trip ensures they experience two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildebeest">Wildebeest</h3>



In East Africa, over 1.5 million wildebeest, along with hundreds of thousands of zebra and gazelle, embark on a circular migration of over 1,800 miles through the Serengeti and Maasai Mara ecosystems. This migration is driven by the seasonal rains and the quest for fresh grazing and water. It's known for its dramatic river crossings and predator-prey interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whales">Humpback whales</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">Humpback whales</a> undertake extensive migrations between feeding and breeding grounds. They feed in polar waters during the summer months and migrate to warmer tropical and subtropical waters during the winter for breeding and giving birth, traveling thousands of miles each year.&nbsp;



Their songs, complex sequences of moans, howls, cries, and other noises, are thought to play a role in communication and mating behaviors during these migrations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-white-sharks">Great white sharks</h3>



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">great white sharks</a> have been documented traveling from the coast of South Africa to Australia and back, a round trip of over 20,000 kilometers (12,427 miles), in a single year. 



These migrations are likely motivated by hunting and possibly breeding, showcasing the sharks' incredible navigation skills across vast ocean distances.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caribou-migration">Caribou migration</h3>



In the Arctic, caribou (reindeer in Eurasia) undertake one of the largest land migrations, with some herds traveling up to 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles) annually. This migration is primarily driven by the search for food, with the herds moving between their winter and summer feeding grounds.



These migrations are critical for the survival of these species, allowing them to exploit seasonal resources, avoid harsh weather conditions, and reproduce. They also play significant roles in the ecological systems, affecting predator-prey relationships, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling.



The UW study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306389121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Migratory behaviors are shaped by experience

A recent study led by the University of Wyoming has...

Today marks a significant milestone in environmental protection and climate science with the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">launch</a> of MethaneSAT, a pioneering satellite mission designed to tackle methane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-finalizes-ambitious-rule-to-slash-methane-emissions/">emissions</a>. 



Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases. Reducing methane emissions is increasingly viewed as a crucial strategy for slowing global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-methanesat-nbsp">The role of MethaneSAT&nbsp;</h2>



Developed by a subsidiary of the <a href="https://www.edf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Defense Fund</a> (EDF), a leading environmental non-profit organization, MethaneSAT is set to revolutionize the way we identify, measure, and reduce methane emissions, particularly from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/">oil and gas industry</a> - the world’s largest industrial methane emitter.



Scheduled for launch just after 2:00pm Pacific Time aboard a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket, MethaneSAT's mission is groundbreaking in its scope and potential impact. This satellite is unique in its ability to see and quantify total methane emissions over wide areas that other satellites cannot, thereby identifying large emitters in previously overlooked locations.&nbsp;



MethaneSAT will empower companies, regulators, and various stakeholders - including citizens, governments, investors, and gas importers - with free access to emissions data. This unprecedented level of transparency will improve accountability and facilitate faster reductions in methane emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-fastest-way-to-slow-global-warming">Single fastest way to slow global warming</h2>



“Cutting methane pollution from fossil fuel operations, agriculture and other sectors is the single fastest way to slow the rate of warming as we continue to decarbonize our energy systems,” said EDF President Fred Krupp.&nbsp;



“To do that requires comprehensive data on this pollution on a global scale. MethaneSAT will show us the full scope of the opportunity by tracking emissions to their source.”



MethaneSAT is a direct result of EDF's long-standing commitment to methane science and solutions, a journey that began over a decade ago and was highlighted in Krupp's 2018 TED Talk as part of the TED Audacious Project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanesat-s-remarkable-capabilities-nbsp">MethaneSAT's remarkable capabilities&nbsp;</h2>



The satellite's capabilities are remarkable. MethaneSAT can circle the Earth 15 times a day, detecting changes in methane concentrations as small as three parts per billion. Its high sensitivity, resolution, and wide field of view are designed to capture the complete picture of methane emissions.



“MethaneSAT’s superpower is the ability to precisely measure methane levels with high resolution over wide areas, including smaller, diffuse sources that account for most emissions in many regions,” said Steven Hamburg, EDF Chief Scientist and MethaneSAT project leader. “Knowing how much methane is coming from where and how the rates are changing is essential.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanesat-is-a-collaborative-victory">MethaneSAT is a collaborative victory</h2>



Beyond its scientific and environmental significance, MethaneSAT represents a collaborative victory, made possible by the support of EDF donors and partnerships, notably with the Government of New Zealand. Major contributors include the Bezos Earth Fund, Arnold Ventures, the Robertson Foundation, and the TED Audacious Project.&nbsp;



Dr. Kelly Levin from the Bezos Earth Fund hailed MethaneSAT as a game-changer in methane detection, praising its potential to enhance scientific understanding and enforce accountability.



“Methane emissions have been overlooked and hard to detect for far too long,” said Dr. Levin. “MethaneSAT changes the equation, putting science and data front and center. From the sky, it can see what others can’t, helping good actors and holding bad actors accountable. The Bezos Earth Fund is proud to be a partner in this adventure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holding-companies-and-governments-accountable-nbsp">Holding companies and governments accountable&nbsp;</h2>



The launch of MethaneSAT comes at a critical time when global momentum is building for more stringent methane management.&nbsp;



The satellite will bolster recent initiatives aimed at holding companies and governments more accountable for their methane emissions, including efforts by Bloomberg Philanthropies, the International Energy Agency, RMI, and the UN Environment Programme's International Methane Emission Observatory.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-measurable-data">The importance of measurable data</h2>



Michael R. Bloomberg, UN Secretary-General's Special Envoy on Climate Ambition and Solutions and Founder of Bloomberg LP and Bloomberg Philanthropies, highlighted the importance of measurable data in tackling methane emissions.



“You can’t manage what you can’t measure, and that’s certainly true when it comes to cutting methane, one of the biggest drivers of climate change,” said Bloomberg.&nbsp;



“Data from this satellite will help us to better measure methane emissions and target their sources, bringing more transparency to the problem, giving companies and investors the information they need to take action, and empowering the public to hold people accountable.”



MethaneSAT's mission aligns with international commitments, such as the Global Methane Pledge to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030. It also supports the Oil &amp; Gas Decarbonization Charter announced at COP28, aiming to virtually eliminate methane emissions and routine flaring.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-it-so-urgent-to-tackle-methane-emissions">Why is it so urgent to tackle methane emissions?</h2>



Methane (CH4) is a potent greenhouse gas, second only to carbon dioxide (CO2) in its impact on climate change. It is composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Methane is significant for several reasons:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potency">Potency</h3>



Methane is much more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere, making it a highly potent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ponds-release-more-greenhouse-gases-than-they-store/">greenhouse gas</a>. Over a 20-year period, its global warming potential is over 80 times that of CO2, though it is less over longer periods due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources">Sources</h3>



Major sources of methane emissions include natural processes and human activities. Natural sources include wetlands, termites, and the oceans.&nbsp;



Human-related sources are more diverse, including the production and transport of coal, oil, and natural gas (due to leaks and venting), livestock and other agricultural practices (especially from the digestive processes of ruminant animals), landfills, and waste treatment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-life">Atmospheric life</h3>



Methane has a shorter lifetime in the atmosphere compared to CO2, about 12 years, but it is much more efficient at trapping radiation, making its short-term effects on climate change significant.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact">Climate impact</h3>



Methane contributes to the greenhouse effect. Its increase in the atmosphere is responsible for about one-fifth of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/formal-agreement-needed-to-define-the-current-level-of-global-warming/">global warming</a>. Managing methane emissions is considered a critical lever for mitigating climate change, especially in the short term, as reducing methane emissions can have a rapid effect on atmospheric warming potential.



To watch the live launch of MethaneSAT, visit <a href="https://www.spacex.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.spacex.com/</a>.



Image Credit: BAE Systems&nbsp;



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Today's MethaneSAT launch represents a new era in climate action

Today marks a significant milestone in environmental protection and climate...

Striped marlin, some of the ocean's fastest and fiercest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-move-into-towns-to-avoid-predators-only-to-be-killed-by-humans/">predators</a>, work together to hunt prey. But how do they avoid colliding with each other in the frenzy of the chase? A new study from the <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University of Berlin</a> reveals a surprising secret: rapid color changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-and-habitat-of-striped-marlin">Life and habitat of striped marlin</h2>



Striped marlin are impressive fish found in warm and temperate waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are easily recognized by their blue and black stripes that become more prominent in certain events.&nbsp;



These fast swimmers, reaching speeds of 50 miles per hour, use their long, pointed bills to slash through schools of smaller fish like sardines and anchovies, stunning them before eating. Their tall dorsal fin and streamlined body help them chase prey efficiently. Adult marlins can grow up to 12 feet long and weigh up to 450 pounds.



Striped marlin live in the open ocean near the surface and are constantly on the move, traveling long distances for food and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-found-the-worlds-largest-fish-breeding-site/">breeding</a>. They are mostly found off the coasts of Mexico, California, New Zealand, and Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striped-marlin-on-the-attack">Striped marlin on the attack</h2>



Using high-quality drone footage, scientists were able to observe striped marlin behavior in never-before-seen detail. They discovered a remarkable phenomenon: the stripes on the marlin's body lightened dramatically during an attack on prey, then returned to normal afterward.&nbsp;



This change in brightness wasn't observed in marlin that weren't hunting, suggesting it might be a way for them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/">communicate</a> with each other during the hunt. 



"We found that the attacking marlin 'lit up' and became much brighter than its group-mates as it made its attack before rapidly returning to its 'non-bright' coloration after its attack ended," explained Alicia Burns from Humboldt University of Berlin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basis-of-the-color-change-nbsp">Basis of the color change&nbsp;</h2>



Striped marlin can change colors due to a few special cells in their skin called iridophores. These cells contain crystals that reflect light, allowing the marlin to go from a blue-gray to showing bold stripes.&nbsp;



This strategic color change happens mainly when striped marlin hunt in groups, and it serves several purposes. First, it helps them communicate with each other. By making their stripes brighter just before attacking, marlin signal that they're going in, which helps organize the hunt and prevent them from bumping into each other. 



Furthermore, the color change might keep other marlin away from their prey. This would be important when there are many predators competing for the same food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marlins-with-bolder-stripes">Marlins with bolder stripes</h2>



The study also suggests the color change might confuse the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-have-an-unexpected-impact-on-fish-size/">fish</a> that are being hunted. The sudden appearance of bold stripes could make it harder for the fish to escape together. This idea is supported by the fact that marlin attacking schools of fish underwent significantly greater color change compared to marlin that were attacking individuals. 



"Color change is widespread in animals, often multi-functional, and is likely to be more common in predators than is commonly reported," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"When groups of marlin make high speed, sequential attacks on the same prey target, they dynamically change color in relation to the timing of their attack. Thus, the intensity of marlin’s color contrast appears to be a reliable cue of their intent to attack."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



The researchers are excited to learn more about how and why marlins change color. They have several questions they want to answer, such as:



Do marlins change color in other situations? The experts wonder if the rapid color changes seen during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">group hunting</a> also happen when marlins hunt alone. This would help them understand if this is a general skill or specific to group dynamics.



Do other predatory fish use similar tactics? This question looks beyond marlins to see if their strategy is unique or if other predatory fish use similar color-changing tactics to hunt.&nbsp;



"We already have footage of hunting behavior of sailfish and mahi mahi where we have seen even more pronounced and more variable color change than in the marlin," explained Dr Burns.



By answering such questions, the experts hope to understand the full purpose of the flashing stripes. This could reveal a lot about how predators and prey interact in the ocean and how marlins have evolved to be such successful hunters.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Striped marlin use a quick color change to signal an attack

Striped marlin, some of the ocean's fastest and fiercest predators,...

A team of researchers has recently discovered that humans across various societies exhibit a strong inclination towards perceiving and generating rhythms based on simple integer ratios, such as the uniform beat pattern of a 1:1:1 ratio.&nbsp;



Yet, what's truly fascinating about the study, which spanned 15 countries and included 39 diverse groups of participants, is the discovery that while there exists a universal predisposition towards certain rhythmic structures, the specific preferences for these ratios can significantly differ across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-in-all-cultures-offer-small-acts-of-kindness-to-strangers/">cultures</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-nature-of-rhythm-perception-nbsp">Cultural nature of rhythm perception&nbsp;</h2>



This research, which is among the most comprehensive of its kind, offers profound insights into the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-as-a-pain-reliever-the-power-of-your-playlist/">music</a> perception and cognition, suggesting both universal and culturally distinct elements.



“Our study provides the clearest evidence yet for some degree of universality in music perception and cognition, in the sense that every single group of participants that was tested exhibits biases for integer ratios. It also provides a glimpse of the variation that can occur across cultures, which can be quite substantial,” said study lead author Nori Jacoby, a former <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> postdoctoral fellow and now a researcher at the <a href="https://www.aesthetics.mpg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics</a>.&nbsp;



This statement highlights the study's dual contribution to our understanding of music perception. It confirms a universal bias while also highlighting the rich tapestry of cultural diversity in musical rhythm preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-representation-of-rhythm">Mental representation of rhythm </h2>



The researchers suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/">brain</a>’s bias towards simple integer ratios might serve as an inherent error-correction mechanism, facilitating the preservation and consistent transmission of musical knowledge across human societies.&nbsp;



“When people produce music, they often make small mistakes. Our results are consistent with the idea that our mental representation is somewhat robust to those mistakes, but it is robust in a way that pushes us toward our preexisting ideas of the structures that should be found in music,” explained study senior author Josh McDermott, an associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences at MIT.&nbsp;



This hypothesis offers a fascinating glimpse into how our cognitive processes might be shaping and preserving the musical traditions that are pivotal to human culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perceiving-different-rhythms">Perceiving different rhythms </h2>



Building upon their 2017 comparative analysis between American listeners and the Tsimane’ society in Bolivia, this new research vastly expands the geographical and cultural scope of the investigation.&nbsp;



The inclusion of 39 groups from diverse backgrounds, ranging from North America to Asia, and from traditional societies to modern urban populations, marks this study as unprecedented in its scale and ambition. Through a rigorous experimental procedure, wherein participants were asked to replicate and refine a series of beats, the researchers were able to map out the implicit rhythmic biases, or priors, that individuals brought to the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preferences-for-different-rhythmic-structures">Preferences for different rhythmic structures</h2>



Despite the universal inclination towards simple rhythmic ratios, the study revealed considerable cross-cultural variation in the specific ratios preferred. For example, while North American and Western European participants exhibited biases that align closely with those commonly found in Western music, groups from Turkey, Mali, Bulgaria, and Botswana showed preferences for different rhythmic structures.&nbsp;



This variation emphasizes the influence of cultural context on musical perception and underscores the complexity of mapping the global landscape of rhythm cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-human-musical-diversity-nbsp">Capturing human musical diversity&nbsp;</h2>



The research team's global approach also highlights a critical methodological insight for the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-promotes-social-development-in-infants/">music cognition</a>: the importance of diversifying the populations studied. 



“What’s very clear from the paper is that if you just look at the results from undergraduate students around the world, you vastly underestimate the diversity that you see otherwise,” said Jacoby. This realization underscores the necessity of conducting research within a broad range of communities to capture the full extent of human musical diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



In conclusion, this landmark study not only elucidates the universal aspects of rhythm perception but also opens up avenues for further exploration into the cultural nuances that define our musical experiences.&nbsp;



As the researchers plan to extend their investigation into other aspects of music cognition, the insights gained from this study serve as a foundation for understanding the intricate interplay between our cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-biases/">biases</a> and the cultural contexts in which they manifest.&nbsp;



McDermott’s emphasis on the need for global, community-based research approaches reinforces the importance of inclusivity and diversity in uncovering the richness of human music perception and cognition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01800-9">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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Experts find cultural differences in how we interpret rhythm

A team of researchers has recently discovered that humans across...

In a world increasingly concerned with the effects of climate change, researchers are tirelessly working to understand the various factors that contribute to our planet's warming. Among these, methane - a potent greenhouse gas - has come under scrutiny for its role in accelerating climate change. 



A recent discovery by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> has shed new light on sources of methane production, challenging existing beliefs and prompting a reevaluation of our understanding of carbon cycling in glaciated regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-in-canadian-glaciers">Unexpected discovery in Canadian glaciers</h2>



Sarah Elise Sapper, a PhD student in the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, embarked on her first field expedition to the rugged terrains of northwestern Canada. 



Amidst the steep Yukon mountainsides, Sapper and her team made a surprising discovery in the meltwater of three Canadian mountain glaciers. Contrary to the prevailing belief that glacial methane emissions necessitate large ice masses, the measurements revealed methane concentrations up to 250 times higher than those found in our atmosphere. 



"We expected to find low values in the meltwater because it is believed that glacial methane emissions require larger ice masses such as vast ice sheets. But the result was quite the opposite," explained Sapper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-previously-unknown-sources-of-methane-production">Previously unknown sources of methane production </h2>



This unexpected finding indicates the presence of previously unknown sources of methane beneath the ice, suggesting that methane production and release under glaciers may be more widespread than previously thought. 



Professor Jesper Riis Christiansen, co-author of the research article, highlights the significance of this discovery: "When we suddenly see that even mountain glaciers, which are small in comparison with an ice sheet, are able to form and emit methane, it expands our basic understanding of carbon cycling in extreme environments on the planet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-methane-production">New perspective on methane production </h2>



The research team hypothesizes that methane production is biological, occurring when microorganisms decompose organic carbon sources in the absence of oxygen. This challenges the conventional view that such processes could only occur under large ice masses like the Greenland Ice Sheet. 



The meltwater, initially rich in oxygen, somehow loses all its oxygen as it travels to the bottom of the glacier, creating anoxic conditions conducive to methane production by microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-uncertain-climate-future">An uncertain climate future</h2>



These findings not only introduce new variables into the equation of global methane emissions but also underscore the complexity of predicting the climate's future. 



Although the contribution of methane from glaciated regions to overall atmospheric methane levels is not yet causing concern, Jesper Riis Christiansen urges vigilance. 



"There's too much that we don't know, and the melting glaciers expose unknown environments that have remained hidden for thousands of years. In reality, no one knows how emissions will behave," said Christiansen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-methane">Unraveling the mysteries of methane </h2>



This discovery opens up new avenues for research, aiming to better understand methane's behavior beneath glaciers and its implications for global warming. It may also inform strategies to mitigate methane emissions, such as promoting the oxidation of methane in the atmosphere.



Sapper's pioneering expedition, supported by EU funds through the INTERACT network, is a testament to the value of independent fieldwork in advancing our understanding of environmental science. Her work not only contributes to the body of knowledge on methane emissions but also serves as an inspiration for other young researchers to pursue their own explorations.



As the scientific community continues to unravel the mysteries of methane production and its role in climate change, it's clear that the findings from these mountain glaciers are just the beginning. 



With each discovery, we edge closer to a more comprehensive understanding of our planet's complex and interwoven systems, holding the promise of developing more effective strategies to combat climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-methane-production-and-climate-change">More about methane production and climate change</h2>



As discussed above, methane (CH4) stands as a potent greenhouse gas, contributing significantly to global warming. Unlike carbon dioxide (CO2), which often garners more attention, methane is far more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere, despite its relatively shorter atmospheric lifetime. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-methane-emission">Sources of methane emission</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-sources">Natural Sources</h4>



Methane production occurs both naturally and through human activities. Wetlands are the largest natural source, where bacteria produce methane during the decomposition of organic material in oxygen-free environments. 



Other natural sources include termites, oceans, and hydrates -- methane trapped in icy structures under the ocean floor and permafrost.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anthropogenic-sources">Anthropogenic Sources</h4>



Human activities have significantly increased methane emissions. The primary sources include:



<ul>
<li>Agriculture: Livestock, especially ruminants such as cows and sheep, produce methane during digestion through a process known as enteric fermentation. Rice paddies also emit methane due to the anaerobic conditions of waterlogged fields. </li>



<li>Fossil Fuel Sector: Methane leaks during the extraction, processing, and transportation of oil and natural gas. Coal mines are also notable sources. </li>



<li>Waste Management: Landfills produce methane as organic waste decomposes anaerobically.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-s-role-in-climate-change">Methane's role in climate change</h3>



Methane is over 25 times more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere over a 100-year period. Its release from both natural and anthropogenic sources has a significant impact on global warming. 



Methane's high global warming potential is particularly concerning given the current rates of emission and the push towards natural gas as a "cleaner" energy source.



The interaction between methane and other atmospheric components can also amplify warming. For instance, methane contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, a potent greenhouse gas and component of smog, further exacerbating climate change impacts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-efforts">Mitigation efforts</h3>



Reducing methane emissions is crucial in the fight against climate change. Efforts include:



<ul>
<li>Agricultural Practices: Adopting diets that reduce the reliance on ruminant meat, improving livestock feed to reduce enteric fermentation, and employing rice paddies management techniques that minimize methane production. </li>



<li>Energy Sector Reforms: Implementing technologies to capture methane leaks from oil and natural gas infrastructure, and reducing reliance on fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources. </li>



<li>Waste Management Solutions: Capturing methane from landfills and wastewater treatment plants to use as a biogas, and promoting recycling and composting to reduce the amount of organic waste in landfills.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study">Implications and future study</h3>



In summary, methane production plays a significant role in global warming, with its impact felt across natural ecosystems and human societies. 



Addressing methane emissions is a critical step towards mitigating climate change, requiring coordinated efforts across sectors and countries. 



By understanding methane's sources and impacts, societies can implement effective strategies to reduce emissions and protect the planet for future generations.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15230430.2023.2284456">Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research</a>.



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New sources of global methane gas production discovered

In a world increasingly concerned with the effects of climate...

Earthquakes are often seen through the lens of human experience - their immediate destruction, the rebuilding of communities, and the loss of lives. However, forests too, experience the force of these powerful events. A new study by Dr. Shan Gao from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> reveals how forests survive earthquakes and adapt later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-tree-rings">What are tree rings?</h2>



Trees, like storytellers, possess a record of their past in growth rings. Each ring represents a year of life, and its thickness reflects how well the tree grew in that year.&nbsp;



Factors like weather, water availability, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/access-to-sunlight-is-critical-for-the-survival-of-coral-reefs/">sunlight</a> influence how much a tree grows, leaving a record in the ring's width. Wider rings point to good years with plenty of rain and warmth, while narrow rings tell the story of tougher times like droughts or cold spells.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-of-the-past">Record of the past</h2>



Scientists use this information to understand the environment in the past. By studying the rings of trees from different times and places, they can piece together a timeline of changes, uncovering how climate and ecosystems have shifted over time.&nbsp;



This method, called dendrochronology, is especially helpful for studying climate change because it offers long-term evidence of how ecosystems responded to past climate variations, even before we started keeping detailed records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-tree-rings">Comparing tree rings</h2>



The researchers compared the thickness of tree rings before and after earthquakes to see how these powerful events impacted tree growth. They carefully examined data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-forests-are-losing-their-ability-to-recover/">forests</a> all over the world for over 100 years, separating the effects of earthquakes from the impacts of weather. By studying these natural records, the scientists learned how forests adapt and survive, even after the ground shakes beneath them.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthquake-impact-on-dry-forests">Earthquake impact on dry forests</h2>



​​Surprisingly, forests in drier regions like western North America appear to benefit from earthquakes. When the ground shakes, cracks and fractures form in the soil, acting like natural irrigation channels. The shift allows rainwater to penetrate deeper than usual, reaching the roots of trees and plants which normally struggle in dry conditions.&nbsp;



This "deep drink" of water provides trees with much-needed moisture and nutrients, leading to increased growth rates. The deeper water infiltration also releases nutrients trapped in the upper soil layers, further boosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emerging-diseases-threaten-trees-globally-and-the-trend-is-escalating/">trees' health</a>. In these regions, earthquakes act as a temporary relief from the usual dry constraints, allowing the forests to flourish.



Interestingly, this positive effect is not temporary. The impacts of an earthquake can actually strengthen a forest's resilience and growth for over twenty years. This extended period of benefit demonstrates the remarkable ability of forests to adapt and utilize changes in their environment, transforming a disruptive event into a long-lasting advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthquake-impact-on-humid-forests">Earthquake impact on humid forests</h2>



However, the story is quite different in forests with abundant rainfall. In these areas, too much water can be detrimental, causing soil erosion and leaching away valuable nutrients. Earthquakes can worsen these problems by further saturating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-soil-sequesters-carbon-from-the-atmosphere/">soil</a>, highlighting how the benefits experienced in dry regions are specific to their environmental context.&nbsp;



This means that in places like New Zealand, known for its lush landscapes and heavy precipitation, forests struggled to recover, showing decreased growth rates in the years following an earthquake.



Furthermore, it can take just as long for forests in these wet places to recover from the damage of erosion as it takes for forests in dry places to benefit from the extra water after an earthquake.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-differences">Learning from the differences</h2>



Understanding how forests react differently to earthquakes is crucial for both appreciating the complex relationship between earth movements and ecological health and informing how we manage and conserve these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-coastal-ecosystems-can-mitigate-climate-change/">ecosystems</a>. This study emphasizes the resilience of nature and how even seemingly destructive forces can have beneficial consequences in specific situations.&nbsp;



Dr. Gao suggests that changes in how a forest recovers after a weather-related event (like a drought or storm) might last only five years. However, when the forest has been through an earthquake, the changes in how well it recovers might last 20 years or even longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The study challenges the view of earthquakes as purely destructive forces. They can have complex effects, even potentially positive ones. This shift in perspective encourages a more nuanced understanding of natural disturbances and their role in shaping ecosystems.



Dry forests, it turns out, can benefit from earthquakes due to improved water access. This suggests creating similar disruptions in the soil could help these forests, especially in drought-prone areas.



On the contrary, earthquakes worsen the environment in humid regions. This knowledge is crucial for disaster planning, as recovery efforts should be tailored to specific forest types and address erosion concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-of-earthquakes">Climate impacts of earthquakes</h2>



Forests act like giant filters, removing carbon dioxide from the air and helping to slow down climate change. The new research shows that earthquakes can affect how well forests grow and recover from damage for many years afterwards.&nbsp;



This means that earthquakes might have a bigger impact on the amount of carbon stored in the earth than we previously thought. In some places, forests might actually absorb more carbon dioxide after an earthquake because they grow faster. However, in other areas, earthquakes might make it harder for forests to store carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



Understanding how these changes work is important for creating accurate models of the climate and developing effective ways to combat climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01380-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Earthquakes have long lasting impacts on forests

Earthquakes are often seen through the lens of human experience...

Early,Universe.,Hubble,Image.,Cluster,Of,Galaxies,,Dark,Matter,,Dark

Scientists have captured the first complete spectra of some of the earliest starlight illuminating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/">universe</a>, emanating from "cosmic lighthouses." 



This remarkable achievement, using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), offers unprecedented clarity on the characteristics of very low-mass, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/cosmic-lighthouses_earliest-light-universe_JWST_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly formed galaxies</a> that emerged less than a billion years following the Big Bang. 



The research was conducted by an international team of researchers, including astrophysicists from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-time-of-transformation">A time of transformation </h2>



The spectra obtained through the study provide a window into the universe's reionization period -- a pivotal phase marked by the emergence of the first stars and galaxies. 



Joel Leja, an assistant professor of astronomy and astrophysics at Penn State and a contributing author to the study, explains the significance of this era. Initially, the universe was a dense fog of hydrogen and helium nuclei. 



Over time, as the universe expanded and cooled, these particles began to combine, forming neutral hydrogen. 



However, between 500 and 900 million years after the Big Bang, this neutral hydrogen started to ionize once more, leading to the formation of stars and galaxies and dispersing the primordial fog, thus allowing light to travel freely through space for the first time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-lighthouses">Cosmic lighthouses</h2>



Leja describes this transformative period as one where "cosmic lighthouses" began emitting high-energy photons, clearing the fog of neutral hydrogen and reionizing the universe. 



The study suggests that small, low-mass galaxies were likely responsible for this significant shift, with their young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stellar-cannibalism-scientists-find-the-remnants-of-devoured-stars/">stars</a> emitting the energy needed to heat and ionize the surrounding primordial gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-galaxies-in-the-early-universe">Observing galaxies in the early universe </h2>



The research further benefits from the JWST's sensitivity and the gravitational lensing effect of the Abell 2744 cluster, which magnifies the light from distant galaxies. 



This unique combination has made it possible to observe small galaxies from the universe's infancy, revealing that they outnumber larger galaxies by a significant margin during the reionization epoch. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprising-role-of-diminutive-galaxies">The surprising role of diminutive galaxies </h2>



Hakim Atek, an astrophysicist at Sorbonne University and the lead author of the study, emphasizes the surprising finding that these diminutive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/">galaxies</a> produced ionizing photons at a rate four times higher than previously assumed for distant galaxies. This suggests that their contribution to the universe's reionization was far more significant than anticipated.



The Penn State team, leading the modeling for the UNCOVER survey, analyzed the light from these distant galaxies to understand their properties, masses, and distances. This analysis informed subsequent JWST observations that confirmed the pivotal role of low-mass galaxies in cosmic reionization. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-reionization">Sources of reionization</h2>



Previously, the scientific community had considered several potential sources for this reionization, including supermassive black holes and larger galaxies. However, the new findings provide clear evidence that low-mass galaxies were central to this process.



Looking forward, the researchers aim to expand their study to ensure that their observations are representative of the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/">universe</a>. Their work not only sheds light on the early stages of star formation and galaxy emergence from primordial gas but also on the evolution of the cosmos into the complex universe we observe today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07043-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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'Cosmic lighthouses' emanated the earliest starlight in the universe

Scientists have captured the first complete spectra of some of...

Female,Finger,Touching,Prickly,Green,Cactus

Touch is an integral part of human interaction, enabling us to experience the world around us through hugs, handshakes, and every delicate maneuver we make. 



For decades, scientists have sought to unravel the mysteries of how we perceive touch at the molecular level. <a href="https://www.mdc-berlin.de/lewin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Gary Lewin</a>, leading the Molecular Physiology of Somatic Sensation Lab at the Max Delbrück Center, has been at the forefront of this research. 



"Although we've known that the ion channel Piezo2 is essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-way-that-humans-feel-and-sense-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch perception</a>, it's clear that this protein alone doesn't account for the full spectrum of touch sensation," explains Lewin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elkin1-new-human-touch-sensory-pathfinder">Elkin1: New human touch sensory pathfinder</h2>



Lewin's dedication to understanding touch has recently led to a breakthrough discovery: a new ion channel named Elkin1, which plays a crucial role in our ability to perceive human touch. 



This finding, published in the prestigious journal Science, marks only the second ion channel identified as critical to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-respond-self-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch perception</a>. Elkin1 appears to be directly involved in converting mechanical stimuli, like a light touch, into electrical signals that travel from the skin to the brain.



The journey to this discovery began unexpectedly while investigating a malignant melanoma cell line. The team observed that Elkin1 was essential for these cancer cells to sense mechanical forces. Intrigued by this finding, Lewin's team hypothesized that Elkin1 might also contribute to touch sensation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-human-touch-the-science-behind-elkin1">Decoding human touch: The science behind Elkin1</h2>



To explore this possibility, the researchers conducted experiments with genetically modified mice lacking the Elkin1 gene. When subjected to a simple test of touch sensitivity -- brushing their hind paws with a cotton swab -- these mice showed a significant reduction in response compared to normal mice. 



"Typically, normal mice respond to the touch of the cotton swab 90% of the time. Mice without Elkin1, however, only reacted about half as often, indicating a diminished sense of touch," Lewin notes. 



This insensitivity was specific to touch, as the mice's response to other stimuli, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-sensing-protein-skin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature changes</a>, remained unchanged.



At the neuronal level, Dr. Sampurna Chakrabarti, a member of Lewin's team, employed the patch clamp method to measure the electrical activity of sensory neurons. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-huge-potential-in-pain-management">Huge potential in pain management</h2>



The results were striking. Approximately half of the neurons from mice lacking Elkin1 failed to respond to mechanical stimuli, indicating a critical role for Elkin1 in signal transmission from touch. 



Further reinforcing the significance of Elkin1, collaborators at the <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wollongong</a>, led by Professor Mirella Dottori, found evidence suggesting Elkin1's importance in human touch perception through experiments with human sensory neurons derived from stem cells.



Lewin's research suggests that Elkin1 and Piezo2 may work together in conveying the sensation of touch. Moreover, there's emerging evidence that Elkin1 could be involved in transmitting sensations of painful mechanical stimuli. 



"If further research confirms this, we will have identified not just a second ion channel vital for touch perception but also a new target for treating chronic pain," Lewin concludes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-and-promise-of-elkin1">The future and promise of Elkin1</h2>



In summary, the discovery of Elkin1 by Professor Gary Lewin and his team marks a monumental advancement in our understanding of human touch perception, offering new insights into the molecular mechanisms that allow us to interact with the world around us. 



This important finding complements the known role of Piezo2 in touch sensation and provides new leads for developing innovative treatments for sensory disorders and chronic pain. 



With Elkin1's potential in pain management and its critical role in touch perception now coming to light, the research beckons further exploration that could revolutionize how we approach the treatment of pain and sensory dysfunctions, bringing us closer to enhancing the quality of life for millions.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl0495">Science</a>.



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Understanding human touch at the molecular basis

Touch is an integral part of human interaction, enabling us...

Imagine an early Earth billions of years ago, a young world where life as we know it was just beginning to take shape. Scientists have long pondered how the complex cells that make up plants, animals, and humans first emerged. 



A study from the <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research Institute</a> sheds light on this mystery, focusing on tiny bubbles that might have been Earth's first cells: phospholipid vesicles.



“At some point, we all wonder where we came from. We’ve now discovered a plausible way that phosphates could have been incorporated into cell-like structures earlier than previously thought, which lays the building blocks for life,” said study co-senior author Dr. Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-phospholipid-vesicles">What are phospholipid vesicles?</h2>



Phospholipid vesicles are microscopic spheres formed by special molecules called phospholipids. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">molecules</a> are unique because one part of them is attracted to water (hydrophilic), while the other part is repelled by water (hydrophobic).&nbsp;



When placed in water, phospholipids clump together in a specific way. The water-repellent parts huddle together in the center, avoiding the water, while the water-attracting parts form a double layer facing the water on either side.&nbsp;



The spheres can capture other materials inside them. This characteristic makes them valuable for two purposes: mimicking the structure of cell membranes and delivering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-is-far-better-than-drugs-to-spark-creativity/">drugs</a> within the body.



Dr. Krishnamurthy and his team investigate the chemical processes and formations that were present before life emerged on Earth. For the current study, the team set out to examine if phospholipids may have been involved during the formation of protocells. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-prepare-phospholipid-vesicles">Steps to prepare phospholipid vesicles</h2>



The researchers began by utilizing prebiotically plausible materials, meaning substances likely present on early Earth. They followed the following procedure:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cyclic-phospholipids">Formation of Cyclic-Phospholipids</h3>



The study began with short-chain fatty acids and glycerol, known to form vesicles that can encapsulate other molecules. The team introduced a phosphorylation step to the vesicles, transforming the starting materials into cyclic-phospholipids.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-generation-of-heterogeneous-vesicles">Generation of heterogeneous vesicles</h3>



The study demonstrated that incorporating cyclic-phospholipids resulted in the formation of a diverse collection of vesicles. These vesicles exhibited varied shapes and structures (morphologies) and maintained stability under various conditions, including different concentrations of metal ions, temperatures, and pH levels.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transition-to-phospholipid-vesicles">Transition to phospholipid vesicles</h3>



The phosphate group within the cyclic-phospholipids played a key role in the natural emergence of vesicles composed of diacyl-phospholipids. These diacyl-phospholipids closely resemble the phospholipid membranes of contemporary cells. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-how-did-life-begin">So, how did life begin?</h2>



The research suggests that the formation of cells might have happened in stages, starting with simple molecules joining together to form more intricate structures.&nbsp;



“The vesicles were able to transition from a fatty acid environment to a phospholipid environment during our experiments, suggesting a similar chemical environment could have existed 4 billion years ago,” noted study first author Sunil Pulletikurti.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-initial-cell-formation">Initial cell formation</h3>



The scientists propose that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-ocean-water-discovery-is-unlocking-secrets-of-earths-past/">ancient oceans</a>, basic building blocks like fatty acids could have naturally formed vesicles. The simple molecules could have changed through chemical reactions, possibly caused by factors like lightning or sunlight.&nbsp;



A crucial step was the creation of cyclic-phospholipids through the factors, which are more complex molecules compared to fatty acids and act as a stepping stone towards the phospholipids found in modern cell walls.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-advantage-of-stability-in-cells">The advantage of stability in cells</h3>



Among the different types of vesicles formed, the ones that were more stable and efficient at hosting life-sustaining chemical reactions would have been favored. This process would eventually lead to a greater number of vesicles resembling the phospholipid-based membranes found in current cells.



Over time, these vesicles could have incorporated even more complex molecules, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-in-nutrition-science-dna-barcoding-reveals-dietary-secrets/">DNA</a> and RNA, which are crucial for storing and passing on genetic information. This step is essential for the transition from non-living chemical systems to living cells, marking the beginning of the evolution of life as we know it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



“This finding helps us better understand the chemical environments of early Earth so we can uncover the origins of life and how life can evolve on early Earth,” explained Professor Krishnamurthy.&nbsp;



Overall, the study is an important step in understanding how life began, but there's still more to learn. The scientists aim to figure out why some structures merged together while others split apart. This is important because merging and splitting are essential for cells to function and reproduce. Understanding these processes could help us see how early life forms interacted with their environment and became more complex.



Ultimately, the team’s goal is to not only understand the conditions needed for life to emerge on Earth, but also to help us find life on other planets.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2024.02.007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chem</a>.



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Phospholipids: Tiny bubbles that may have been Earth's first cells

Imagine an early Earth billions of years ago, a young...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...