Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

Recent PhD research conducted at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean has revealed new insights into the potential impacts of deep-sea mining on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-upheaval-the-ecological-impact-of-deep-sea-mining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



Marine geologist Sabine Haalboom's findings illustrate that while much of the debris from mining activities -- referred to as 'dust clouds' -- settles relatively close to its source, a notable portion spreads far into the water. 



This research, carried out in the Clarion Clipperton Zone, provides a crucial understanding of how mining operations could affect these pristine environments. Haalboom defended her dissertation on this topic at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, highlighting significant concerns for deep-sea ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deep-sea mining and marine life</h2>



The depths of the ocean harbor unique ecosystems, with conditions and life forms that remain largely mysterious to scientists. These ecosystems are often fragile and sensitive to changes in their environment. 



Deep-sea mining, particularly the extraction of valuable metals like manganese nodules, disturbs the ocean floor's silt. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dangers-of-deep-sea-mining-could-soon-be-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This process</a> can create extensive dust clouds, clouding the water over vast areas and potentially impacting these pristine habitats.



Given our limited understanding of deep-sea life, these disturbances could have unforeseen effects on the delicate underwater communities. The organisms living in these depths rely on specific environmental conditions for survival. Any alteration, even minor, could disrupt their way of life, leading to unknown consequences.



The potential impact of deep-sea mining on biodiversity and marine ecosystem functions remains a significant concern. Therefore, deep-sea mining's environmental footprint needs careful consideration. 



Researchers stress the importance of thorough studies to understand the full implications before engaging in large-scale mining operations in these unexplored and vulnerable areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-mining-s-environmental-footprint">Deep-sea mining's environmental footprint</h2>



Haalboom utilized various instruments to measure the quantity and size of suspended particles in the ocean water. Her experiments took place in the Clarion Clipperton Zone, an area rich in manganese nodules. 



She dragged a 500-kilogram grid of steel chains across a 500-meter stretch of the seabed. This action stirred up a significant amount of sediment, resulting in immediate murkiness in the water.



Initially, most of this stirred-up material settled quickly, within a few hundred meters of the disturbance site. This quick settling suggested that the immediate impact of mining activities might be localized. However, further observations revealed a different aspect. 



A small fraction of the sediment did not settle quickly and remained suspended in the water. This suspended sediment was visible even hundreds of meters away from the initial disturbance.



These findings highlight the potential for deep-sea mining activities to affect broader areas of the marine environment, emphasizing the need for thorough research before large-scale mining operations proceed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-clouds">Persistent clouds</h2>



Further studies have shown that these "dust clouds" can travel up to five kilometers from the original mining site. This persistence poses a potential threat to the clarity of the water, which is typically crystal clear and vital for the survival of local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



The scarce food available in these clear waters is crucial for the organisms that inhabit the deep sea, making even small changes to their environment potentially impactful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-consequences">Additional consequences</h2>



Deep-sea mining poses additional risks. It can disrupt habitats, leading to the loss of biodiversity. The noise and vibrations from mining equipment can affect marine life, particularly species reliant on echolocation. 



Deep-sea mining activities can release toxic substances trapped in seabed sediments, contaminating the water and harming marine organisms. The physical removal of substrate can destroy slow-growing deep-sea corals and sponges, critical for ecosystem health. 



Additionally, the increased human activity could introduce invasive species, further threatening native marine life. These potential impacts underscore the need for cautious, well-informed approaches to deep-sea mining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-research-in-deep-sea-mining">Need for research in deep-sea mining</h2>



Haalboom's co-promoter, NIOZ oceanographer Henko de Stigter, has expressed concern over the rapid commercial interest in deep-sea mining. He argues that the initial findings of quick sediment settling do not capture the full potential impact of these mining activities on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-damage-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea ecosystems</a>. 



The long-term effects of even minimal sediment dispersal are still unknown, prompting both Haalboom and De Stigter to advocate for more extensive research before proceeding with large-scale mining operations.



In conclusion, while deep-sea mining presents a tempting opportunity to extract valuable resources, the potential risks to unknown marine ecosystems and the broader environmental impacts demand careful consideration. 



The call for further study is clear: we must fully understand the consequences of our actions in these remote, unexplored parts of our planet before making irreversible decisions.



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Deep-sea mining forms 'dust clouds' that devastate marine life

Recent PhD research conducted at the bottom of the Pacific...

3d,Abstract,Illustration,Of,Colorful,Human,Brain

Colors are an integral part of our daily lives, from the vibrant red of a ripe strawberry to the deep brown of a child's eyes. However, have you ever stopped to wonder how our brains process the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory information</a> that allows us to perceive these colors? 



A recent study by neuroscientists at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> has shed new light on this fascinating topic, identifying for the first time the brain-cell circuitry in fruit flies that converts raw sensory signals into color perceptions.



Led by Dr. Rudy Behnia, a principal investigator at Columbia's Zuckerman Institute, the research team published their intriguing findings in the prestigious journal Nature Neuroscience. 



"Many of us take for granted the rich colors we see every day," said Dr. Behnia, the corresponding author on the paper. "But those colors do not exist outside of our brains."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-role-in-color-perception">Brain's role in color perception</h2>



As Dr. Behnia explains, colors are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-changes-with-our-walking-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceptions</a> that the brain constructs as it makes sense of the longer and shorter wavelengths of light detected by the eyes. 



This process of turning sensory signals into perceptions about the world is crucial for the survival and well-being of organisms.



"To ask how we perceive the world seems like a simple question, but answering it is a challenge," added Dr. Behnia. "My hope is that our efforts to uncover <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural principles</a> underlying color perception will help us better understand how brains extract the features in the environment that are important for making it through each day."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-hue-selective-neurons">Discovering hue-selective neurons</h2>



In their study, the research team discovered specific networks of neurons, a type of brain cell, in fruit flies that respond selectively to various hues. 



Hue denotes the perceived colors associated with specific wavelengths, or combinations of wavelengths of light, which themselves are not inherently colorful. These hue-selective neurons lie within the optic lobe, the brain area responsible for vision.



The neurons respond to hues that people would perceive as violet, as well as others that correspond to ultraviolet wavelengths, which are not detectable by humans. 



Detecting UV hues is important for the survival of some creatures, such as bees and perhaps fruit flies, as many plants possess ultraviolet patterns that can help guide insects to pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-mechanisms-behind-hue-selectivity">Neural mechanisms behind hue selectivity</h2>



While scientists had previously reported finding neurons in animals' brains that respond selectively to different colors or hues, no one had been able to trace the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural mechanisms</a> making this hue selectivity possible. This is where the recent availability of a fly-brain connectome proved invaluable.



The connectome, an intricate map detailing how some 130,000 neurons and 50 million synapses in a fruit-fly's poppy seed-sized brain are interconnected, served as a reference for the researchers. 



Using their observations of brain cells, they developed a diagram they suspected represents the neuronal circuitry behind hue selectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mathematical-models-and-recurrent-connectivity">Mathematical models and recurrent connectivity</h2>



To better understand the complexities of these brain cells and their interconnections, the scientists portrayed the circuits as mathematical models, simulating and probing the circuits' activities and capabilities.



"The mathematical models serve as tools that enable us to better understand something as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">messy and complex</a> as all of these brain cells and their interconnections," said Dr. Matthias Christenson, a co-first author on the paper and a former member of Dr. Behnia's lab. "With the models, we can work to make sense of all of this complexity."



The modeling not only revealed that these circuits can host activity required for hue selectivity but also pointed to a type of cell-to-cell interconnectivity, known as recurrence, without which hue-selectivity cannot happen. In a neural circuitry with recurrence, outputs of the circuit circle back in to become inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-role-of-recurrent-connectivity">Confirming the role of recurrent connectivity</h2>



To further validate their findings, the researchers conducted an additional experiment. "When we used a genetic technique to disrupt part of this recurrent connectivity in the brains of fruit flies, the neurons that previously showed hue-selective activity lost that property," said Dr. Álvaro Sanz-Diez, a postdoctoral researcher in Dr. Behnia's lab and the other co-first author of the paper. "This reinforced our confidence that we really had discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-perception-speed-varies-greatly-among-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain circuitry</a> involved in color perception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-understanding-color-perception">Implications of understanding color perception</h2>



This research by Dr. Behnia and her team has provided new insights into how the brain's wiring enables the construction of a perceptual representation of color. 



"Now we know a little more about how the brain's wiring makes it possible to build a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-can-change-the-colors-we-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceptual representation</a> of color," said Dr. Behnia. "My hope is that our new findings can help explain how brains produce all kinds of perceptions, among them color, sound and taste."



This study advances our understanding of color perception and paves the way for future research into the neural mechanisms behind other sensory perceptions. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the brain, we move closer to comprehending the complex processes that shape our experience of the world around us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01640-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Neuroscience</a>.



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How the brain turns light waves into rich colors and experiences

Colors are an integral part of our daily lives, from...

Quantum,Tunnel:,A,Voyage,Through,Molecular,Symmetry

In the fascinating realm of quantum physics, particles seem to defy the laws of classical mechanics, exhibiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mind-bending phenomena</a> that challenge our understanding of the universe. One such phenomenon is quantum tunneling.



In quantum tunnels, particles appear to move faster than the speed of light, seemingly breaking the fundamental rules set by Einstein's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theory of relativity</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-time-in-the-quantum-world">Redefining time in the quantum world</h2>



However, a group of physicists from <a href="https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/index.en.jsp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Darmstadt</a> has proposed a new method to measure the time it takes for particles to tunnel, suggesting that previous experiments may have been inaccurate.



Patrik Schach and Enno Giese, physicists from TU Darmstadt, have published their groundbreaking experiment design in the prestigious journal Science Advances. 



Their approach aims to redefine the concept of "time" for a tunneling particle, taking into account the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-laws-thermodynamics-follow-entropy-rule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum nature</a> of the phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-step-understanding-quantum-tunnels">First step: Understanding quantum tunnels</h2>



Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon in quantum mechanics where a particle, such as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intense-quantum-light-generates-weird-electron-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron</a>, passes through a potential energy barrier that it classically cannot surmount. 



In classical physics, if a particle doesn't have enough energy to overcome a barrier, it will simply bounce back or stop. 



However, in quantum mechanics, particles exhibit wave-like properties, and there is a probability that the particle can "tunnel" through the barrier, even if it lacks the energy to cross it classically.



Here are some key points to understand about quantum tunnels:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wave-particle-duality">Wave-particle duality</h3>



Particles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bridging-quantum-classical-physics-nanoparticle-entanglement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> possess both wave and particle properties. The wave nature of particles allows them to exhibit behaviors that are not possible in classical physics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-tunnels-and-probability">Quantum tunnels and probability</h3>



The probability of a particle tunneling through a barrier depends on factors such as the barrier's width and height, and the particle's energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-conservation">Energy conservation</h3>



Quantum tunneling does not violate the law of energy conservation. The particle does not gain or lose energy while tunneling. Instead, it appears on the other side of the barrier with the same energy it had before.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-for-quantum-tunnels">Applications for quantum tunnels</h3>



Quantum tunneling has numerous practical applications, including scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), which allows scientists to image surfaces at the atomic level, and flash memory drives that use quantum tunneling to store and access data.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radioactive-decay">Radioactive decay</h3>



Quantum tunneling also plays a role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fifth-force-of-nature-subatomic-particles-are-defying-the-laws-of-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radioactive decay</a>, where particles escape the nucleus of an atom despite not having enough energy to overcome the nuclear potential barrier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-nature-of-particles">Dual nature of particles</h2>



According to quantum physics, small particles such as atoms or light particles possess a dual nature, behaving like both particles and waves depending on the experiment. 



As mentioned previously, quantum tunneling highlights the wave nature of particles, where a "wave packet" rolls towards an energy barrier, and a small portion of it penetrates the barrier, resulting in a probability that the particle will appear on the other side.



"But the particle does not follow a path in the classical sense," objects Enno Giese. "It is impossible to say exactly where the particle is at a particular time. This makes it difficult to make statements about the time required to get from A to B."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-particles-as-clocks">Using particles as clocks</h2>



Inspired by Albert Einstein's quote, "Time is what you read off a clock," Schach and Giese propose using the tunneling particle itself as a clock, with a second non-tunneling particle serving as a reference. 



By comparing these two natural clocks, they aim to determine whether time elapses slower, faster, or equally fast during quantum tunneling.



The researchers suggest using atoms as clocks, taking advantage of the oscillating energy levels within them. By addressing an atom with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intense-quantum-light-generates-weird-electron-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser pulse</a>, its levels initially oscillate in sync, starting the atomic clock. 



During tunneling, the rhythm shifts slightly, and a second laser pulse causes the two internal waves of the atom to interfere. Detecting this interference allows for precise measurement of the elapsed time.



"The clock that is tunneled is slightly older than the other," says Patrik Schach, contradicting experiments that attributed superluminal speed to tunneling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Pushing the boundaries of experimental physics</h2>



While the proposed experiment can be carried out with today's technology, it presents a significant challenge for experimenters. The time difference to be measured is extremely short, around 10-26 seconds. 



To overcome this, the researchers suggest using clouds of atoms as clocks instead of individual atoms and amplifying the effect by artificially increasing the clock frequencies.



"We are currently discussing this idea with experimental colleagues and are in contact with our project partners," adds Giese. The possibility of a team deciding to carry out this exciting experiment in the near future is quite real.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-time-works-in-quantum-tunnels">Understanding how time works in quantum tunnels</h2>



In summary, Patrik Schach and Enno Giese's experiment design challenges our understanding of time and particle behavior in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graviton-like-particle-observed-in-quantum-material-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum realm</a>. 



By proposing a new method to measure the time it takes for particles to tunnel, they are questioning previous assumptions about superluminal speeds and presenting new avenues for exploring the mysteries of quantum physics. 



As they collaborate with experimental colleagues and project partners, the possibility of conducting this exciting experiment draws closer, promising to unlock the secrets of the quantum universe and pave the way for a deeper understanding of the fundamental nature of reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl6078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Quantum tunnels allow particles to break the light-speed barrier

In the fascinating realm of quantum physics, particles seem to...

Photon-number distributions of various light sources have been studied extensively, but little is known about the statistical distribution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massless-dirac-electrons-seen-moving-in-four-dimensions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> emitted under the effect of intense quantum light. 



However, researchers at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light (<a href="https://mpl.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPL</a>) and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (<a href="https://www.fau.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) have made a discovery that highlights this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-electron-emission-from-quantum-light">Studying electron emission from quantum light</h2>



Published in the journal Nature Physics, the study led by Prof. Maria Chekhova at MPL and Prof. Peter Hommelhoff at FAU reveals extreme and highly unusual statistical events in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/no-electron-dancing-allowed-new-molecular-design-rules/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron-number</a> distributions obtained when nanometer-sized metal needle tips are illuminated with ultrashort pulses of bright quantum light. 



These findings prove that the number of electrons is influenced by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-leap-making-light-waves-stand-still-photonic-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light statistics</a> and contribute to a deeper understanding of the process of electron emission, which could help further improve electron microscopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-electron-emission">Understanding electron emission</h2>



Electron emission is the process by which electrons are released from a material, typically a metal or semiconductor, into a vacuum or another medium. There are several types of electron emission, each with its own unique characteristics and underlying mechanisms. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermionic-emission">Thermionic emission</h3>



<ul>
<li>Occurs when a material is heated to high temperatures, causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/attosecond-electron-freeze-frame-of-liquid-water-seen-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> to gain enough energy to overcome the work function and escape the surface.</li>



<li>Commonly used in vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and electron microscopes.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photoelectric-emission">Photoelectric emission</h3>



<ul>
<li>Happens when a material absorbs photons (light particles) with sufficient energy to overcome the work function, causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrons-in-graphene-exhibit-very-strange-fractional-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> to be ejected from the surface.</li>



<li>The basis for photoelectric sensors, solar cells, and photomultiplier tubes.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-emission">Field emission</h3>



<ul>
<li>Involves applying a strong external electric field to a material, which narrows the potential barrier and allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-vibrating-atoms-tune-single-electron-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> to tunnel through the barrier and escape the surface.</li>



<li>Used in field emission displays, electron microscopes, and vacuum microelectronics.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secondary-electron-emission">Secondary electron emission</h3>



<ul>
<li>Occurs when a material is bombarded with high-energy particles (e.g., electrons or ions), causing the emission of low-energy secondary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transmitting-quantum-information-using-electron-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> from the surface.</li>



<li>Important in electron multipliers, photomultiplier tubes, and scanning electron microscopes.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-schottky-emission">Schottky emission</h3>



<ul>
<li>A combination of thermionic and field emission, where an external electric field lowers the work function, making it easier for electrons to escape the surface at lower temperatures.</li>



<li>Used in high-brightness electron sources and vacuum microelectronics.</li>
</ul>



The study of electron emission is crucial for understanding the behavior of materials under various conditions and for developing advanced technologies such as electron microscopes, vacuum electronics, and energy conversion devices. 



By manipulating the factors that influence electron emission, researchers can design materials and devices with specific electronic properties tailored to various applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-needle-tips-electrons-and-quantum-light">Needle tips, electrons, and quantum light </h2>



In this collaborative project, the researchers illuminate nanometer-sized metal needle tips with pulses of classical light and quantum light. They then detect the electrons released from the metal and study their statistical properties.



When classical light is used, the electrons follow a Poissonian distribution, meaning that each electron is emitted independently of the others. This results in only slight variations in the number of electrons emitted from pulse to pulse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-squeezed-vacuum-quantum-light">'Bright squeezed vacuum' quantum light</h2>



By switching to a quantum light source called <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/electrons_optical-setup_bright-squeezed-vacuum_credit-Tanya-Chekhova_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright squeezed vacuum</a>, which exhibits strong photon-number fluctuations, the researchers demonstrated that the statistics of photons can be transferred to electrons. 



Using this technique, they measured extreme statistical events with up to 65 electrons from a single light pulse, with an average value of 0.27 electrons per pulse.



To put this into perspective, if the electrons followed a Poissonian distribution, the probability of such an event -- an outlier exceeding the mean by a factor of 240 -- would be as low as 10-128. 



By changing the number of modes of the squeezed vacuum, the scientists could tailor the electron-number distribution on demand.



"Our results show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secure-quantum-communication-one-step-closer-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photon statistics</a> are imprinted from the driving light onto the emitted electrons, opening the door to new sensor devices and strong-field optics with quantum light and electrons," says Maria Chekhova, research group leader at MPL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raisin-muffins-and-electron-distributions">Raisin muffins and electron distributions</h2>



Jonas Heimerl, an FAU Ph.D. student, explains the dimensions of this discovery using an everyday example. 



"If you spread raisins on muffins, the probability of finding a certain number of raisins in the muffin follows a Poisson distribution. Let us assume that there is an average (mean) of two raisins per muffin," Heimerl pontificated. 



"It may therefore happen that there are no raisins or five raisins in the muffin, but in most cases, there will be two. However, the probability of getting more than 50 raisins is impossible with a Poisson distribution," he explained.



In contrast, the multi-electron events observed in these experiments were like finding 480 raisins in a single muffin -- a discovery that would undoubtedly delight any raisin lover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-light-opens-doors-to-tech-innovation">Quantum light opens doors to tech innovation</h2>



In summary, this research from MPL and FAU has unveiled the surprising influence of quantum light on electron emission. 



By illuminating nanometer-sized metal needle tips with bright squeezed vacuum, they have demonstrated that the statistical properties of photons can be imprinted onto electrons, leading to extreme and highly unusual electron-number distributions.



This discovery deepens our understanding of the fundamental processes governing electron emission and opens doors to exciting possibilities for the development of new sensor devices, advancements in electron microscopy, and the exploration of strong-field optics with quantum light and electrons.



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the quantum world, these findings serve as a testament to the power of innovative research and the potential for quantum phenomena to revolutionize our understanding of the universe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-024-02472-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



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Intense quantum light generates ‘weird’ electron behavior

Photon-number distributions of various light sources have been studied extensively,...

The,Soul,Nebula,(ic,1848,,Sh2-199),,Deep,Space,Object,In

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has identified a cosmic cocktail of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-building chemicals</a>, compound organic molecules (COMs) surrounding two young protostars, IRAS 2A and <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/biggest-block_protostar-IRAS-23385_compound-organic-molecules_deep-space_webb-NASA_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IRAS 23385</a>. 



These ingredients, which include ethanol, acetic acid, and other complex organic molecules (COMs), could potentially be the building blocks for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trappist-1-has-seven-earth-like-planets-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable worlds</a>.



The findings, published by an international team of astronomers led by Will Rocha of <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a> in the Netherlands, shed light on the long-standing question of the origin of COMs in space. 



"The detection of COMs in ices suggests that solid-phase chemical reactions on the surfaces of cold dust grains can build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex kinds of molecules</a>," said Rocha.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-complex-organic-molecules-coms">Understanding complex organic molecules (COMs)</h2>



Complex organic molecules, or COMs, are carbon-based compounds that contain six or more atoms, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. These molecules play a crucial role in the formation of life as we know it.



Scientists believe that COMs form on the surfaces of cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust grains in space</a> through solid-phase chemical reactions. 



The presence of COMs in space raises exciting questions about the potential for life to emerge on other planets and the role these molecules may have played in the origin of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-space-journey-of-complex-organic-molecules">Deep space journey of complex organic molecules</h2>



The discovery of COMs in ices has significant implications for understanding the origins of even larger molecules in space. 



As these dust grains come together to form comets and asteroids, the COMs hitch a ride on these celestial bodies. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bouncing-comets-could-deliver-lifes-building-blocks-to-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets and asteroids</a> collide with planets, they deliver these essential building blocks of life to the planetary surfaces.



"All of these molecules can become part of comets and asteroids and eventually new planetary systems when the icy material is transported inward to the planet-forming disk as the protostellar system evolves," explained Ewine van Dishoeck of Leiden University, one of the coordinators of the science program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formic-acid-and-other-simple-molecules-detected">Formic acid and other simple molecules detected</h2>



In addition to the complex organic molecules, the science team also detected simpler compounds, including formic acid, methane, formaldehyde, and sulfur dioxide. 



Formic acid, known for causing the burning sensation of an ant sting, and sulfur-containing compounds like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-may-have-played-key-role-origin-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfur dioxide</a> are thought to have played a crucial role in driving metabolic reactions on early Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iras-2a-is-a-window-into-our-solar-system-s-past">IRAS 2A is a window into our solar system's past</h2>



Of particular interest is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/biggest-block_protostar-IRAS-2A_compound-organic-molecules_deep-space_graphic-analysis_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-mass protostar IRAS 2A</a>, which may be similar to the early stages of our own solar system. 



The chemicals identified around this protostar could provide insights into the development of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-sparking-energy-source-found-on-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> and the delivery of life-sustaining ingredients to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-life-on-earth-may-have-been-found-in-ancient-hot-springs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a>.



"We look forward to following this astrochemical trail step-by-step with more Webb data in the coming years," said van Dishoeck, highlighting the importance of continued research in this field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-chemicals-that-shaped-life-on-earth">Uncovering the chemicals that shaped life on Earth</h2>



As the James Webb Space Telescope continues to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos, its stunning discoveries, like the detection of complex organic molecules around protostars IRAS 2A and IRAS 23385, bring us closer to understanding the origins of life in the universe. 



These findings not only shed light on the chemical processes that occur in the early stages of star and planet formation but also hint at the possibility of life-sustaining ingredients being delivered to planets like our own. 



As astronomers eagerly await further data from the Webb telescope, we stand on the brink of unlocking the secrets of our cosmic origins and answering the profound question of whether we are alone in this vast and wondrous universe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/component/article?access=doi&amp;doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202348427" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Biggest known space cloud of life-building complex chemicals discovered

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has identified a cosmic cocktail...

The largest solar storm in more than a decade struck Earth over the weekend of May 10-12, 2024. Many of us enjoyed colorful auroras that lit up Earth's protective atmosphere, while spacecraft endured incredibly strong solar winds and electromagnetic radiation buffeting them.



The ESA/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (<a href="https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOHO</a>), positioned between the sun and Earth, caught the entire solar storm outburst on camera. 



The video shows the sun spewing out clouds of particles, with an extremely large burst sent to Earth on May 11, 2024. <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/soho_solar-storms_eruption-video_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter and Venus appear</a> as bright spots on the left and right.



SOHO's LASCO instrument, a coronagraph made up of a telescope with a disk blocking the center of view, took this video. By blocking out the direct light coming from the sun, the instrument can see light from the surrounding corona.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4F7sAr4Sxu-3627050-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-solar-storms">Understanding solar storms</h2>



Solar storms are massive eruptions on the sun that release a tremendous amount of energy in the form of solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and solar wind. These phenomena can have significant effects on Earth and human technology. Here are some key points about solar storms:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-flares">Solar flares</h3>



These are sudden, intense bursts of radiation that occur when magnetic energy built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly released. They can cause radio blackouts and disrupt satellite communications.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coronal-mass-ejections-cmes">Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)</h3>



CMEs are huge explosions of plasma and magnetic fields from the sun's corona. They can carry billions of tons of solar material and travel at speeds up to several million miles per hour.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind">Solar wind</h3>



The sun continuously emits a stream of charged particles called the solar wind. During a solar storm, the speed and density of the solar wind can significantly increase.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-storms">Geomagnetic storms</h3>



When the charged particles from a solar storm reach Earth, they can interact with our planet's magnetic field, causing geomagnetic storms. These can lead to beautiful auroras but can also disrupt power grids and satellite operations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-technology">Impact on technology</h3>



Solar storms can affect GPS navigation, high-frequency radio communication, and satellite operations. In severe cases, they can even cause power outages on Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-cycle">Solar cycle</h3>



The frequency and intensity of solar storms vary over an approximately 11-year cycle, known as the solar cycle. The most recent solar cycle, Solar Cycle 25, began in December 2019.



Monitoring solar activity is crucial for predicting and mitigating the potential impacts of solar storms on Earth and our technology. Spacecraft like SOHO play a vital role in this effort.



Video Credit: SOHO (ESA &amp; NASA)



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SOHO satellite captures amazing video of the recent solar storm

The largest solar storm in more than a decade struck...

When the Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope (TRAPPIST) at Chile's La Silla Observatory unveiled two rocky planets in the TRAPPIST-1 solar system in 2016, it marked the beginning of a significant astronomical discovery. Further scrutiny in 2017 added five more planets to this tally. 



The excitement around this discovery was not just about the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-discovered-with-an-ocean-not-far-from-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> but their potential to harbor liquid water -- up to four of these planets are ideally situated from their star to support this life-sustaining liquid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trappist-1-s-habitability">TRAPPIST-1's habitability</h2>



The interest in TRAPPIST-1 has hardly waned, as the presence of seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-earth-like-planet-discovered-in-big-dipper-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like planets</a> within a single system presents a rare opportunity to explore numerous questions concerning the habitability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-earth-sized-exoplanet-covered-in-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>. 



These planets orbit a red dwarf star, known for its powerful flares, which raises crucial questions about the ability of such stars to sustain planetary atmospheres.



Recent research, which will appear in the Planetary Science Journal and is currently accessible via the preprint server arXiv, delves into these concerns. 



The study, titled "The Implications of Thermal Hydrodynamic Atmospheric Escape on the TRAPPIST-1 Planets," was spearheaded by Megan Gialluca, a graduate student in the Astronomy and Astrobiology Program at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-m-dwarfs">Challenges of M dwarfs</h2>



M dwarfs, such as TRAPPIST-1, are the most common type of star in the Milky Way. They frequently host terrestrial planets, making them a focal point for the search for habitable worlds. Despite their abundance, M dwarfs present significant challenges for the habitability of their surrounding planets.



One major issue is that M dwarfs emit powerful flares. These flares can dramatically increase the star's brightness within minutes, which can strip away planetary atmospheres or alter their composition. 



Another challenge is the location of TRAPPIST-1 systems habitable zones. These zones are so close to the star that planets within them are likely to be tidally locked. 



Tidal locking means one side of the planet always faces the star, experiencing continual daylight and heat, while the other side remains in perpetual darkness and cold. This can create extreme atmospheric conditions, making it difficult for life as we know it to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observational-tools">Observational tools</h2>



The ability to study such phenomena is crucial. "As M dwarfs are the most common stars in our local stellar neighborhood, whether their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary systems</a> can harbor life is a key question in astrobiology that may be amenable to observational tests in the near term," the researchers explain. 



They note the potential of the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) to provide detailed atmospheric characterizations. Additionally, future telescopes like the European Extremely Large Telescope and the Giant Magellan Telescope are expected to advance our understanding of TRAPPIST-1 system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-habitability">Implications for habitability</h2>



The research conducted simulations of early atmospheres for each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-provides-new-insights-into-a-distant-star-and-its-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRAPPIST-1 planet</a>, considering various initial water amounts and levels of stellar radiation. 



The findings suggest a grim outlook for the planets closest to the star, with likely desiccation occurring unless they began with exceptionally high water contents. 



Conversely, the outer planets, specifically T1-e, f, g, and h, show potential for retaining some of their water, making them particularly intriguing subjects for further study due to their placement within the habitable zone.



The team's simulations reveal, "We find the interior planets T1-b, c, and d are likely desiccated for all but the largest initial water contents (&gt;60, 50, and 30 TO, respectively) and are at the greatest risk of complete atmospheric loss due to their proximity to the host star." 



Despite the bleak outlook for these inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>, there's a silver lining for T1-c, which could retain significant atmospheric oxygen, a potential indicator of biological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-in-trappist-1">Search for life in TRAPPIST-1</h2>



The TRAPPIST-1 system continues to be a high-priority target for observations, which are crucial to understanding the potential for life on these distant worlds. 



"These conclusions motivate follow-up observations to search for the presence of water vapor or oxygen on T1-c and future observations of the outer planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system, which may possess substantial water," conclude the authors. 



Through these continued efforts, we may soon discover whether these distant planets could indeed support life, bringing us closer to answering the profound question of our solitude or company in the universe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.02401" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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TRAPPIST-1 has seven Earth-like planets that may support life

When the Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope (TRAPPIST) at...

Vegan,Leather,Shoes,From,Mushroom,Mycelium,And,Samples,Of,Vegan

The fashion world is buzzing about a new material that's changing the game: mushroom leather. Made from mycelium, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-vegan-leather-could-transform-the-fashion-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovative textile</a> is taking the industry by storm, offering a sustainable and stylish alternative to traditional leather. 



But it's not just about looking good -- this fungal fashion movement is about embracing a more eco-conscious and cruelty-free approach to clothing production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-mycelium">Understanding mycelium</h2>



What makes mushroom leather so remarkable? It all starts with mycelium, the thread-like, dense cellular structure that forms the vegetative <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/understanding-fungi-characteristics-and-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">part of a fungus</a>. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycelium</a> consists of a network of fine white filaments called hyphae. These hyphae can penetrate various substrates, including soil, wood, and organic matter. It is the main growth structure of fungi, playing a crucial role in nutrient absorption and decomposition. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-function-and-ecological-role">Function and ecological role</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-engage-in-more-conversations-after-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycelium</a> serves as the primary mode of nutrient absorption for fungi. It breaks down complex organic materials into simpler compounds that the fungus can absorb and utilize. 



It also plays a vital role in ecosystems as a decomposer, breaking down dead organic matter and recycling nutrients back into the soil. This process is essential for soil health and plant growth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbiosis-and-applications">Symbiosis and applications</h3>



Some fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants through mycelium. One example is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>, which form mutualistic associations with plant roots, enhancing the plant's nutrient uptake while receiving carbohydrates in return.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-beginners-guide-to-mycology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycelium</a> has various applications, including in agriculture (as a natural fertilizer), medicine (antibiotics and other drugs), environmental cleanup (bioremediation), and now textiles (mushroom leather). It is also being explored for use in sustainable materials, such as biodegradable packaging and building materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mycelium-as-the-backbone-of-mushroom-leather">Mycelium as the backbone of mushroom leather</h2>



Scientists and designers have discovered that this humble organism can be harnessed to create a material that closely resembles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-fashion-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traditional</a> leather in texture, durability, and versatility.



Unlike animal leather, which requires intensive processing and generates harmful waste products, mycelium leather is cultivated through a natural process. 



By growing mycelium on agricultural waste or other organic matter, it can grow into sheets that can be tanned, dyed, and transformed into a variety of fashion products.



"As our world searches for sustainable alternatives to traditional materials, there has been growing interest in using living organisms to produce biodegradable material substitutes with low environmental impact -- such as mycelium leather, which is an eco-friendly leather alternative," explains lead author of the study Assia Crawford, of the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado</a> in the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-traditional-leather">Environmental impact of traditional leather</h2>



Traditional leather production significantly harms the environment. Raising livestock for leather involves deforestation, water pollution, and substantial greenhouse gas emissions. The process also requires large amounts of water and land, contributing to further environmental degradation. 



Synthetic leather alternatives, derived from petroleum-based products, are not without issues. These alternatives involve extracting fossil fuels, which has its own set of environmental costs, including pollution and long-term degradation.



In contrast, mycelium leather presents a much more sustainable option. It does not need large tracts of land, reducing the pressure on natural habitats and forests. 



Mycelium leather production also requires less water, addressing one of the significant issues associated with traditional leather. The energy required to produce mycelium leather is lower, making the process more efficient and less harmful. 



Moreover, the production process of mycelium leather generates fewer harmful byproducts, contributing to a cleaner, more sustainable manufacturing method. This makes mycelium leather a promising alternative that can help reduce the environmental impact of the fashion industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-mycelium-leather">Evolution of mycelium leather</h2>



The development of mycelium leather has been a journey of innovation and experimentation.&nbsp;Researchers have been exploring different cultivation methods,&nbsp;refining the texture and quality of the material,&nbsp;and experimenting with various applications in fashion and design.



Early pioneers in this field focused on growing mycelium on solid substrates like agricultural waste.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;newer techniques have emerged,&nbsp;such as submerged fermentation,&nbsp;which allows for greater control over the growth process and produces a more uniform material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-fashion-is-fungal">Future of fashion is fungal</h2>



The possibilities for the new leather are endless.&nbsp;From high-end luxury brands to sustainable startups,&nbsp;designers are embracing this versatile material to create a wide range of products.&nbsp;We're seeing mycelium leather used in everything from shoes and handbags to jackets and upholstery.



But the impact of mycelium leather extends beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-fast-fashion-jeans-bad-for-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fashion</a> industry.&nbsp;Its potential applications span various sectors, including automotive interiors,&nbsp;furniture,&nbsp;and even construction materials.&nbsp;This versatile and sustainable material could pave the way for a more eco-conscious future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mycelium-leather-challenges-and-opportunities">Mycelium leather challenges and opportunities</h2>



While the future of mycelium leather looks bright,&nbsp;there are still challenges to overcome.&nbsp;Scaling up production to meet growing demand remains a key hurdle.&nbsp;Additionally,&nbsp;ensuring consistency in quality and texture across different batches of mycelium leather is an ongoing challenge.



However,&nbsp;as research and development continue,&nbsp;these challenges are being addressed.&nbsp;New technologies and techniques are emerging to streamline production and improve the overall quality of mycelium leather.



As consumers become more aware of the environmental and ethical impact of their fashion choices,&nbsp;the demand for sustainable and cruelty-free alternatives is on the rise.&nbsp;The newly developed leather from fungus offers a compelling solution,&nbsp;combining style and sustainability in a way that benefits both the planet and its inhabitants.



So,&nbsp;the next time you're updating your wardrobe,&nbsp;consider opting for a mycelium leather accessory or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fragrance-releasing-fabric-gym-clothes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">garment</a>.&nbsp;By supporting this innovative and eco-friendly material,&nbsp;you're not just making a fashion statement – you're contributing to a more sustainable and compassionate future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/research-directions-biotechnology-design/article/growing-mycelium-leather-a-paste-substrate-approach-with-posttreatments/8B0BAD4C1481BDE26583408B4FAA9D13" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Directions: Biotechnology Design</a>.



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'Mushroom leather' is quickly becoming the latest eco-friendly fashion trend

The fashion world is buzzing about a new material that's...

Long considered cold-blooded behemoths, new research challenges the conventional wisdom about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megaraptor-species-named-fujianipus-yingliangi-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>. The study suggests that some of these ancient creatures may have been <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/sites/news/files/styles/large_image/public/dromaeosaur_in_the_snow_by_davide_bonadonna_squared_-_hd_cropped_again.jpg?itok=yP90Eftt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warm-blooded</a>, a revelation that could rewrite our understanding of their evolutionary history and physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-dinosaurs-warm-blooded-traits">Climate impact on dinosaurs' warm-blooded traits</h2>



Picture this: It's the Early Jurassic period. Intense volcanic activity triggers a global warming event known as the Jenkyns event. This dramatic climate shift leads to the extinction of various plant species. It paves the way for the emergence of many new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-of-the-dinosaurs-were-warm-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> groups.



But what's truly remarkable is the impact of this environmental crisis. It may have been the catalyst for endothermy, which is the ability to internally generate heat. This trait is a defining characteristic of mammals and birds.



Endothermy allowed certain dinosaurs to thrive in changing climates. This adaptation enabled them to maintain high activity levels and survive in colder environments. The evolution of endothermy marks a significant turning point in dinosaur physiology. It highlights their incredible ability to adapt to environmental challenges.



"Our analyses show that different climate preferences emerged among the main <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-less-intelligent-than-modern-day-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> groups around the time of the Jenkyns event 183 million years&nbsp;ago,"&nbsp;explained study lead author Dr. Alfio Alessandro Chiarenza of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/earth-sciences/ucl-earth-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Earth Sciences</a>.



"The adoption of endothermy, perhaps a result of this environmental crisis, may have enabled theropods and ornithischians to thrive in colder environments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theropods-and-ornithischians">Theropods and ornithischians</h2>



Theropods, the group that includes the iconic T. rex and Velociraptor, and ornithischians, which include relatives of the plant-eating Stegosaurus and Triceratops, were the first to embrace this newfound ability to regulate their body temperature. 



This allowed the dinosaurs to venture into colder climates, where they could remain active for longer periods, grow faster, and produce more offspring.



"Theropods also include birds and our study suggests that birds' unique temperature regulation may have had its origin in this Early Jurassic epoch,"&nbsp;noted co-author Dr. Sara Varela of the <a href="https://www.uvigo.gal/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidade de Vigo</a>.



But what about the other major dinosaur group, the sauropods? These gentle giants, including the Brontosaurus and Diplodocus, opted to stick to warmer climates. They achieved this by growing to enormous sizes, which helped them retain heat due to their smaller surface area to volume ratio.



"Sauropods, on the other hand, which stayed in warmer climates, grew to a gigantic size at around this time – another possible adaptation due to environmental pressure,"&nbsp;said Dr. Varela.&nbsp;"Their smaller surface area to volume ratio would have meant these larger creatures would lose heat at a reduced rate, allowing them to stay active for longer."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-revolution-from-cold-to-warm-blooded">Dinosaur revolution from cold to warm-blooded</h2>



This study fundamentally challenges the long-held notion that all dinosaurs were cold-blooded. It reveals a more complex picture of their physiology. Dinosaurs were not uniform in thermoregulation. They showcased diverse adaptations to their environments.



The evolution of endothermy, or warm-bloodedness, occurred in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-birds-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> and ornithischians during the Early Jurassic period. This development was potentially triggered by environmental pressures like the Jenkyns event. It gave them a significant edge over their cold-blooded counterparts.



This adaptation allowed dinosaurs to thrive in colder climates. It drove their diversification and success. The ability to internally regulate body temperature was pivotal in dinosaur evolution. This trait potentially contributed to the rise of birds - the only surviving dinosaur lineage.



This new understanding of dinosaur physiology opens up intriguing research avenues. It prompts scientists to re-evaluate long-held assumptions about their biology, behavior, and evolutionary trajectories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-blooded-dinosaur-evolution">Warm-blooded dinosaur evolution</h2>



While this study offers fascinating insights into the evolution of warm-blooded traits in dinosaurs, many questions remain unanswered. For instance, researchers are still unsure exactly how this adaptation occurred and what other factors may have contributed to its emergence.



"This research suggests a close connection between climate and how dinosaurs evolved,"&nbsp;said co-author Dr. Juan L. Cantalapiedra of the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales.&nbsp;"It sheds new light on how birds might have inherited a unique biological trait from dinosaur ancestors and the different ways dinosaurs adapted to complex and long-term environmental changes."



As researchers continue to delve into the mysteries of dinosaur evolution, one thing is certain. These ancient creatures were far more complex and fascinating than we ever imagined. Their ability to adapt to diverse environments showcases their evolutionary ingenuity. 



Each new discovery adds layers to our understanding of dinosaur biology and behavior. Fossil evidence continues to surprise scientists with unexpected traits and adaptations. Advances in technology and methods allow for deeper exploration of their physiology.



And who knows what other surprises they might have in store for us? The world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-debunk-bergmanns-rule-classic-climate-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remains full of undiscovered secrets waiting to be unveiled.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00525-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982224005256%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Some dinosaurs became warm-blooded to survive climate change

Long considered cold-blooded behemoths, new research challenges the conventional wisdom about...

A team of astronomers led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/cms/c_8699436/en/uliege" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liège</a> in Belgium has discovered a unique, low-density <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-discovered-with-an-ocean-not-far-from-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> orbiting a distant star within our Milky Way galaxy. This finding could provide significant insights into the formation of such massive, lightweight planets.



The newly identified gas giant, WASP-193b, is notably larger than Jupiter, yet much less dense. Researchers determined that the planet is 50 percent larger than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-may-exist-on-one-of-jupiters-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> but only a tenth as dense, with a density comparable to cotton candy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-planet-with-incredibly-low-density-nbsp">Giant planet with incredibly low density&nbsp;</h2>



WASP-193b is the second least dense planet discovered so far, following the smaller, Neptune-like Kepler 51d. Its combination of large size and extremely low density makes it an outlier among the more than 5,400 known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>.



“To find these giant objects with such a small density is really, really rare,” said lead author Khalid Barkaoui, a postdoctoral fellow in astronomy at MIT. “There’s a class of planets called puffy Jupiters, and it’s been a mystery for 15 years now as to what they are. And this is an extreme case of that class.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-explanation-for-how-the-planet-formed">No explanation for how the planet formed</h2>



“We don’t know where to put this planet in all the formation theories we have right now, because it’s an outlier of all of them,” added co-author Francisco Pozuelos, a senior researcher at the <a href="https://www.iaa.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Astrophysics of Andalucia</a>. 



“We cannot explain how this planet was formed, based on classical evolution models. Looking more closely at its atmosphere will allow us to obtain an evolutionary path of this planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-cotton-candy-planet">Discovery of the “cotton candy planet”</h2>



The planet was first detected by the <a href="https://wasp-planets.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wide Angle Search for Planets</a> (WASP), an international collaboration operating two robotic observatories. These observatories use wide-angle cameras to monitor the brightness of thousands of stars across the sky.



Between 2006 and 2008, and again from 2011 to 2012, the WASP-South observatory recorded periodic dips in light from WASP-193, a nearby sun-like star 1,232 light years away. These dips indicated a planet blocking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>'s light every 6.25 days. The amount of light blocked during each transit helped estimate the planet's super-Jupiter size.



To determine the planet's mass, which would reveal its density and composition, astronomers used radial velocity techniques. This involves analyzing a star’s light spectrum as a planet orbits it. The gravitational pull of an orbiting planet shifts the star's spectrum, providing clues about the planet’s mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficult-to-detect-due-to-low-density">Difficult to detect due to low density</h2>



For WASP-193b, astronomers collected high-resolution spectra but struggled to detect the planet’s mass due to its low density.



“Typically, big planets are pretty easy to detect because they are usually massive, and lead to a big pull on their star,” explained co-author Julien de Wit, an assistant professor of planetary sciences at MIT. 



“But what was tricky about this planet was, even though it’s big - huge - its mass and density are so low that it was actually very difficult to detect with just the radial velocity technique. It was an interesting twist.”



“WASP-193b is so very light that it took four years to gather data and show that there is a mass signal, but it’s really, really tiny,” Barkaoui added.



“We were initially getting extremely low densities, which were very difficult to believe in the beginning,” Pozuelos said. “We repeated the process of all the data analysis several times to make sure this was the real density of the planet because this was super rare.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-fluffy-cotton-candy-planet-nbsp">Super fluffy cotton candy planet&nbsp;</h2>



The team confirmed that the planet is indeed extremely light, with a mass approximately 0.14 times that of Jupiter and a density of about 0.059 grams per cubic centimeter.&nbsp;



For comparison, Jupiter's density is 1.33 grams per cubic centimeter, and Earth's is 5.51 grams per cubic centimeter. WASP-193b’s density is similar to that of cotton candy, which is about 0.05 grams per cubic centimeter.



“The planet is so light that it’s difficult to think of an analogous, solid-state material,” Barkaoui explained. “The reason why it’s close to cotton candy is because both are mostly made of light gasses rather than solids. The planet is basically super fluffy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-mystery-of-wasp-193b">Intriguing mystery of WASP-193b</h2>



The researchers believe WASP-193b is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, like other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-gas-planets-are-cosmic-wrecking-balls-that-wreak-havoc-in-habitable-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giants</a>. Its inflated atmosphere likely extends tens of thousands of kilometers further than Jupiter's atmosphere.&nbsp;



How such an atmosphere can expand so much while remaining so light remains unexplained by current planetary formation theories.



To better understand this fluffy planet, the team plans to use a technique developed by de Wit to analyze its atmosphere’s temperature, composition, and pressure at various depths.&nbsp;



These characteristics will help accurately determine the planet’s mass. For now, WASP-193b is considered an excellent candidate for further study by observatories like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-detects-signs-of-life-on-exoplanet-k2-18b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.



“The bigger a planet’s atmosphere, the more light can go through. So it’s clear that this planet is one of the best targets we have for studying atmospheric effects. It will be a Rosetta Stone to try and resolve the mystery of puffy Jupiters,” de Wit concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02259-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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New planet is as light as cotton candy, but bigger than Jupiter 

A team of astronomers led by the Massachusetts Institute of...

Close,Up,Of,Colorful,Atomic,Particle,Background,Science,3d,Illustration

In the realm of quantum physics, proximity plays a crucial role. As atoms interact more strongly when they are positioned closely together, scientists have long sought ways to arrange them as tightly as possible in quantum simulators. 



These simulators allow researchers to explore exotic states of matter and build novel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graviton-like-particle-observed-in-quantum-material-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum materials</a>. However, there has been a limit to how close atoms could be positioned...until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atoms-in-very-close-quarters">Atoms in very close quarters</h2>



Typically, scientists cool the atoms to a stand-still and use laser light to arrange them, but the wavelength of light has restricted the minimum distance between particles to around 500 nanometers.



Now, a team of physicists at <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> has developed a breakthrough technique that enables them to position atoms a mere 50 nanometers apart. To put this into perspective, a red blood cell measures about 1,000 nanometers in width.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-the-power-of-dysprosium">Harnessing the power of dysprosium</h2>



The MIT team, led by Wolfgang Ketterle, the John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics, demonstrated their new approach using <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-dysprosium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dysprosium</a>, the most magnetic atom in nature. 



By manipulating two layers of dysprosium atoms and precisely positioning them 50 nanometers apart, they observed magnetic interactions 1,000 times stronger than if the layers were separated by the previous limit of 500 nanometers.



"We have gone from positioning atoms from 500 nanometers to 50 nanometers apart, and there is a lot you can do with this," says Ketterle. "At 50 nanometers, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-quantum-coherence-chemical-reaction-chaos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior of atoms</a> is so much different that we're really entering a new regime here."



Furthermore, the researchers were able to measure two new effects caused by the atoms' proximity: thermalization, where heat transfers from one layer to another, and synchronized oscillations between the layers. These effects diminished as the layers were spaced farther apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-the-optical-resolution-limit">Overcoming the optical resolution limit</h2>



Conventional techniques for manipulating and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-single-atom-captured-by-scientists-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arranging atoms</a> have been limited by the wavelength of light, which typically stops at 500 nanometers. This optical resolution limit has prevented scientists from exploring phenomena that occur at much shorter distances.



"Conventional techniques stop at 500 nanometers, limited not by the atoms but by the wavelength of light," explains Ketterle. "We have found now a new trick with light where we can break through that limit."



The team's innovative approach begins by cooling a cloud of atoms to about 1 microkelvin, just above absolute zero, causing the atoms to come to a near-standstill. 



They then use two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-realm-controlled-at-room-temperature-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser beams</a> with different frequencies and circular polarizations to create two groups of atoms with opposite spins.



Each laser beam forms a standing wave, a periodic pattern of electric field intensity with a spatial period of 500 nanometers. 



By tuning the lasers such that the distance between their respective peaks is as small as 50 nanometers, the atoms gravitating to each laser's peaks are separated by the same distance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stabilizing-the-lasers-for-atom-positioning">Stabilizing the lasers for atom positioning</h2>



To achieve this level of precision, the lasers must be extremely stable and resistant to external noise. The team realized they could stabilize both lasers by directing them through an optical fiber, which locks the light beams in place relative to each other.



"The idea of sending both beams through the optical fiber meant the whole machine could shake violently, but the two laser beams stayed absolutely stable with respect to each others," says lead author and physics graduate student Li Du.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-strange-quantum-phenomena">Observing strange quantum phenomena</h2>



By applying their technique to dysprosium atoms, the researchers observed two novel quantum phenomena at the extremely close proximity of 50 nanometers. 



First is collective oscillation, where vibrations in one layer caused the other layer to vibrate in sync. Next is thermalization, where one layer transferred heat to the other purely through magnetic fluctuations in the atoms.



"Until now, heat between atoms could only by exchanged when they were in the same physical space and could collide," notes Du. "Now we have seen atomic layers, separated by vacuum, and they exchange heat via fluctuating magnetic fields."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atom-positions-and-quantum-simulators">Atom positions and quantum simulators</h2>



The team's results introduce a new technique that can be applied to many other atoms to study quantum phenomena. 



They believe their approach can be used to manipulate and position atoms into configurations that could generate the first purely magnetic quantum gate. 



This would be a key building block for a new type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computer</a>.



"We are really bringing super-resolution methods to the field, and it will become a general tool for doing quantum simulations," says Ketterle. "There are many variants possible, which we are working on."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positioning-atoms-for-better-quantum-computers">Positioning atoms for better quantum computers</h2>



In summary, the MIT team's pioneering technique opens up a new frontier in quantum physics, enabling scientists to explore previously inaccessible phenomena and build novel quantum materials. 



By positioning atoms a mere 50 nanometers apart, they have unlocked a realm where magnetic interactions reign supreme and quantum effects emerge in stunning clarity. 



As researchers continue to refine and expand upon this approach, they inch closer to the development of purely magnetic quantum gates and the realization of cutting-edge quantum computers. 



The future of quantum simulations looks brighter than ever, and the possibilities are limited only by the imagination of the scientists who dare to push the boundaries of what is possible.



The study's co-authors include Pierre Barral, Michael Cantara, Julius de Hond, and Yu-Kun Lu, all members of the MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms, the Department of Physics, and the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh3023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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‘Impossible’ quantum effects observed in atoms positioned closely together

In the realm of quantum physics, proximity plays a crucial...

During its 59th close flyby of Jupiter on March 7, 2024, NASA's Juno mission captured breathtaking views of the giant planet's colorful belts and swirling storms, including the iconic Great Red Spot. However, upon closer examination, the images revealed something more: <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/amalthea_jupiter-moon_juno-spacecraft_NASA_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two glimpses of the tiny moon</a> Amalthea.



Amalthea, discovered by Edward Emerson Barnard in 1892, was the last planetary satellite to be found by direct visual observation. 



Named after the mythical goat who nursed the infant Zeus in Greek mythology, Amalthea is the largest of Jupiter's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-now-leads-the-solar-system-moon-race-with-145/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inner moons</a> and the fifth-largest moon overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amalthea-s-unique-characteristics">Amalthea's unique characteristics</h2>



With dimensions of 250 × 146 × 128 kilometers, Amalthea has an irregular shape and a low average density of around 0.85 g/cm³, indicating that it is composed mostly of ice with a small fraction of rock. 



Orbiting Jupiter at a distance of approximately 181,400 kilometers, Amalthea completes one orbit around the gas giant in just under 12 hours.



Interestingly, Amalthea is the reddest object in the solar system and gives out more heat than it receives from the Sun. 



This phenomenon may be due to electric currents induced in the moon's core as it orbits within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter's powerful magnetic field</a>, or it could be caused by tidal stresses from Jupiter's gravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-jupiter-s-moon-amalthea-influences-its-ring-system">How Jupiter's moon Amalthea influences its ring system</h2>



Amalthea's orbit lies within Jupiter's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">main ring system</a>, and the moon is thought to be a significant contributor to the ring's dust content. 



Its surface is heavily cratered, with the largest crater, Pan, measuring about 90 kilometers in diameter. The moon's surface also features a number of bright patches, which are believed to be relatively fresh impact craters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galileo-gets-the-first-up-close-view">Galileo gets the first up-close view</h2>



The Galileo spacecraft provided the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/amalthea_jupiter-moon_galileo-spacecraft_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first detailed images of Amalthea</a> during its mission to study the Jovian system from 1995 to 2003, revealing the moon's irregular shape and heavily cratered surface. 



Although no dedicated missions to Amalthea are currently planned, future missions to study the Jovian system may provide further insights into this intriguing inner moon.



At the time that the first of these two images was taken, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/juno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno spacecraft</a> was about 165,000 miles (265,000 kilometers) above Jupiter's cloud tops, at a latitude of about 5 degrees north of the equator. 



Citizen scientist Gerald Eichstädt made these images using raw data from the JunoCam instrument, applying processing techniques to enhance the clarity of the images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amalthea-and-the-significance-of-jupiter-s-inner-moons">Amalthea and the significance of Jupiter's inner moons</h2>



Jupiter's inner moons, including Amalthea, are important for several reasons:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-formation-and-evolution-of-the-jovian-system">Understanding the formation and evolution of the Jovian system</h3>



Studying the inner moons can provide insights into how they formed and evolved alongside Jupiter, offering clues about the early history of our solar system.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influence-on-jupiter-s-ring-system">Influence on Jupiter's ring system</h3>



The inner moons, particularly Amalthea, are thought to be significant contributors to the dust content in Jupiter's ring system. Investigating their role in shaping and maintaining the rings can help us better understand the dynamics of planetary ring systems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-physical-properties">Unique physical properties</h3>



Jupiter's inner moons exhibit unusual characteristics, such as Amalthea's low density and high heat output. Exploring these properties can help scientists develop new theories about the composition and internal structure of small, irregular moons.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-forces-and-orbital-resonances">Tidal forces and orbital resonances</h3>



The inner moons are subjected to strong tidal forces from Jupiter and may also interact with each other through orbital resonances. Studying these interactions can provide valuable information about the complex gravitational dance within the Jovian system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amalthea-tiny-moon-with-a-big-impact">Amalthea: Tiny moon with a big impact</h2>



In summary, the Juno mission's serendipitous capture of Amalthea during its 59th flyby of Jupiter has provided us with a tantalizing glimpse into the fascinating world of this tiny, yet influential moon. 



As we continue to explore the Jovian system, we eagerly anticipate the discoveries that future missions and citizen scientists will uncover, further unraveling the mysteries surrounding Amalthea and its role in shaping Jupiter's complex environment. 



Through these endeavors, we will undoubtedly deepen our understanding of not only this mythical moon but also the intricate dynamics at play within our solar system's largest and most captivating planetary system.



<a href="https://missionjuno.swri.edu/junocam/processing" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JunoCam’s raw images</a> are available for the public to peruse and process into image products.



More information about NASA citizen science <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/citizenscience" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">can be found here</a>.



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Jupiter’s tiny moon Amalthea captured by the Juno spacecraft

During its 59th close flyby of Jupiter on March 7,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...