Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

In the vast expanse of the universe, stars are born, live, and die in a cosmic dance that has captivated astronomers for centuries. While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-a-new-way-that-stars-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life cycle of stars</a> is well understood, there are still many mysteries surrounding their collapse and spectacular deaths. 



A recent study by astrophysicists at the University of Copenhagen's <a href="https://nbi.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niels Bohr Institute</a> has shed new light on a perplexing phenomenon: the sudden disappearance of stars from the night sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-collapse-into-black-holes-instead-of-supernova">Stars collapse into black holes instead of supernova</h2>



In our solar system, the Sun will eventually expand and become unstable, transforming into a white dwarf. 



However, if it were eight times heavier, it would explode as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a>, ejecting energy and mass before becoming a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-jets-cannibals-neutron-stars-explosions-contain-life-elements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> or black hole.



While this process is well-known for massive stars, there is still much to learn about their spectacular deaths.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h3>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> is a powerful and luminous explosion that marks the end of a massive star's life. When a star at least eight times more massive than our Sun exhausts its nuclear fuel, its core collapses under its own gravity. 



This collapse triggers a violent explosion that releases an enormous amount of energy, often outshining an entire galaxy for a brief period. 



The explosion ejects the star's outer layers into space at incredible speeds, creating a spectacular light show visible across vast cosmic distances. 



The remnant of the star's core becomes either a neutron star or, if the original star was extremely massive, a black hole. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-cosmic-explosion-has-been-visible-for-three-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Supernovae</a> play a crucial role in the universe by recycling heavy elements and shaping the evolution of galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basics-of-black-holes">Basics of black holes</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Black holes</a> cannot be observed directly, as not even light can escape them. They can be identified by the energy emitted from the gasses around them or by their influence on nearby stars. 



There are three types of black holes:



<ul>
<li>Stellar black holes: Form from stars more than eight times the mass of the Sun. There may be as many as 100 million in our galaxy.</li>



<li>Supermassive black holes: Found at the center of nearly all galaxies, including our Milky Way's Sagittarius A*.</li>



<li>Intermediate-mass black holes: Recently identified as the missing link between stellar and supermassive black holes.</li>
</ul>



In this study, scientists have provided strong evidence that very massive stars can collapse completely without a supernova. The findings suggest that a star's gravitational pull can be so strong that it collapses into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> without an explosion.



“We believe that the core of a star can collapse under its own weight. Instead of a bright supernova explosion, the collapse continues until the star becomes a black hole,” said lead author Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-stellar-evolution-and-star-collapse">Rethinking stellar evolution and star collapse</h2>



This discovery is linked to the phenomenon of disappearing stars, which has intrigued astronomers for many decades. 



“Were one to stand gazing up at a visible star going through a total collapse, it might just disappear from the heavens. The collapse is so complete that no explosion occurs, nothing escapes, and one wouldn't see any bright supernova in the night sky,” Vigna-Gómez explained.



“Astronomers have actually observed the sudden disappearance of brightly shining stars in recent times. We cannot be sure of a connection, but the results we have obtained from analyzing VFTS 243 has brought us much closer to a credible explanation," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-witnessing-a-star-collapse-in-vfts-243">Witnessing a star collapse in VFTS 243</h2>



As an unusual binary star system, VFTS 243 features a large star and a black hole roughly 10 times the Sun's mass. Despite the presence of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, there are no signs of a supernova explosion. 



“Normally, supernova events in star systems can be measured in various ways after they occur. But despite the fact that VFTS 243 contains a star that has collapsed into a black hole, the traces of an explosion are nowhere to be found," Vigna-Gómez said.



VFTS 243 is an extraordinary system. The orbit of the system has barely changed since the collapse of the star into a black hole. 



The system shows no significant “natal kick,” an acceleration typically caused by a supernova explosion, and the orbit remains symmetrical. Analysis points to the black hole in VFTS 243 forming immediately, with energy lost via neutrinos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-natal-kick-eludes-to-star-collapse">Missing “natal kick” eludes to star collapse</h2>



Supernova explosions typically give newborn neutron stars or black holes a “natal kick” due to asymmetric matter emission. This kick accelerates the compact object. In the VFTS 243 system, the black hole's lack of acceleration suggests it did not undergo a supernova. 



The system's symmetrical orbit further supports the absence of an explosion. The researchers estimate that mass and energy released during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-it-be-like-to-fall-into-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole's formation</a> were consistent with a scenario involving neutrinos rather than baryonic matter.



“Our results highlight VFTS 243 as the best observable case so far for the theory of stellar black holes formed through total collapse, where the supernova explosion fails and which our models have shown to be possible," added co-author Irene Tamborra, an astrophysicist at the same university. 



"This is an important reality check for these models. And we certainly expect that the system will serve as a crucial benchmark for future research into stellar evolution and collapse," Tamborra concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-astrophysics">Pushing the boundaries of astrophysics</h2>



In summary, the discovery of VFTS 243 and the groundbreaking research conducted by the astrophysicists at the Niels Bohr Institute have proposed a new theory for understanding the mysterious phenomenon of disappearing stars and the formation of black holes. 



This study challenges our current understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/cosmic-cannibalism-and-stellar-winds-unveiling-the-secrets-of-messier-76/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a> and collapse, offering compelling evidence for the existence of complete stellar collapse without the signature supernova explosion. 



As we continue to explore the cosmos and unravel its secrets, the lessons learned from VFTS 243 will undoubtedly shape the future of stellar research, guiding us toward a deeper comprehension of the life and death of stars and the awe-inspiring intricacies of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-a-star-vanish-from-the-pleiades">Did a star vanish from the Pleiades?</h2>



Stars inexplicably disappearing have been frequently observed in modern times. For example, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/590053" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A Survey about Nothing</a>” led by astrophysicist Chris Kochanek actively looks for such stars and explanations for their disappearance.



Curious readers can explore historical accounts of disappearing stars, often tied to supernova scenarios. One example is the Greek myth associated with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/look-for-jupiter-saturn-and-the-pleiades-in-the-november-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleiades star cluster</a>, known as the Seven Sisters. 



The myth tells of the seven daughters of the titan Atlas and the nymph Pleione. According to the story, one daughter married a mortal and went into hiding, providing a poetic, albeit unscientific, explanation for why only six stars are visible in the Pleiades.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.191403" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Stellar collapse: Why stars sometimes vanish from our skies

In the vast expanse of the universe, stars are born,...

Climate change is a pressing issue that affects every corner of our planet. As temperatures continue to rise, it's crucial to understand how this warming trend will impact our summer and winter seasons and the environment around us. 



Recent research has shed light on the effects of a warmer climate on seasonal temperatures, providing valuable insights into what we can expect in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-shells-tell-an-ancient-climate-story">Fossil shells tell an ancient climate story</h2>



Niels de Winter, an earth scientist affiliated with the Department of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://vu.nl/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam</a> and the AMGC research group at <a href="https://www.vub.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>, led a team of researchers in an important study published in Science Advances. 



The team analyzed the chemical composition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/fossil-Arctica-islandica_summer-warming_climate-history_Doris-Smudde_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil shells</a> from Antwerp, Belgium, which originated from mollusks such as oysters, cockles, and scallops that lived during the Pliocene epoch, approximately three million years ago.



By studying the shells from the Pliocene, the researchers were able to take a "snapshot" of the climate and gain insight into the difference between the seasons in a warmer world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-pliocene-epoch">Understanding the Pliocene epoch</h2>



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-cooling-trend-reversed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pliocene</a>, which lasted lasted from 5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago, Earth experienced a warmer and more stable climate compared to the present day, with average global temperatures around 2-3°C higher than now.



This warmer climate had significant impacts on the environment and life on Earth. Sea levels were higher, as much as 25 meters (82 feet) above present levels, due to the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. The higher sea levels affected the coastlines and the distribution of land and ocean.



The Pliocene also saw the expansion of grasslands and savannas, as well as the evolution and diversification of many modern plant and animal species. 



Mammals such as horses, camels, and wolves roamed the landscapes, while early human ancestors, like Australopithecus, began to emerge in Africa.



The warmer climate of the Pliocene allowed for the growth of lush forests in regions that are now tundra, like the Canadian Arctic. The distribution of flora and fauna differed from today, with many species inhabiting areas they no longer occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clumped-isotope-analysis-method">Clumped isotope analysis method</h2>



To conduct their study, the researchers employed the "clumped isotope analysis" method. This innovative technique allows scientists to examine the composition of shells in greater detail by measuring the occurrence of rare heavy isotopes of both oxygen and carbon in the carbonate from which shells are built. 



These isotopes are more common in shells that formed in colder waters, making it possible to reconstruct the temperature in which the shells were formed.



The clumped isotope analysis method offers a more accurate approach to temperature reconstructions compared to conventional methods, as it does not rely on assumptions about the composition of the seawater in which the mollusks grew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-summer-temperatures-vs-winter-temperatures">Summer temperatures vs. winter temperatures</h2>



The key finding of the study is that in a warmer climate like the Pliocene, summers warm much more than winters. 



While winters became about 2.5 degrees warmer, temperatures during summer were approximately 4.3 degrees higher. 



This pattern is consistent with the projections of future climate models, which predict a similar amount of warming for the year 2100.



Niels de Winter, the lead researcher, explains the implications of this finding: "We will likely experience stronger temperature differences between summer and winter, and the chance of heatwaves during the summer will increase."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-summer-temperature-rise">Preparing for future summer temperature rise</h2>



This study of fossil shells from the Pliocene epoch provides a compelling glimpse into the potential impact of climate change on seasonal temperatures. 



By employing cutting-edge research methods like clumped isotope analysis, scientists have uncovered valuable insights into how summers warm faster than winters in a warmer climate. 



These findings enhance our understanding of the Earth's past but also serve as a stark warning about the consequences of continued global warming. 



As we grapple with the challenges of climate change, studies like this one underscore the importance of taking action to mitigate its effects and adapt to the changes that lie ahead. 



By heeding the lessons of the past, we can work towards a more sustainable and resilient future for our planet and all its inhabitants.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl6717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Summers warm faster than winters throughout Earth's climate history

Climate change is a pressing issue that affects every corner...

In a surprising twist, rare earth elements, traditionally sourced from overseas, have been discovered within coal mines in the United States.



Recent research has uncovered significant concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) in active coal mines in the Uinta coal belt of Colorado and Utah. These elements are crucial for the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-utilities-may-be-100-percent-renewable-energy-by-2060/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a> and the advancement of high-tech applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-earth-elements-in-coal-mines">Finding rare earth elements in coal mines</h2>



A study led by the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> has documented elevated levels of REEs in these coal mines and opened the possibility of extracting these critical minerals. 



This dual resource stream could provide valuable metals used in renewable energy technologies, according to Lauren Birgenheier, an associate professor of geology and geophysics at the university.



"The model is if you're already moving rock, could you move a little more rock for resources towards energy transition?" Birgenheier explains. "In those areas, we're finding that the rare earth elements are concentrated in fine-grain shale units, the muddy shales that are above and below the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-breakthrough-g7-commits-to-close-coal-plants-by-2035/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal</a> seams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-earth-element-potential-in-utah-and-colorado">Rare earth element potential in Utah and Colorado</h2>



The link between coal and REE deposits has been established elsewhere, but little data had previously been gathered or analyzed in Utah and Colorado’s coal fields. The initial phase of this project aimed to collect additional data to determine if these deposits were worth pursuing in the West.



"The goal of this phase-one project was to collect additional data to try and understand whether this was something worth pursuing in the West," Michael Vanden Berg, Energy and Minerals Program Manager at the Utah Geological Survey, elaborates. "Is there rare earth element enrichment in these rocks that could provide some kind of byproduct or value added to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coal-mining-aquatic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal mining</a> industry?"



Researchers analyzed 3,500 samples from 10 mines, four mine waste piles, seven stratigraphically complete cores, and some coal ash piles near power plants. The results were promising. 



"The coal itself is not enriched in rare earth elements. There's not going to be a byproduct from mining the coal, but for a company mining the coal seam, could they take a couple feet of the floor at the same time? Could they take a couple feet of the ceiling? Could there be potential there? That's the direction that the data led us," Vanden Berg concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-viability-of-rare-earth-elements">Economic viability of rare earth elements</h2>



To measure the levels of rare earths in the samples, the team used two methods: a hand-held device for quick field readings and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in an on-campus lab. 



"We’re mostly using this portable x-ray fluorescence device, which is an analysis gun that we hold to the rock for two minutes, and it only gives us five or six of the 17 rare earth elements," Birgenheier says. 



If samples showed concentrations higher than 200 ppm, a more comprehensive analysis was conducted using mass spectrometry.



The Department of Energy has set 300 ppm as the minimum concentration for rare earth mining to be economically viable. 



For this study, concentrations greater than 200 ppm were considered “REE enriched.” The study found the highest prevalence of such concentrations in coal-adjacent formations of siltstone and shale, while sandstone and the coal itself were mostly devoid of rare earths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-cm-project">CORE-CM project</h2>



This research was conducted in collaboration with the <a href="https://geology.utah.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utah Geological Survey</a> and <a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado Geological Survey</a> as part of the Department of Energy-funded Carbon Ore, Rare Earth and Critical Minerals (<a href="https://netl.doe.gov/resource-sustainability/critical-minerals-and-materials/core-cm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CORE-CM</a>) project. 



The findings will support a grant request for an additional $9.4 million in federal funding to continue this promising research.



While these metals are essential for U.S. manufacturing, especially in high-end technologies, they are predominantly sourced from overseas. 



Michael Free, a professor of metallurgical engineering and the principal investigator on the DOE grant, highlights the importance of this project. 



"When we talk about them as 'critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-minerals-have-now-been-classified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minerals</a>,' a lot of the criticality is related to the supply chain and the processing. This project is designed around looking at some alternative unconventional domestic sources for these materials," Free explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-critical-mineral-research">New era of critical mineral research</h2>



To date, the team has analyzed 11,000 samples, far exceeding the number used in the published study.



The next steps involve determining how much rare earth ore is present, likely in collaboration with colleagues at the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> and New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology (<a href="https://nmt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NMT</a>).



This innovative research could revolutionize the way we view <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-breakthrough-g7-commits-to-close-coal-plants-by-2035/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal mines</a>, transforming them from relics of the fossil fuel era into valuable sources of critical minerals for the future of renewable energy.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2024.1381152/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers of Earth Science</a>.



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Crucial 'rare earth elements' discovered in coal mines in the US

In a surprising twist, rare earth elements, traditionally sourced from...

Many people might think the search for life on Mars ended when NASA's first rovers revealed its barren, inhospitable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>. 



However, scientists at the University of Minnesota continue to explore the possibility of life on Mars by expanding their understanding of the extreme conditions that can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-study-will-help-identify-which-planets-can-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">support life</a> on Earth. 



They are rethinking what extraterrestrial life might look like, keeping the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian life</a> very much alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perchlorate-salts-brines-and-life-on-mars">Perchlorate salts, brines, and life on Mars</h2>



Perchlorate salts are compounds that contain the perchlorate anion (ClO4-), which is a stable oxyanion of chlorine in its highest oxidation state (+7). 



Due to their oxidizing properties and high oxygen content, they are often used as oxidizers in rocket propellants, fireworks, and explosives.



In recent years, NASA missions have discovered abundant perchlorate salts on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' surface</a>. These salts can absorb atmospheric water, forming concentrated solutions known as brines. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perchlorate brines</a> are highly concentrated aqueous solutions that contain dissolved perchlorate salts. These brines often form naturally in arid and semi-arid regions, such as the Atacama Desert in Chile and parts of the southwestern United States. 



The perchlorate salts in these brines primarily originate from the atmospheric deposition of perchlorate, which is thought to be produced by photochemical reactions involving chlorine species in the upper atmosphere.



Since liquid water is essential for life, NASA's strategy to search for life on Mars is to "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">follow the water</a>." As a result, perchlorate brines have become a significant focus of research.



Understanding the formation and behavior of perchlorate brines on Earth can provide valuable insights into the potential habitability of Mars and other planetary environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-geochemical-environment">Mars' geochemical environment</h2>



New research published in Nature Communications by investigators at the University of Minnesota <a href="https://biology.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Biological Sciences</a> examines how Mars' unique geochemical environment could have shaped life, past or present. 



Led by Assistant Professor Aaron Engelhart, the team studied two types of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and protein enzymes from Earth to determine their functionality in perchlorate brines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rna-and-protein-enzymes">RNA and protein enzymes</h2>



The research revealed several key findings:



<ul>
<li>All the RNAs worked surprisingly well in perchlorate brines.</li>



<li>Protein enzymes did not function as effectively as RNAs in these brines. Only proteins evolved in Earth's extreme environments, such as those living at high temperatures or in high salt, could function.</li>



<li>In perchlorate brines, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> enzymes performed unique actions, like generating new molecules that incorporate chlorine atoms, a reaction previously unobserved by scientists.</li>
</ul>



"Taken together, these results show that RNA is uniquely well-suited to the very salty environments found on Mars, and could be found on other bodies in space," said Engelhart. "This extreme salt tolerance could influence how life may have formed on Mars in the past or how it is forming in the conditions on Mars today."



The team is continuing to explore the chlorination chemistry they discovered and other reactions that RNA can perform in high-salt conditions. 



Their ongoing research aims to further understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential for life</a> in extreme environments, both on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Life on Mars and the future of astrobiology</h2>



The study's implications extend beyond finding possibilities of life on Mars. The findings contribute to the broader field of astrobiology by demonstrating how life might adapt to extreme conditions on other planetary bodies. 



This knowledge is crucial as scientists prepare for missions to other moons and planets in our solar system, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-jupiter-moon-europa-deep-ocean-shifting-icy-shell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-alien-life-exists-on-enceladus-scientists-have-unambiguous-proof-they-will-find-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Titan</a>.



By exploring the limits of life on Earth and beyond, researchers are laying the groundwork for future discoveries that could answer one of humanity's most profound questions: Are we alone in the universe?



In summary, the ongoing research into Martian brines and their potential to support life represents a significant step forward in our quest to understand the possibilities of life beyond Earth. 



As scientists continue to uncover the secrets of Mars' geochemical environment, the dream of discovering extraterrestrial life comes closer to reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48037-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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The search for life on Mars is now stronger than it's ever been

Many people might think the search for life on Mars...

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-reduces-the-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autoimmune diseases</a>, such as lupus. The findings suggest that these mental health and neurological symptoms could serve as early warning signs of disease flares.



This revelation comes from a comprehensive study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a>, published in eClinicalMedicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-nightmares-and-disease">Connection between nightmares and disease</h2>



The research team surveyed 676 people living with lupus and 400 clinicians, as well as conducting in-depth interviews with 69 individuals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-greater-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systemic autoimmune</a> rheumatic diseases (including lupus) and 50 clinicians. 



The study aimed to explore the timing and prevalence of 29 neurological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-67-minutes-daily-outdoors-boosts-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> symptoms, such as depression, hallucinations, and loss of balance, in relation to disease flares.



Professor David D'Cruz from Kings College London, a senior author of the study, shared his experience.



"For many years, I have discussed nightmares with my lupus patients and thought that there was a link with their disease activity," D'Cruz recounted. 



"This research provides evidence of this, and we are strongly encouraging more doctors to ask about nightmares and other neuropsychiatric symptoms -- thought to be unusual, but actually very common in systemic autoimmunity -- to help us detect disease flares earlier," D'Cruz concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Prevalence of disrupted dreams and hallucinations</h2>



The study revealed that three in five patients experienced disrupted dream sleep, with a third reporting this symptom appearing over a year before the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-diets-linked-to-rise-in-autoimmune-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lupus disease</a>. 



Hallucinations were reported by just under one in four patients, with 85% experiencing this symptom around the onset of the disease or later.



Interestingly, when interviewed, three in five lupus patients and one in three with other rheumatology-related conditions reported increasingly disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming sleep</a> – usually vivid and distressing nightmares – just before their hallucinations. These nightmares often involved being attacked, trapped, crushed, or falling.



One patient from Ireland described their nightmares as: "Horrific, like murders, like skin coming off people, horrific…I think it's like when I'm overwhelmed which could be the lupus being bad…So I think the more stress my body is under then the more vivid and bad the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming</a> would be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Power of "daymares"</h2>



The study interviewers found that using the term "daymares" to discuss hallucinations often led to a "lightbulb" moment for patients, as it felt less frightening and stigmatized.



A patient from England shared their experience: "[When] you said that word daymare and as soon as you said that it just made sense, it's like not necessarily scary, it's just like you've had a dream and yet you're sitting awake in the garden…I see different things, it's like I come out of it and it's like when you wake up and you can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confronting-nightmares-good-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remember your dream</a> and you're there but you're not there… it's like feeling really disorientated, the nearest thing I can think of is that I feel like I'm Alice in Wonderland."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Recognizing nightmares as disease symptoms</h2>



Lead author Dr. Melanie Sloan from the Department of Public Health and Primary Care at the University of Cambridge emphasized the importance of clinicians discussing these symptoms with their patients and documenting each individual's progression of symptoms. 



Recognizing nightmares and hallucinations as early flare symptoms may provide an "early warning system," enabling improved care and potentially reducing clinic times by averting flares at an earlier stage.



Professor Guy Leschziner is a study author, neurologist at <a href="https://www.guysandstthomas.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guys' and St Thomas' hospital</a>, and author of The Secret World of Sleep. He added, "We have long been aware that alterations in dreaming may signify changes in physical, neurological and mental health, and can sometimes be early indicators of disease."



Leschziner went on to say that this is the first evidence that nightmares may also help monitor such a serious autoimmune condition like lupus. The science indicates this is an important prompt to patients and clinicians alike that sleep symptoms may tell us about impending relapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Misdiagnosis and increased awareness</h2>



The study also highlighted the importance of recognizing these symptoms to avoid misdiagnosis. Some patients reported initially being misdiagnosed or even hospitalized with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-sleep-deprivation-linked-to-adult-psychosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychotic episode</a> and/or suicidal ideation, which was only later found to be the first sign of their autoimmune disease.



A nurse from Scotland shared her experience: "I've seen them admitted for an episode of psychosis and the lupus isn't screened for until someone says 'oh I wonder if it might be lupus'...but it was several months and very difficult… especially with young women and it's learning more that that is how lupus affects some people and it's not anti-psychotic drugs they needed, it's like a lot of steroids."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-disease-by-monitoring-nightmares">Managing disease by monitoring nightmares</h2>



The fascinating research led by Dr. Melanie Sloan and Professor David D'Cruz uncovers the surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and autoimmune disease flares. 



By recognizing these mental health and neurological symptoms as potential early warning signs, clinicians and patients can work together to improve disease management and enhance the quality of life for those living with autoimmune conditions. 



This study emphasizes the importance of open communication between patients and healthcare providers, as well as the need for increased awareness within the medical community. 



As we continue to explore this fascinating link, we move closer to a future where autoimmune diseases are detected earlier, managed more effectively, and their impact on individuals' lives is minimized.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S258953702400213X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EClinicalMedicine</a>.



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Nightmares and hallucinations may be early warning signs of serious disease

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and...

Focused,African,Business,Man,In,Headphones,Writing,Notes,In,Notebook

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes perfect." But is there any truth behind this age-old adage? According to new research, the answer is a resounding yes. Practice, it turns out, is the key to mastering a skill, as it solidifies the neural memory pathways in your brain.



In a collaborative effort, researchers from <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a> and <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> have shed new light on the mechanisms behind skill acquisition and memory formation. 



Their findings, published in the prestigious journal Nature, reveal that memory representations in working memory circuits transform from an unstable state to a solid one as an individual repeatedly practices a task over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-brain-in-action">Observing the brain in action</h2>



To unravel the mysteries of learning and memory, the research team employed a cutting-edge technology developed by Rockefeller's Alipasha Vaziri. 



This innovative tool allowed them to simultaneously observe an astonishing 73,000 cortical neurons in mice as the animals learned and repeated a specific task over a two-week period.



"In this work we show how working memory -- the brain's ability to hold and process information -- improves through practice," explains Vaziri, head of Rockefeller's Laboratory of Neurology and Biophysics. 



Vaziri expects that these insights will advance our understanding of learning and memory while helping to address memory-related disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-practice-in-memory-transformation">Role of practice in memory transformation</h2>



As the mice in the study practiced identifying, recalling, and repeating a sequence of odors, the researchers witnessed a remarkable transformation in their working memory circuits. 



Initially, these circuits were unstable, but with repetitive training, they began to stabilize and solidify -- a process the researchers refer to as "crystallization."



"The findings essentially illustrate that repetitive training not only enhances skill proficiency but also leads to profound changes in the brain's memory circuits, making performance more accurate and automatic," Vaziri elaborates.



UCLA Health neurologist and corresponding author Peyman Golshani offers a beautiful analogy.



"If one imagines that each neuron in the brain is sounding a different note, the melody that the brain is generating when it is doing the task was changing from day to day, but then became more and more refined and similar as animals kept practicing the task," Golshani said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illuminating-the-brain-with-light-beads-microscopy">Illuminating the brain with light-beads microscopy</h2>



One of the most significant aspects of this study was the use of light-beads microscopy (LBM), a high-speed volumetric imaging technology developed by Vaziri. 



LBM enables cellular resolution in vivo recording of neuronal populations up to 1 million neurons -- a 100-fold increase compared to previous methods.



Initially, the researchers used standard two-photon imaging of smaller neuronal populations in upper cortical layers but failed to find evidence for memory stabilization from practice. 



It was only when they employed LBM to record from over 70,000 neurons in deeper cortical regions that they observed the crystallization of working memory representations accompanying the mice's increasing mastery of the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-learning-and-the-future-of-memory-research">Practice, learning, and the future of memory research</h2>



With these fascinating findings, the researchers have opened up new avenues for exploring the intricacies of learning and memory. 



"In the future, we may tackle the role of different neuronal cell types involved in mediating this mechanism, and in particular the interaction of different types of interneurons with excitatory cells," Vaziri shares.



"We're also interested in understanding how learning is implemented and could be transferred into a new context -- that is, how the brain could generalize from a learned task to some new unknown problems," Vaziri concluded.



In summary, the study highlights the profound impact of repetition on skill mastery and memory formation. By employing cutting-edge imaging technology, the researchers have unveiled the neural mechanisms that transform working memory representations from an unstable state to a solid one as individuals practice a task repeatedly. 



This research deepens our understanding of learning and memory and paves the way for future investigations into the intricacies of the brain. 



As we continue to explore the neuronal underpinnings of skill acquisition and memory, we move closer to unlocking the full potential of the human mind and developing innovative approaches to address memory-related disorders.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07425-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Practice actually does 'make perfect' when it comes to memory and mastering skills

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes...

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wim-hof-method-helps-fight-stress-inflammation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> have surged in popularity due to their potential health benefits. While these practices often lead to positive and sometimes transformational effects, they can also induce altered states of consciousness.



Recent research by a team from <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>, part of the <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a> healthcare system, sheds light on how common these altered states are. 



The findings, published in the journal Mindfulness, reveal that such experiences are more prevalent than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-common-yet-complex-experiences">Meditation: Common yet complex experiences</h2>



Dr. Matthew D. Sacchet, the director of the Meditation Research Program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an associate professor of Psychiatry at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, led the study. 



"With more people engaging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-training-improves-mental-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindfulness</a>, meditation, and other contemplative practices, we anticipated that altered states and their effects might be common. Our international surveys confirmed that these experiences are widespread," Sacchet explained.



The study surveyed 3,135 adults in the US and the UK. Surprisingly, 45% reported experiencing non-pharmacologically induced altered states of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a> at least once in their lives. 



This far exceeds the estimated 5% (US) to 15% (UK) of people who have practiced mindfulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-effects-of-altered-states-in-meditation">Varied effects of altered states in meditation</h2>



Participants reported a range of experiences, including:



<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Derealization</a> (feeling detached from the environment)</li>



<li>Unitive experiences (a sense of unity or "oneness")</li>



<li>Ecstatic thrills</li>



<li>Vivid perceptions</li>



<li>Changes in perceived size</li>



<li>Bodily heat or electricity</li>



<li>Out-of-body experiences</li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perception</a> of non-physical lights</li>
</ul>



"Altered states were most often followed by positive and sometimes transformational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-rate-influences-our-perception-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> on well-being. However, negative effects were also reported, with a small subset experiencing substantial suffering," Sacchet noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-better-support">The need for better support</h2>



Among those who experienced suffering, 13% reported moderate or greater suffering, and 1.1% claimed life-threatening suffering. Alarmingly, 63% of these individuals did not seek help.



"Rather than being extremely unusual and rare, our study found that altered states of consciousness are a common variant of normal human experience," Sacchet said. 



"Yet, those who experience negative outcomes often do not seek help, and clinicians are poorly prepared to support these experiences. This represents a public health issue, as some people struggle to integrate these experiences into their existing conceptions of self and reality," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-states-research-and-care">Meditation states research and care</h2>



The study highlights the need for further research to identify individual characteristics associated with experiencing altered states and the potential suffering that may follow. 



"We should not dismiss meditation and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heated-yoga-shows-promise-as-a-treatment-for-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> as inherently dangerous. Instead, we need to better understand and support meditators to fully realize the potential of these practices," Sacchet emphasized



Similar to psychotherapy, pharmacology, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-gives-rise-to-unique-physical-sensations-in-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapeutic tools</a>, it's important to implement and support people engaging with these powerful practices effectively.



Sacchet also pointed out that ancient meditation manuals from wisdom traditions might help classify and manage altered states, saying, "These manuals could provide guidance on how to better manage difficult altered states. More research is clearly needed to explore this possibility."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-education-and-meditation-teaching">Clinical education and meditation teaching</h2>



Dr. Sacchet called for the development of clinical curricula on altered states of consciousness to better equip clinicians. 



"Those who teach meditation should ensure that participants are aware of potential risks. Implementing safeguards will help ensure that these promising and powerful practices are taught and experienced safely," he concluded.



This research highlights the complex nature and importance of altered states of consciousness experienced during meditation and similar practices. These states can have profound effects on individuals, often leading to significant positive changes in well-being. 



However, they can also cause negative experiences for some, ranging from mild discomfort to substantial suffering. The findings emphasize the necessity for a balanced approach to these practices. It is essential to harness their potential benefits while being aware of and mitigating the associated risks. 



The study calls for better support systems and education for both practitioners and clinicians. By understanding these altered states better, healthcare providers can offer appropriate guidance and support to those who experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venting-your-anger-ineffective-does-more-harm-than-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difficulties</a>. 



The research advocates for the development of clinical curricula and safeguards in teaching meditation, ensuring that these powerful practices are approached with the necessary caution and understanding to maximize their benefits and minimize any harm.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12671-024-02356-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mindfulness</a>.



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Meditation reveals common altered states of consciousness

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other practices have surged in...

Woman,Using,Daily,Activity,Tracking,App,On,Mobile,Phone,Showing

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise through step counts has become second nature for many. However, current physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-exercise-routine-can-cut-your-risk-of-early-death-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> guidelines do not specify step goals for health benefits. 



A recent study suggests that both step and time-based exercise targets offer similar health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-aging-related-fat-buildup-in-tissues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a>. This means choosing a goal that suits personal preferences is more important than the type of goal itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-of-exercise-in-promoting-longevity">Goal of exercise in promoting longevity</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> have explored the effectiveness of step and time-based exercise goals. 



Their study, published in JAMA Internal Medicine, found that both approaches are equally beneficial in reducing the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-prove-how-many-daily-steps-you-should-take-to-avoid-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early death</a> and cardiovascular disease.



Regular physical activity is known to reduce the risk of chronic illnesses and infections, promoting longevity. 



The current U.S. guidelines recommend adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resistance-exercise-may-be-the-secret-to-relieving-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> (like brisk walking) or 75 minutes of vigorous activity (such as jogging) per week. 



These guidelines, last updated in 2018, were primarily based on studies using self-reported physical activity data. However, the rise of wearable fitness devices has popularized step counts as a metric for tracking physical activity and exercise goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-based-physical-activity-guidelines">Step-based physical activity guidelines</h2>



“We recognized that existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leisure-time-physical-activity-is-a-powerful-tool-to-prevent-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> guidelines focus primarily on activity duration and intensity but lack step-based recommendations,” said lead author Rikuta Hamaya, MD, PhD, MS. 



“With more people using smartwatches to measure their steps and overall health, we saw the importance of ascertaining how step-based measurements compare to time-based targets in their association with health outcomes – is one better than the other?”



To explore this, researchers collected data from 14,399 women participating in the Women’s Health Study. 



These women, aged 62 and older and free from cardiovascular disease and cancer, wore research-grade wearables for seven consecutive days between 2011 and 2015 to record their physical activity. They only removed the devices for sleep or water-related activities. 



Annual questionnaires tracked health outcomes, particularly death from any cause and cardiovascular disease, with follow-ups continuing until the end of 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-health-effects-of-physical-activity">Long-term health effects of physical activity</h2>



During the device wear period, participants averaged 62 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise per week and accumulated a median of 5,183 steps per day. 



Over a median follow-up of nine years, approximately 9% of participants passed away, and 4% developed cardiovascular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>. 



Higher levels of physical activity, whether measured by steps or time, were linked to significant risk reductions in death or cardiovascular disease. 



The most active women had 30-40% lower risks compared to the least active. Additionally, those in the top three quartiles of physical activity outlived those in the bottom quartile by an average of 2.22 to 2.36 months over nine years, regardless of BMI differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-vs-time-pros-and-cons">Steps vs. time: Pros and cons</h2>



While both exercise goals effectively portray health status, each has its advantages and downsides. 



Step counts may not account for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cardiorespiratory-fitness-cuts-early-death-risks-by-53-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fitness</a> level differences. For example, a 20-year-old and an 80-year-old walking for 30 minutes at moderate intensity will have different step counts. 



Steps are straightforward to measure and less subject to interpretation compared to exercise intensity. They also capture sporadic movements in daily life, which are common among older individuals.



"For some, especially younger individuals, exercise may involve activities like tennis, soccer, walking, or jogging, all of which can be easily tracked with steps. However, for others, it may consist of bike rides or swimming, where monitoring the duration of exercise is simpler,” said Hamaya.



That's why it's important for physical activity guidelines to offer multiple ways to reach goals. Movement looks different for everyone, and nearly all forms of movement are beneficial to our health."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-goals-and-metrics-in-shaping-guidelines">Exercise goals and metrics in shaping guidelines</h2>



The study has several limitations. It relied on a single assessment of time and step-based physical activity metrics. 



Additionally, the majority of the participants were white women of higher socioeconomic status, and because the study was observational, it does not establish causality. 



Furthermore, Hamaya intends to gather more data through a randomized controlled trial to better understand the relationship between time and step-based exercise metrics and health outcomes.



"The next federal physical activity guidelines are scheduled for 2028. Our findings underscore the importance of including step-based targets to allow for flexible goals that can accommodate individuals with varying preferences, abilities, and lifestyles," stated senior author I-Min Lee, MBBS, ScD.



This study underscores the importance of finding a personal exercise tracking method—whether in steps or minutes—that is sustainable and effective for you, enabling you to reap the health benefits of regular physical activity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2818632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.



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Step and time-based exercise goals are equally beneficial

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise...

Loneliness isn't just a fleeting feeling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-and-cardiovascular-diseases-are-genetically-linked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sadness</a>. Last year, the U.S. Surgeon General Vivek H. Murthy labeled it a national epidemic, with health risks comparable to smoking or obesity. To combat this, Murthy urged Americans to strengthen social connections. New research suggests a simple solution: buy experiences, not things.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retail-therapy-experiences-and-social-connections">Retail therapy, experiences and social connections</h2>



Dr. Amit Kumar, a marketing and psychology researcher at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, believes that experiences could be a key factor in combating the loneliness epidemic. 



Kumar posits that the act of purchasing and engaging in experiences can foster "social capital," the network of relationships and connections that contribute to our well-being.



"What this work suggests is that we might actually be able to build social capital from what we buy. That, in turn, could lead to more health and happiness," Kumar says. 



This concept might seem counterintuitive, especially considering the common association of retail therapy with material goods. However, Kumar's research suggests a nuanced perspective. 



While traditional retail therapy might offer temporary relief, the satisfaction derived from material possessions tends to fade quickly. Experiences, on the other hand, can have a more enduring impact on our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-body-connection-wounds-heal-faster-if-we-think-more-time-has-passed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">happiness</a> and our connections with others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiences-for-social-connections">Experiences for social connections</h2>



Kumar's prior research established that experiences, such as concerts or travel, tend to provide a more enduring sense of satisfaction compared to the fleeting pleasure derived from acquiring material possessions like luxury cars or designer clothing. 



However, his latest findings delve deeper into the impact of experiences on our lives, revealing that they don't merely enhance personal happiness but also significantly contribute to our social connections.



"All of our buying habits are, to some extent, part of who we are, and they can connect us to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-less-time-on-social-media-improves-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other people</a>," Kumar says. "But that’s much more likely to be true of experiences we buy than material items we buy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-better-social-connections-come-from-experiences">Why do better social connections come from experiences?</h2>



To validate their hypotheses, Kumar and his research team conducted seven distinct experiments involving over 1,400 participants. 



The results of these experiments provided compelling evidence to support the idea that experiences foster stronger social connections compared to material goods.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-sense-of-similarity">Increased sense of similarity</h3>



Participants consistently reported a heightened sense of similarity and connection with others who had partaken in the same experience. 



This finding suggests that shared experiences create a common ground that transcends material possessions, fostering a sense of camaraderie and understanding.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-identity-link">Stronger identity link </h3>



The research also revealed that beyond social connections, experiences play a significant role in shaping our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-posts-are-not-a-good-representation-of-our-true-selves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal identities</a>. 



Participants reported a stronger association between their experiences and their sense of self compared to material possessions. 



This implies that experiences contribute to a deeper understanding of who we are and what we value, which in turn can enhance our connections with others who share similar values.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-envy">Reduced Envy</h3>



Interestingly, the research found that even when faced with disparities in the quality or intensity of an experience (such as front-row seats versus nosebleed seats at a concert), individuals still felt a sense of social connection with others who shared the same experience. 



This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-over-social-media-less-stress-more-life-satisfaction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shared nature</a> of the experience itself outweighs any differences in individual circumstances, promoting a sense of community and belonging.



"You feel a significantly stronger sense of connectedness when you find out that you just saw the same band in concert, than when you learn you have the same shoes as someone else," Kumar says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-humanity">Connection to humanity</h2>



You might think it's obvious that experiences make us feel more socially connected because they often involve other people. However, Kumar's research reveals a deeper insight. 



Experiences don't just increase our connection to the people we share them with; they enhance our sense of connection to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-humanity-can-work-together-to-solve-global-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity</a> as a whole. 



People feel a greater "sense of connection to humanity" after reflecting on experiential purchases compared to material purchases. 



Experiences foster more empathy and kinship towards others, beyond just those we directly interact with.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



This research is immediately actionable and offers practical applications for both individuals and businesses.



For individuals, if you're feeling lonely or disconnected, consider investing in experiences. Engaging in activities like attending concerts, going on weekend getaways, or taking cooking classes can significantly enhance your social well-being. 



For businesses, this research suggests that emphasizing the experiential aspects of products can be highly beneficial. Companies can tap into this by creating and promoting experiences associated with their offerings. 



For instance, Apple’s Genius Bar provides a personalized, interactive experience, while Nike’s running clubs offer a sense of community and shared activity. 



Highlighting these experiential elements can enhance customer satisfaction, increase brand loyalty, and drive long-term success. 



In sum, loneliness is a real problem, but it's not insurmountable. By choosing experiences over things, we can not only enjoy life more but also forge meaningful connections that enrich our lives and boost our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-teddy-bears-so-special-its-an-emotional-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a>. 



So next time you're contemplating a purchase, remember: experiences might just be the social glue we've all been missing.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bdm.2376" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Behavioral Decision Making</a>.



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Experiences, not things, are the key to deeper social connection

Loneliness isn't just a fleeting feeling of sadness. Last year,...

Researchers have uncovered the fascinating and widespread phenomenon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell-in-cell events</a>, where one cell engulfs and sometimes consumes another in a type of cellular cannibalism. 



This study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, challenges the long-held belief that such behavior is unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/micro-nanoplastics-mnps-help-cancer-cells-spread/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a>. Instead, these interactions are common across diverse life forms, from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-occurrence-of-cellular-cannibalism">Widespread occurrence of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The research reveals that cell-in-cell events are not restricted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-fingerprint-of-cancer-cells-revealed-in-hydrogen-atoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancerous behavior</a>. These interactions are prevalent in non-cancer cells, suggesting that they play vital roles in normal development, homeostasis, and stress response. 



The researchers argue that targeting cell-in-cell events as a cancer treatment strategy should be reconsidered, as these behaviors are deeply embedded in the genetic makeup of a wide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-egg-cells-have-a-swirl-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">array of organisms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-views-on-cellular-behavior">Challenging conventional views on cellular behavior</h2>



Published in the renowned scientific journal Scientific Reports, the study is the first to systematically investigate cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life. 



By demonstrating that these occurrences span numerous life forms, the research encourages a reevaluation of fundamental concepts of cellular cooperation, competition, and the complexity of multicellularity. This discovery opens new avenues for research in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phospholipids-tiny-bubbles-that-may-have-been-earths-first-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a>, oncology, and regenerative medicine.



“We first got into this work because we learned that cells don’t just compete for resources -- they actively kill and eat each other,” says <a href="https://newsroom.asu.edu/expert/carlo-maley" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carlo Maley</a> of ASU. 



“That’s a fascinating aspect of the ecology of cancer cells. But further exploration revealed that these phenomena happen in normal cells, and sometimes neither cell dies, resulting in an entirely new type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anthrobots-scientists-create-tiny-biological-robots-from-human-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hybrid cell</a>," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-of-cell-in-cell-events">Evolutionary significance of cell-in-cell events</h2>



The earliest genes responsible for cell-in-cell behavior date back over 2 billion years, indicating that these phenomena play an important, though not yet fully understood, role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living organisms</a>. 



Understanding the diverse functions of cell-in-cell events in both normal physiology and disease is crucial for developing more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer therapies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cataloging-the-diversity-of-cellular-cannibalism">Cataloging the diversity of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The review delves into the occurrence, genetic underpinnings, and evolutionary history of cell-in-cell phenomena. The researchers reviewed more than 500 articles to catalog various forms of these interactions across the tree of life. 



They identified 16 different taxonomic groups where cell-in-cell behavior occurs and classified these events into six distinct categories based on the relationship between the host and prey cells and the outcome of the interaction.



A spectrum of cell-in-cell behaviors is highlighted in the study, ranging from selfish acts, where one cell kills and consumes another, to cooperative interactions, where both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells remain alive</a>. 



For instance, "heterospecific killing," where a cell engulfs and kills a cell of a different species, was observed across a wide range of organisms. In contrast, "conspecific killing," where a cell consumes another cell of the same species, was less common.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-important-biological-functions-beyond-competition">Important biological functions beyond competition</h2>



The team also documented cases where both the host and prey cells remained alive after the interaction, suggesting that these events may serve significant biological functions beyond just killing competitors. 



“Our categorization of cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life is important for better understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-living-creature-on-earth-identified-emerging-700-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution and mechanism</a> of these phenomena,” says first author Stefania E. Kapsetaki. 



“Why and how exactly do they happen? This is a question that requires further investigation across millions of living organisms, including organisms where cell-in-cell phenomena may not yet have been searched for," she continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-origins-of-cellular-cannibalism">Evolutionary origins of cellular cannibalism</h2>



The researchers investigated the evolutionary origins of the genes involved in cell-in-cell processes. They found that many key genes emerged long before the evolution of obligate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organisms-called-protosterol-biota-lived-1-6-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>. 



“When we look at genes associated with known cell-in-cell mechanisms in species that diverged from the human lineage a very long time ago, it turns out that the human orthologs are typically associated with normal functions of multicellularity, like immune surveillance,” explains  <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/1669300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Cisneros</a>, formerly with ASU and currently a researcher at <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mayo Clinic</a>.



In total, 38 genes associated with cell-in-cell phenomena were identified, with 14 of these originating over 2.2 billion years ago, predating the common ancestor of some multicellular organisms. This suggests that the molecular machinery for cell cannibalism evolved before the major transitions to complex multicellularity.



The ancient cell-in-cell genes are involved in various cellular processes, including cell–cell adhesion, phagocytosis, intracellular killing of pathogens, and regulation of energy metabolism. 



This diversity of functions indicates that cell-in-cell events likely played important roles even in single-celled and simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-animal-evolution-start-with-predatory-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organisms</a> well before the emergence of complex multicellular life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-cannibalism-and-the-future-of-medicine">Cellular cannibalism and the future of medicine</h2>



In summary, this study revolutionizes our understanding of cell-in-cell phenomena, cellular cannibalism, revealing their widespread occurrence across the tree of life and challenging the notion that these events are unique to cancer cells. 



By demonstrating the ancient evolutionary origins of cell-in-cell genes and the diverse roles these interactions may play in normal development, homeostasis, and stress response, the research highlights new areas for investigation in evolutionary biology, oncology, and regenerative medicine. 



As we continue to unravel the complexities of cellular behavior and its implications for the evolution of multicellularity, this study serves as a catalyst for further exploration, inviting us to reconsider fundamental concepts of cellular cooperation, competition, and the intricate dance of life at the cellular level.



Carlo Maley is a researcher with the <a href="https://biodesign.asu.edu/biocomputing-security-and-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Biocomputing, Security and Society</a>; professor in the <a href="https://sols.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Life Sciences</a> at ASU; and director of the <a href="https://cancer-insights.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona Cancer Evolution Center</a>.



The study was conducted in collaboration with first author Stefania E. Kapsetaki, formerly with ASU and now a researcher at Tufts University, and <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/1669300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Cisneros</a>, formerly with ASU and currently a researcher at Mayo Clinic.  



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-57528-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Cannibalism at the cellular level is common across most life forms

Researchers have uncovered the fascinating and widespread phenomenon of cell-in-cell...

Flowers brighten our gardens, fill our vases, and inspire countless poets. But have you ever wondered about the drama unfolding within their petals? It turns out, plants have a fascinating (and surprisingly complex) way of choosing their fertilization partners. 



Scientists at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan have just pulled back the curtain on this hidden world, and what they've found could change the way we think about agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-fertilization">Flower fertilization</h2>



Flowering plants, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, have male and female parts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-family-tree-explains-evolution-of-flower-symmetry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reproduction</a> kicks off when a pollen grain (carrying male genetic material) lands on the stigma of a flower (the female part). 



This triggers the growth of a pollen tube, a microscopic tunnel that delivers sperm cells to the ovule for fertilization. It's like a tiny, botanical version of a sperm whale diving to the depths of the ocean.



But how does a flower choose which pollen grain gets to fertilize it? To answer this, the Nagoya University team developed a technique using a two-photon microscope, allowing them to <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/suppl/10.1038/s44319-024-00151-4/suppl_file/44319_2024_151_moesm13_esm.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peer deep inside a living flower</a> for the first time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attraction-and-repulsion-in-flower-fertilization">Attraction and repulsion in flower fertilization</h2>



What they saw was a captivating pattern of attraction and rejection in flower fertilization. The female tissue of the flower emits a signal that lures a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> tube towards it. It's like a siren song, guiding the pollen tube along the precise path towards fertilization.



Once the lucky pollen tube has been chosen, the female tissue releases a second signal, this one designed to repel any other suitors. It's as if the flower says, "Thanks, but I'm taken!" This dual mechanism ensures that only one pollen tube gets to fertilize the ovule.



Lead researcher Yoko Mizuta described this repulsion system as "fascinating," noting the complex interplay of different cell types involved in this intricate process of attraction and repulsion. It's like a botanical soap opera, complete with love triangles and dramatic rejections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



This discovery goes beyond mere scientific curiosity about flower fertilization. It has significant implications for agriculture. By understanding how plants regulate fertilization, we can potentially optimize seed production and improve crop yields. 



The precise mechanism of one-to-one pollen tube guidance ensures successful fertilization and efficient seed production. This knowledge can help develop methods to enhance these natural processes. 



By mimicking or enhancing the signals that attract and repel pollen tubes, agricultural scientists could increase seed production and improve germination rates. This could lead to more efficient crop production, especially under challenging environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-alters-the-dynamics-of-plant-pollinator-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. 



Ultimately, this research provides valuable insights that could benefit agricultural breeding practices, leading to higher yields and more robust crops. This could play a crucial role in addressing food security issues by making agricultural practices more efficient and productive.



"By precisely orchestrating the behavior of pollen tubes, plants have evolved a mechanism to ensure successful fertilization and efficient seed production on dry land with a limited number of suitors," Mizuta explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-breeding">Future of plant breeding</h2>



This research opens up a whole new world of possibilities for plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-does-a-lotus-flower-grow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a>. 



By manipulating the signals that attract and repel pollen tubes, scientists could potentially develop crops that are more resistant to environmental stressors, produce higher yields, and have better germination rates. 



Understanding the precise mechanisms of one-to-one pollen tube guidance allows for targeted interventions in plant reproduction processes. 



By enhancing the attraction signals, we can ensure that more pollen tubes reach the ovules, leading to successful fertilization and increased seed production. 



Conversely, by optimizing the repulsion signals in flowers, we can prevent multiple pollen tubes from fertilizing the same ovule, improving the efficiency of fertilization. 



This could lead to the development of crops that thrive in challenging environmental conditions, such as drought or poor soil quality. Overall, this research provides a foundation for innovative plant breeding techniques that could significantly enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability.



So, the next time you see a flower, remember, there's more going on than meets the eye. It's not just a pretty face, but a complex organism with a fascinating reproductive strategy – one that could help us feed a growing planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00151-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



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Flowers are picky when choosing their mate for fertilization

Flowers brighten our gardens, fill our vases, and inspire countless...

Why is the warm gas-giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a> WASP-107 b so puffy? With a moderate temperature and an extremely low density similar to a microwaved marshmallow, it seems to defy standard theories of planet formation and evolution. Now, two independent teams of researchers have provided an answer.



Data collected using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, combined with prior observations from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, show surprisingly little methane (CH4) in the planet’s atmosphere, indicating that the interior of WASP-107 b must be significantly hotter and the core much more massive than previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-puffy-exoplanets">The mystery of puffy exoplanets</h2>



The unexpectedly high temperature is thought to be a result of tidal heating caused by the planet’s slightly non-circular orbit, and can explain how WASP-107 b can be so inflated without resorting to extreme theories of how it formed.



The results, which were made possible by Webb’s extraordinary sensitivity and accompanying ability to measure light passing through exoplanet atmospheres, may explain why dozens of low-density exoplanets are puffy, helping to solve a long-standing mystery in science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-least-dense-planets">One of the least dense planets</h2>



At more than three-quarters the volume of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> but less than one-tenth the mass, the “warm Neptune” exoplanet WASP-107 b is one of the least dense planets known. While puffy planets are not uncommon, most are hotter and more massive, and therefore easier to explain.



“Based on its radius, mass, age, and assumed internal temperature, we thought WASP-107 b had a very small, rocky core surrounded by a huge mass of hydrogen and helium,” explained Luis Welbanks from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> (ASU), the lead author of a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07514-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>. 



“But it was hard to understand how such a small core could sweep up so much gas, and then stop short of growing fully into a Jupiter-mass planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-chemistry-of-wasp-107-b">The chemistry of WASP-107 b</h2>



If WASP-107 b instead has more of its mass in the core, the atmosphere should have contracted as the planet cooled over time since it formed. Without a source of heat to re-expand the gas, the planet should be much smaller.&nbsp;



Although WASP-107 b has an orbital distance of just 5 million miles (one-seventh the distance between Mercury and the Sun), it doesn’t receive enough energy from its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> to be so inflated.



“WASP-107 b is such an interesting target for Webb because it’s significantly cooler and more Neptune-like in mass than many of the other low-density planets, the hot Jupiters, we’ve been studying,” said David Sing from Johns Hopkins University (JHU), lead author of a parallel study also published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07395-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



“As a result, we should be able to detect methane and other molecules that can give us information about its chemistry and internal dynamics that we can’t get from a hotter planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-puffy-exoplanets">Studying puffy exoplanets</h2>



WASP-107 b’s giant radius, extended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-a-water-rich-planet-with-a-steamy-atmosphere-named-gj-9827d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and edge-on orbit make it ideal for transmission spectroscopy, a method used to identify the various gasses in an exoplanet atmosphere based on how they affect starlight.



Combining observations from Webb’s NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera), Webb’s MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument), and Hubble’s WFC3 (Wide Field Camera 3), Welbanks’ team was able to build a broad spectrum of 0.8- to 12.2-micron light absorbed by WASP-107 b’s atmosphere. Using Webb’s NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph), Sing’s team built an independent spectrum covering 2.7 to 5.2 microns.



The precision of the data makes it possible to not just detect, but actually measure the abundances of a wealth of molecules, including water vapor (H2O), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and ammonia (NH3).



Both spectra show a surprising lack of methane in WASP-107 b’s atmosphere: one-thousandth the amount expected based on its assumed temperature.



“This is evidence that hot gas from deep in the planet must be mixing vigorously with the cooler layers higher up,” explained Sing. “Methane is unstable at high temperatures. The fact that we detected so little, even though we did detect other carbon-bearing molecules, tells us that the interior of the planet must be significantly hotter than we thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-heating-and-puffiness-nbsp">Tidal heating and puffiness&nbsp;</h2>



A likely source of WASP-107 b’s extra internal energy is tidal heating caused by its slightly elliptical orbit. With the distance between the star and planet changing continuously over the 5.7-day orbit, the gravitational pull is also changing, stretching the planet and heating it up.



Researchers had previously proposed that tidal heating could be the cause of WASP-107 b’s puffiness, but until the Webb results were in, there was no evidence.



Once they established that the planet has enough internal heat to thoroughly churn up the atmosphere, the teams realized that the spectra could also provide a new way to estimate the size of the core.



“If we know how much energy is in the planet, and we know what proportion of the planet is heavier elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, versus how much is hydrogen and helium, we can calculate how much mass must be in the core,” explained Daniel Thorngren from JHU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



It turns out that the core is at least twice as massive as originally estimated, which makes more sense in terms of how planets form. Thus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WASP-107 b</a> is not as mysterious as it once appeared.



“The Webb data tells us that planets like WASP-107 b didn’t have to form in some odd way with a super small core and a huge gassy envelope. Instead, we can take something more like Neptune, with a lot of rock and not as much gas, just dial up the temperature, and poof it up to look the way it does,” said Mike Line, an astrophysicist at ASU.



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Puffy exoplanets have the density of a marshmallow, but how is it possible?

Why is the warm gas-giant exoplanet WASP-107 b so puffy?...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...