Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises. Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture. This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty. Understanding Earth's mantle -...

For many, chocolate is a beloved treat made from cocoa mass and cocoa butter extracted from the cocoa fruit. However, the fruit contains other valuable ingredients that have been underutilized until now. 



Researchers and the chocolate industry are collaborating to maximize the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/cocoa-fruit_interior-diagram_illustration_credit-Kim-Mishra_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">use of the entire cocoa fruit</a>. This effort aims to boost the profitability of cocoa cultivation while making chocolate a healthier treat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximizing-the-potential-of-cocoa-fruit">Maximizing the potential of cocoa fruit</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, in collaboration with start-up Koa and Swiss chocolate manufacturer <a href="https://www.felchlin.com/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Felchlin</a>, have developed a recipe for cocoa-fruit chocolate. 



This project, part of an Innosuisse initiative, was led by emeritus ETH professor Erich Windhab. The team focused on harnessing the full potential of the cocoa fruit, including the flesh and parts of the fruit shell, known as the endocarp.



Kim Mishra, the main author of the study published in the journal Nature Food, explains that the cocoa fruit is similar to the honeydew melon. 



"These fruits have similar structures. Both have a hard outer shell that reveals the flesh of the fruit when cut open, as well as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-beans-reduce-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa beans</a> or melon seeds and pulp in the interior," notes Mishra. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-with-less-sugar-still-tastes-great-with-a-secret-ingredient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Traditional chocolate</a> uses only the beans, but the researchers utilized the entire fruit to create a cocoa gel. This gel is extremely sweet and can replace the added powdered sugar typically used in chocolate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tree-to-chocolate-journey-of-cocoa-fruit">From tree to chocolate: Journey of cocoa fruit</h2>



The cocoa fruit, also known as the cacao pod, grows on the trunk and branches of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-cocoa-pollinators-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Theobroma cacao</a> tree. The pod typically measures between 6 to 12 inches long and has an oval or oblong shape. The pod's thick, leathery skin ranges in color from yellow to orange when ripe, depending on the variety.



Inside the pod, a sweet, white pulp encases 20 to 60 cocoa beans, which are arranged in rows. The pulp, also called the mucilage, has a soft, slippery texture and a tart, citrusy flavor. The beans themselves are covered by a thin, pale membrane and have a bitter taste.



When the pod ripens, harvesters carefully cut it from the tree using a machete or a sharp knife, ensuring not to damage the delicate stem that will produce future flowers and fruits. 



They then crack open the pod and scoop out the pulp-covered beans, which undergo fermentation, drying, and roasting to develop the rich, chocolate flavor we associate with cocoa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perfecting-the-recipe">Perfecting the recipe</h2>



Finding the perfect recipe for cocoa-fruit chocolate was a challenge. The researchers systematically tested various compositions in the lab. 



Too much fruit juice from the pulp made the chocolate clumpy, while too little resulted in insufficient sweetness. The goal was to achieve the right balance between sweetness and texture. 



The experiments showed that chocolate could contain up to 20% of the cocoa gel, providing sweetness equivalent to chocolate with 5-10% powdered sugar. In contrast, conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-chocolate-triggers-mood-boosting-changes-in-the-gut/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark chocolate</a> can contain 30-40% powdered sugar.



To test the sensory experience, trained panelists from the <a href="https://www.bfh.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bern University of Applied Sciences</a> taste-tested 5-gram pieces of chocolate, some with powdered sugar and others sweetened with cocoa gel. 



"This allowed us to empirically determine the sweetness of our recipe as expressed in the equivalent amount of powdered sugar," says Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-sustainable-option">Healthier, sustainable option</h2>



Using cocoa gel as a sweetener results in cocoa-fruit chocolate with a higher fiber content (15 grams versus 12 grams per 100 grams) and lower saturated fat content (23 grams versus 33 grams) compared to typical European dark chocolate. 



"Fibre is valuable from a physiological perspective because it naturally regulates intestinal activity and prevents <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-become-hangry-when-their-blood-sugar-is-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood sugar</a> levels from rising too rapidly when consuming chocolate," explains Mishra.



Saturated fat can also pose a health risk when too much is consumed. There’s a relationship between increased consumption of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-plays-a-major-role-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saturated fats</a> and increased risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-beans-reduce-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseases.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-farmers">Benefits for farmers</h2>



Small-scale farmers can benefit from this innovation by diversifying their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacao-trees-5000-year-odyssey-global-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">product</a> offerings and increasing their income. 



By using more components of the cocoa fruit, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-virus-threatens-global-chocolate-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farmers</a> can sell not only the beans but also the dried juice from the pulp and the endocarp, ground into powder. 



"This would allow them to generate income from three value-creation streams. And more value creation for the cocoa fruit makes it more sustainable," says Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-cocoa-fruit">Future of cocoa fruit</h2>



While cocoa-fruit chocolate has shown promise, it won't be hitting grocery store shelves immediately. 



"Although we've shown that our chocolate is attractive and has a comparable sensory experience to normal chocolate, the entire value creation chain will need to be adapted, starting with the cocoa farmers, who will require drying facilities,” says Mishra. 



"Cocoa-fruit chocolate can only be produced and sold on a large scale by chocolate producers once enough powder is produced by food processing companies," she concluded.



The first step has been taken: ETH has filed a patent for its innovative cocoa-fruit chocolate recipe. This development is a promising example of how technology, nutrition, eco-compatibility, and income diversification for small farmers can work together to improve the value-creation chain of the cocoa plant.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00967-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Healthier chocolate created by using the entire cocoa fruit

For many, chocolate is a beloved treat made from cocoa...

In the field of cancer research, unexpected heroes sometimes emerge from the most surprising sources. Who would have thought that a virus related to the humble black-eyed pea plant could hold the key to a potential breakthrough in cancer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment</a>? 



Yet, that's exactly what a remarkable study from the University of California San Diego (<a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego</a>) suggests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-metastatic-cancer-with-a-plant-virus">Treating metastatic cancer with a plant virus</h2>



Metastatic cancer, also known as stage 4 cancer, is when cancer cells spread from the primary tumor to other parts of the body. This process is called metastasis. Metastatic cancer can affect various organs, including the liver, lungs, bones, and brain.



The spread happens when cancer cells break away from the original tumor, travel through the bloodstream or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-turns-lymph-nodes-into-fat-impairing-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lymphatic system</a>, and form new tumors in other organs or tissues. These new tumors are made of the same type of cancer cells as the primary tumor. 



For example, if breast cancer spreads to the lungs, the cancer cells in the lungs are still <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flaxseeds-influence-on-the-gut-could-reduce-breast-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breast cancer</a> cells, not lung cancer cells.



Metastatic cancer is more challenging to treat than cancer that remains in one location. Treatment usually aims to slow the growth of the cancer, manage symptoms, and improve quality of life. 



Common treatments include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and sometimes surgery. Each case is unique, and treatment plans are tailored to the individual's specific situation.



Despite the advanced stage of metastatic cancer, ongoing research and new treatments are continually improving outcomes and offering hope for patients. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-cancer-rates-in-young-adults-linked-to-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early detection</a> and advancements in medical science play crucial roles in managing this complex condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-virus-in-cancer-treatment">Plant virus in cancer treatment</h2>



Researchers at UC San Diego have harnessed the power of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cowpea</a> mosaic virus, a virus that typically infects black-eyed pea plants, to develop an experimental cancer treatment. 



When transformed into nanoparticles, the virus has shown remarkable promise in protecting against a broad range of metastatic cancers in mice.



The ability of this plant virus-based treatment to combat metastasis across various cancer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-fingerprint-of-cancer-cells-revealed-in-hydrogen-atoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">types</a>, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colon-cancer-colorectal-screening-accurate-new-blood-test/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colon</a>, ovarian, melanoma, and breast cancer, is a significant step forward.



"We are providing a systemic treatment to wake up the body's immune system to eliminate the disease before metastases even form and settle," said Nicole Steinmetz, a professor of nanoengineering at UC San Diego and a leading researcher in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-it-work">How does it work?</h2>



The beauty of this treatment lies in its simplicity and natural origins. Scientists grow black-eyed pea plants in the lab and infect them with the cowpea mosaic virus. 



The plants then produce millions of copies of the virus, which are harvested as ball-shaped nanoparticles. These nanoparticles, with no further modification, are ready for use in experiments.



These nanoparticles don't directly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-molecule-can-kill-all-types-of-solid-cancer-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attack cancer cells</a>. Instead, they act as an immune system alarm. Even though the virus is harmless to mammals, the body's immune cells recognize it as a foreign invader. 



This triggers a robust immune response, not only against any existing tumors but also against future ones, effectively preventing cancer from spreading and recurring.



The immune response is crucial because it harnesses the body's natural defense mechanisms to fight cancer. By stimulating the immune system, the treatment helps the body identify and destroy cancer cells more effectively. 



This approach targets both the primary tumor and any potential metastases, offering a comprehensive strategy to combat cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-virus-cancer-treatment-shows-promise-in-mice">Plant virus cancer treatment shows promise in mice</h2>



The effectiveness of this plant virus treatment has been demonstrated in mouse models. 



Mice injected with the cowpea mosaic virus nanoparticles and then exposed to metastatic tumors showed significantly improved survival rates and reduced tumor growth compared to untreated mice.



"Here, we do not treat established tumors or metastatic disease -- we prevent them from forming," said Steinmetz. This preventive approach is a game-changer. It means potentially stopping cancer in its tracks before it becomes a life-threatening problem. 



Even more exciting is the treatment's effectiveness after surgery. In mice that had tumors surgically removed, the nanoparticles helped boost the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune system</a>, preventing any remaining cancer cells from spreading and causing a recurrence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-based-virus-cancer-therapy">Future of plant-based virus cancer therapy</h2>



The researchers are enthusiastic about the potential of this plant virus treatment. They are now gearing up for clinical trials, with the goal of eventually testing this therapy in humans. While there's still a long road ahead, the initial results are highly promising.



"Even if you perform surgery to remove the tumors, no surgery is perfect and there is outgrowth of metastasis if no additional treatment is provided," explained Steinmetz. "Here, we use our plant virus nanoparticles after surgery to boost the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-cancers-defense-against-itself-using-novel-car-t-therapy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune system</a> to reject any residual disease and prevent circulating tumor cells from metastatic seeding. We found that it works really, really well!"



This research also opens the door to exploring other plant-based therapies for cancer. It highlights the vast potential of nature to provide solutions for some of our most pressing medical challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-hope-for-patients">New hope for patients</h2>



The possibility of a plant virus-based cancer treatment is an exciting development for cancer patients and their families. While more research is needed, the early results suggest that this innovative approach could offer a safer and more effective way to prevent and treat metastatic cancer.



The cowpea mosaic virus, once just a threat to black-eyed pea plants, may soon become a powerful ally in the fight against cancer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202308237" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



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Plant virus that attacks black-eyed peas also kills cancer tumors

In the field of cancer research, unexpected heroes sometimes emerge...

A recent discovery in the heart of Patagonia is sending ripples through the paleontological community. The newly unearthed Koleken inakayali fossil, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/dinosaur_Koleken-inakayali_very-short-arms_credit-Gabriel-Diaz-Yanten_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivorous dinosaur species</a> with astonishingly short arms, is challenging our understanding of prehistoric life in South America and raising questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of abelisaurid theropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-discovery-and-its-short-arms">Dinosaur discovery and its short arms</h2>



Koleken inakayali's skeletal remains were discovered in the La Colonia Formation of central Patagonia. A team of paleontologists led by <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic</a> Explorer Diego Pol meticulously studied these fossils. 



This find marks only the second known abelisaurid from this formation. It sheds light on the diverse array of dinosaurs that roamed the region during the Late Cretaceous Epoch. 



Koleken inakayali had notably shorter arms than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-change-their-minds-about-tyrannosaurus-rex-dinosaur-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. Rex</a>, offering new insights into abelisaurid anatomy and evolution. This discovery enriches our understanding of dinosaur diversity and adaptation before the mass extinction event.



"This finding significantly expands our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-less-intelligent-than-modern-day-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">knowledge</a> of abelisaurid theropods in Patagonia just prior to the mass extinction event," explains Pol, emphasizing the importance of Koleken inakayali in understanding the evolutionary trajectory of these unique dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koleken-inakayali-dinosaur-with-short-arms">Koleken inakayali: Dinosaur with short arms</h2>



While Koleken inakayali shares some similarities with its more famous relative, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-skin-is-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnotaurus sastrei</a>, also from the La Colonia Formation, it boasts distinct characteristics that set it apart. 



Notably smaller in size, Koleken inakayali exhibits unique skull features and anatomical variations, distinguishing it from other abelisaurids.



The research team meticulously analyzed the partial skeleton, which includes skull fragments, vertebrae, a complete hip, tail bones, and nearly complete legs. 



This comprehensive examination allowed them to reconstruct Koleken inakayali's appearance and gain insights into its evolutionary relationships. 



Overall, Koleken inakayali's discovery contributes significantly to our understanding of the diversity and adaptation of abelisaurids during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Cretaceous Epoch</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-short-arms-of-dinosaurs">Enigmatic short arms of dinosaurs</h2>



One of the most intriguing aspects of Koleken inakayali, and abelisaurids in general, is their remarkably short arms. While the exact function of these diminutive limbs remains a subject of ongoing debate, various hypotheses have been proposed. 



Some researchers suggest that they played a role in close-quarter combat with prey, while others believe they evolved to avoid interference with the dinosaurs' powerful jaws during feeding.



Koleken inakayali's short arms contribute valuable data to this ongoing discussion, providing paleontologists with crucial evidence to unravel the mystery behind this unique anatomical feature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koleken-inakayali-found-at-the-la-colonia-formation">Koleken inakayali found at the La Colonia Formation</h2>



The La Colonia Formation, renowned for its rich fossil record, continues to yield valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-oviraptor-dinosaur-species-weighed-as-much-as-a-human-female/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insights</a> into the Late Cretaceous period. 



The discovery of Koleken inakayali further solidifies the formation's status as a treasure trove of paleontological information, offering a glimpse into the diverse ecosystem that thrived in Patagonia millions of years ago.



"The addition of Koleken inakayali to the La Colonia Formation fauna underscores its importance as one of the most significant end-Cretaceous dinosaur-bearing rock units globally," explained Ian Miller, Chief Science and Innovation Officer at the National Geographic Society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-dinosaurs-like-koleken-inakayali-use-their-arms">How did dinosaurs like Koleken inakayali use their arms?</h2>



Dinosaurs used their arms for a variety of functions. These functions varied widely among different species and were influenced by their diet, size, and ecological roles. The functions may have included the following:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Hunting and feeding</h3>



Carnivorous dinosaurs like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-dinosaur-species-related-to-velociraptors-has-been-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Velociraptor</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-carcasses-a-key-food-source-for-jurassic-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allosaurus</a> had strong, clawed arms used for grasping and holding onto prey. 



These dinosaurs relied on their arms to subdue and manipulate their catches. Some theropods had large claws that they used to slash at prey, delivering fatal wounds.



Herbivorous dinosaurs used their arms to pull down branches and gather foliage. Their hands could help strip leaves from branches. 



Moreover, long-necked sauropods might have used their arms to help steady themselves while reaching for high vegetation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Defense</h3>



Some dinosaurs, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therizinosaur-with-scissor-like-claws-discovered-in-the-uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Therizinosaurs</a>, had large claws that they could use to defend themselves against predators. 



These claws could deliver powerful slashes. Certain dinosaurs had bony protrusions or spikes on their arms that added a layer of defense.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Locomotion</h3>



Large quadrupedal dinosaurs like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-how-super-giant-sauropods-grew-to-be-so-massive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brachiosaurus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stegosaurus-fossil-oldest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegosaurus</a> used their front limbs to support their massive bodies and for walking. 



Their arms were crucial for maintaining balance and stability. Some smaller dinosaurs used their arms to help balance while running, allowing for quick turns and agility.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Social and mating displays</h3>



Dinosaurs like Oviraptors had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feathered-dinosaurs-had-scaly-skin-like-modern-day-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> on their arms, which they could display during mating rituals to attract mates or to communicate with others in their group. 



Some species had brightly colored or uniquely shaped arms that they could use in visual displays to establish dominance or attract partners.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Climbing</h3>



Smaller dinosaurs, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizard-preserved-stomach-microraptor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microraptor</a>, had arms adapted for climbing trees. These arms might have had claws that helped them grip bark and branches. 



Also, dinosaurs living in forested environments used their arms to navigate through trees, escaping predators and finding food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koleken-inakayali-a-testament-to-scientific-exploration">Koleken inakayali: A testament to scientific exploration</h2>



The unveiling of Koleken inakayali not only expands our understanding of abelisaurid dinosaurs but also highlights the importance of continued scientific exploration and the preservation of our planet's natural heritage. 



By studying the fossilized remains of creatures like Koleken inakayali, we unlock the secrets of Earth's distant past and inspire future generations to delve deeper into the wonders of the natural world.



As paleontologists continue to investigate the La Colonia Formation and other fossil-rich regions, we can anticipate further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megaraptor-species-named-fujianipus-yingliangi-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discoveries</a> that will reshape our understanding of the dinosaurs that once ruled our planet. 



The story of Koleken inakayali is a testament to the power of scientific inquiry and the enduring fascination with the mysteries of our planet's prehistoric past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cla.12583" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cladistics</a>.



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Newly-discovered dinosaur had arms even smaller than T. Rex's

A recent discovery in the heart of Patagonia is sending...

A recent survey has unveiled a startling statistic: nearly half (48%) fear they will witness climate change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-want-to-fight-climate-change-more-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wreak havoc</a> on Earth within their lifetime. 



The survey, conducted by <a href="https://talkerresearch.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Talker Research</a>, found Hawaiians to be the most anxious, with 61% expressing this belief. Vermont and New Mexico residents followed closely behind, with 59% and 56% respectively.



However, this widespread fear might be misplaced. "Belief in the urgent fight against climate change has shot far past the territory of science and become an ideology," notes <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge</a> professor Mike Hulme.



He terms this "climatism," arguing that it skews our approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global issues</a>, potentially overshadowing other pressing concerns like poverty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-debate">Climate change debate</h2>



The climate change debate is complex, with opinions ranging from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-48-million-americans-deny-that-climate-change-is-real/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outright denial</a> to apocalyptic predictions. While the survey results highlight a significant portion of Americans fearing the worst, other perspectives challenge this narrative.



Data scientist Hannah Ritchie of the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> offers a contrasting perspective. Once convinced of an impending climate disaster, she now believes that such extreme predictions can overshadow significant achievements. 



In her book, Ritchie highlights that emissions per person have plateaued since 2012, suggesting some stabilization. She also argues that the dreaded 2.7°F (1.5°C) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming threshold</a> is not necessarily a catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tipping point</a>.



Ritchie’s views suggest that while climate change remains a serious issue, it’s essential to recognize progress and avoid undue pessimism. She calls for a balanced approach that acknowledges both the ongoing challenges and the advancements made. 



This perspective encourages a more nuanced understanding of climate change, promoting informed and effective action rather than fear-driven responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-action-vs-climate-change-fear">Positive action vs climate change fear</h2>



The survey indicates that 37% of respondents engage in environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-want-to-fight-climate-change-more-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">actions</a> primarily for personal satisfaction. However, a larger portion, 50%, believes that both intent and results are equally important. This suggests a growing shift toward a more conscientious approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-most-people-view-climate-change-as-a-very-important-issue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmentalism</a>.



Additionally, 32% of respondents stated that their eco-friendly actions help them sleep better at night. This connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservatives-liberals-unite-climate-action-despite-different-beliefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental responsibility</a> and personal well-being suggests that taking care of the planet can also benefit individuals' mental health. 



The sense of doing something positive for the environment might provide a sense of purpose and satisfaction, which can improve overall well-being.



These findings highlight that while some people may initially act out of self-interest, many are beginning to value the broader impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/media-coverage-of-climate-change-fails-to-inspire-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">their actions</a>. The positive personal effects, such as improved sleep, can serve as powerful motivators for encouraging more widespread environmental responsibility. 



As more people recognize the dual benefits of their actions, both for themselves and the planet, the momentum for meaningful change could grow stronger. 



This shift in perspective can lead to more sustainable behaviors becoming the norm, fostering a healthier relationship between individuals and the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-conversation">Climate change conversation</h2>



The climate change discourse is often fraught with fear-mongering and misinformation. Sensationalist narratives can lead to unnecessary fear and a sense of helplessness among the public. 



While acknowledging the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/38-trillion-dollars-per-year-economic-losses-expected-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential impacts</a> of climate change is crucial for raising awareness and driving policy changes, it's equally important to avoid exaggeration. Overstating the dangers can overshadow the significant progress being made and can undermine public trust in scientific discourse.



Focusing on actionable solutions is vital for fostering a constructive approach to tackling climate issues. Instead of dwelling on apocalyptic scenarios, we should highlight practical measures that individuals, communities, and governments can take to mitigate climate change. 



"It has become common to tell kids that they're going to die from climate change," states Ritchie. Such alarmist messages can be counterproductive, fostering despair instead of encouraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">action</a>.



Promoting sustainable practices, investing in renewable energy, and supporting climate-friendly policies are steps that can make a real difference. 



By emphasizing solutions over fear, we can empower people to take <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/panic-driven-doom-gloom-climate-change-messages-do-not-work/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meaningful action</a> and foster a more informed, proactive, and optimistic attitude toward addressing climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-action-and-balance">Hope, action, and balance</h2>



The climate change conversation needs a balanced perspective. While the challenges are real, so is the progress we've made. By focusing on solutions and fostering a sense of hope, we can empower individuals to take meaningful action.



Remember, as Professor Hulme reminds us, climate change isn't the only global issue. By adopting a holistic approach that addresses multiple challenges simultaneously, we can create a more sustainable and equitable future for all.



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Most people fear climate change will end the world during their lifetime

A recent survey has unveiled a startling statistic: nearly half...

Toronto,-,May,5:,A,Teen,Age,Girl,Smoking,Recreational

Cannabis legalization has been a hot topic, with proponents touting its potential medical benefits and opponents raising alarms about potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-in-adolescence-linked-to-cognitive-deficits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health risks</a>, particularly with teens. 



Now, a new study is reigniting the debate, suggesting a stronger link than previously thought between teen cannabis use and the development of psychotic disorders. 



What does this mean for teens, parents, and policymakers?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teens-using-cannabis">Teens using cannabis</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (<a href="https://www.camh.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAMH</a>), and the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences (<a href="https://www.ices.on.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICES</a>) embarked on a comprehensive study involving over 11,000 young people in Ontario, Canada. 



By linking self-reported cannabis use with health records, they uncovered a startling trend: teens who use cannabis are 11 times more likely to develop a psychotic disorder than those who don't.



According to healthcare professionals, this is a wake-up call, especially considering the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising potency</a> of cannabis products. 



"These findings are consistent with the neurodevelopmental theory that teens are especially vulnerable to the effects of cannabis," lead author André McDonald notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teens-are-more-vulnerable-to-cannabis-impacts">Teens are more vulnerable to cannabis impacts</h2>



One of the most striking aspects of the study is the age-dependent nature of the association. Teens who used cannabis faced a significantly elevated risk of psychosis, while young adults did not show the same link. 



This suggests a critical window of vulnerability during adolescence, a period when the brain undergoes significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-cannabis-use-disorder-risk-varies-among-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a>. The findings highlight the importance of focusing prevention efforts on younger individuals, as their developing brains may be more susceptible to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-smokers-not-lazy-unmotivated-despite-stereotypes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> of cannabis. 



Understanding this age-specific risk is crucial for developing effective public health strategies to mitigate the potential harms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis use</a>.



"We found a very strong association between cannabis use and risk of psychotic disorder in adolescence. Surprisingly, we didn't find evidence of association in young adulthood," says McDonald. 



This age-specific risk underscores the importance of targeted prevention strategies for teens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-cannabis-use-on-teens">Impact of cannabis use on teens</h2>



The study's findings are sobering. Roughly 5 out of 6 teens hospitalized or visiting the emergency department for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-linked-to-psychosis-among-adolescents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychotic disorder</a> had previously reported using cannabis. 



The average THC potency of cannabis in Canada has skyrocketed from 1% in 1980 to 20% in 2018. While most teens who use cannabis won't develop a psychotic disorder, most teens diagnosed with a psychotic disorder have a history of cannabis use. 



This further highlights the significant risk associated with cannabis use during adolescence, emphasizing the need for prevention and awareness efforts to protect young people's mental health.



These figures paint a complex picture. While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-found-in-cannabis-plants-can-actually-reduce-cannabis-induced-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis use</a> doesn't guarantee a psychotic disorder, the strong correlation raises serious concerns about the potential consequences, especially for young people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-prevention-and-further-research">Need for prevention and further research</h2>



The researchers acknowledge the study's limitations, including the possibility of reverse causation, where teens with psychotic symptoms may self-medicate with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-cannabis-use-disorder-risk-varies-among-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a>, and the lack of data on genetic and environmental factors. 



Despite these limitations, the findings highlight the urgent need for more research and proactive prevention strategies. The strong association between teen cannabis use and psychotic disorders calls for increased awareness and targeted interventions to protect adolescent mental health. 



Understanding the broader impacts and underlying causes will be crucial for developing effective public health policies and minimizing the risks associated with early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runners-high-cannabis-makes-exercise-more-enjoyable-and-boosts-motivation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis use</a>.



"As commercialized cannabis products have become more widely available, and have a higher THC content, the development of prevention strategies targeting teens is more important than ever," notes senior author Susan Bondy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



Whether you're a parent, a teen, or someone interested in public health, these findings are relevant. They highlight the importance of several things:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Open conversations</h3>



Talking to your teens about the potential risks of cannabis use is crucial, especially during adolescence. Engage in open and honest discussions about how cannabis can affect their developing brain and mental health. 



Create a safe space where they feel comfortable asking questions and expressing their thoughts. Highlight the increased risks and share the latest research findings to provide a clear understanding of why avoiding cannabis is important during their formative years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Education</h3>



Stay informed about the latest research on cannabis and its effects on the brain. Knowledge is power, and by keeping up-to-date with new studies and findings, you can provide accurate information to your teens. 



Understanding the changes in cannabis potency and the specific risks associated with adolescent use can help you make informed decisions and guide your children effectively. 



Attend community talks, read scientific articles, and utilize resources from reputable health organizations to stay educated.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Prevention</h3>



Support initiatives that aim to reduce teen cannabis use and promote healthy alternatives. Get involved in local and national campaigns focused on preventing early cannabis use. Advocate for policies that restrict the availability of high-potency cannabis products to minors. 



Encourage schools and community programs to incorporate cannabis education into their curricula. Additionally, promote and participate in activities that offer healthy and engaging alternatives to drug use, such as sports, arts, and volunteer opportunities.



The debate over cannabis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-legalization-does-not-increase-youth-substance-abuse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legalization</a> is far from over. But with this new evidence, it's clear that we need to prioritize the health and well-being of young people, protecting them from potential harm while exploring the potential benefits of this complex plant.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/agedependent-association-of-cannabis-use-with-risk-of-psychotic-disorder/BDCA0F73CDD7AF150D6FDCF89D29DC7F" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychological Medicine</a>.



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Cannabis' link to psychotic disorders in teens is stronger than previously believed

Cannabis legalization has been a hot topic, with proponents touting...

In a breathtaking new image from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, a trio of dazzling stars known as HP Tau illuminates the hollowed-out cavity of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/dawn-sunlike-star_HP-Tau_hubble_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reflection nebula</a>, creating a sight that resembles a glittering cosmic geode. 



The stunning celestial display showcases the beauty and complexity of the universe, inviting us to explore the fascinating world of young stars and their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triple-star-system-hp-tau">Triple-star system HP Tau</h2>



The stars at the heart of this celestial geode are part of a triple-star system known as HP Tau, located approximately 550 light-years away in the constellation Taurus. 



HP Tau is a T Tauri star, a type of young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/betelgeuse-one-of-our-brightest-stars-will-vanish-from-sight-next-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variable star</a> that has yet to begin nuclear fusion but is evolving into a hydrogen-fueled star similar to our Sun.



According to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, "T Tauri stars tend to be younger than 10 million years old -- in comparison, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our Sun</a> is around 4.6 billion years old -- and are often found still swaddled in the clouds of dust and gas from which they formed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-nature-of-variable-stars">Enigmatic nature of variable stars</h2>



As a variable star, HP Tau's brightness fluctuates over time, exhibiting both periodic and random variations. These changes in brightness can be attributed to several factors.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-variations">Random variations</h3>



<ul>
<li>Chaotic nature of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-stellar-objects-observing-the-early-lives-of-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">developing young star</a></li>



<li>Instabilities in the accretion disk of dust and gas around the star</li>



<li>Material from the accretion disk falling onto the star and being consumed</li>



<li>Flares on the star's surface</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-periodic-changes">Periodic changes</h3>



<ul>
<li>Giant sunspots rotating in and out of view</li>



<li>Other variables still unknown to modern science</li>
</ul>



These variations in brightness add to the intrigue and mystery surrounding young stars like HP Tau, as astronomers work to unravel the complexities of their formation and evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enchanting-glow-of-a-reflection-nebula">Enchanting glow of a reflection nebula</h2>



Enveloping the triple-star system is a mesmerizing cloud of gas and dust that shines with the reflected light of the stars. 



This phenomenon, known as a reflection nebula, does not emit visible light of its own but instead glows as the light from nearby stars bounces off the gas and dust particles.



NASA likens this effect to "fog illuminated by the glow of a car's headlights," creating a stunning visual display that highlights the intricate interplay between stars and the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-s-investigation-into-protoplanetary-disks">Hubble's investigation into protoplanetary disks</h2>



The Hubble Space Telescope's observation of HP Tau is part of a larger investigation into protoplanetary disks, the disks of material around stars that eventually coalesce into planets over millions of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of protoplanetary disks like HP Tau</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Protoplanetary disks</a> are the birthplaces of planets. These flat, rotating disks of gas and dust surround young stars and provide the raw materials for planetary formation. 



The disks form from the collapse of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular cloud</a>, which is a dense region of interstellar gas and dust.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Role of angular momentum</h3>



As the young star grows and begins to rotate, the surrounding material flattens into a disk shape due to conservation of angular momentum. 



Dust particles within the disk collide and stick together, gradually growing larger and forming small rocky bodies called planetesimals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">From planetesimals to planets</h3>



Over millions of years, these planetesimals continue to collide and merge, eventually forming larger bodies such as asteroids, comets, and even planets. 



The gas in the disk can also be accreted onto these growing bodies, creating the potential for gas giants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and Saturn to form.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Evolution of HP Tau protoplanetary disks</h3>



As the young star continues to evolve and emit strong stellar winds, it slowly dissipates the remaining gas in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-butterfly-iras-23077-discovery-flips-planet-formation-understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protoplanetary disk</a>. 



This process leaves behind a debris disk, which is a collection of leftover rocky and icy material that failed to form planets.



By studying young stars like HP Tau, astronomers using Hubble or other space telescopes can gain valuable insights into the early stages of planetary formation and the conditions necessary for the emergence of new worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hp-tau-reflection-mirror-into-the-cosmos">HP Tau: Reflection mirror into the cosmos</h2>



This spectacular new Hubble image of the celestial geode surrounding HP Tau is a testament to the awe-inspiring beauty and complexity of the universe. 



By capturing the dazzling trio of stars and the enchanting glow of the reflection nebula, Hubble has provided us with a glimpse into the fascinating world of young stars and the processes that shape the cosmos. 



As we continue to explore the mysteries of the universe, images like this serve as a reminder of the wonders that await discovery.



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Birth of a Sun-like star, HP Tau, seen through the eyes of Hubble

In a breathtaking new image from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,...

NASA has achieved a significant breakthrough in the development of 3D printable materials with the release of a new material with "unprecedented strength" that they are calling GRX-810.



This superalloy can withstand high temperatures, enabling the production of more robust and long-lasting components for aviation and space applications, marking a significant advancement in materials science.



GRX-810's properties of exceptional strength and durability make it ideal for use in building aircraft and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/io-jupiter-moon-juno-mission-discovers-fire-mountains-polar-cyclones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft</a>, promising to revolutionize design and performance in the aerospace industry. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-alloys">What are alloys?</h2>



Alloys and superalloys are materials created by combining two or more metals or a metal with another element. 



This combination enhances the properties of the base metals, making alloys stronger, lighter, more durable, or more resistant to corrosion than pure metals. 



The unique characteristics of alloys make them indispensable in various industries, especially aerospace.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Structural components</h3>



In aerospace, alloys are fundamental in constructing the frames and bodies of aircraft and spacecraft. Aluminum alloys are widely used due to their excellent strength-to-weight ratio. 



These alloys provide the necessary structural integrity while keeping the overall weight low, which is crucial for improving fuel efficiency and performance. 



For example, the fuselage and wings of modern aircraft often incorporate aluminum alloys to ensure both durability and lightness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Engine parts</h3>



The engines of aircraft and spacecraft operate under extreme conditions, including high temperatures and intense stress. 



High-performance alloys, such as titanium and nickel-based superalloys, are used in these components because they can withstand these harsh conditions without degrading. 



These alloys are crucial for parts like turbine blades and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-engineer-creates-propellantless-propulsion-system-defies-laws-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combustion chambers</a>, where maintaining structural integrity at high temperatures is essential for safety and efficiency.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Fuel systems</h3>



Alloys play a vital role in the construction of fuel tanks and fuel lines. Materials like stainless steel and certain aluminum alloys are used because of their durability and resistance to corrosion. This ensures the safe storage and transport of fuel, preventing leaks and minimizing maintenance needs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Thermal protection</h3>



Spacecraft re-entering Earth's atmosphere face extreme heat due to air friction. Alloys with high heat resistance, such as certain nickel and titanium alloys, are used in thermal protection systems. 



These materials can withstand the intense temperatures and prevent the spacecraft from overheating, thus protecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-aims-to-build-a-train-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle</a> and its occupants.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Landing gear</h3>



The landing gear of aircraft must endure significant stress during takeoff and landing. Strong and tough alloys like titanium are ideal for this application. 



Titanium alloys can absorb the shock of landing and support the aircraft's weight, providing reliable performance and reducing the risk of failure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nasa-s-grx-810-alloy-s-structure">NASA's GRX-810 alloy's structure</h2>



GRX-810's exceptional properties stem from its unique microstructure. The alloy is infused with nanoscale oxide particles, which act as reinforcements, enhancing its mechanical properties. 



This enables NASA's GRX-810 alloy to withstand temperatures exceeding 2,000°F -- hotter than most volcanic lava -- making it ideal for high-temperature applications in <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/GRX-810_superalloy_turbine-engine-combuster_3d-printed_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet engines and rocket components</a>.



GRX-810 not only withstands extreme temperatures but also demonstrates exceptional durability. It outperforms existing state-of-the-art alloys by over 1,000 times in high-temperature stress tests. 



Additionally, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s GRX-810 alloy offers enhanced malleability, allowing it to deform under stress before fracturing. This combination of thermal resilience and durability makes it a robust performer, ideal for demanding aerospace applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-of-nasa-s-grx-810-alloy">Modeling of NASA's GRX-810 alloy</h2>



Developing ODS alloys like GRX-810 has traditionally been a complex and costly endeavor. However, NASA researchers have pioneered a novel approach that combines computational modeling with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-food-printing-could-enhance-nutrition-and-food-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">3D printing</a>. 



This innovative methodology enables the precise distribution of oxide particles throughout the alloy, resulting in optimal high-temperature properties and unprecedented performance.



"Applying these two processes has drastically accelerated the rate of our materials development. We can now produce new materials faster and with better performance than before," explains Tim Smith, a materials research scientist at NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/glenn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glenn Research Center</a> and co-inventor of GRX-810.



This accelerated development cycle not only reduces costs but also opens up new avenues for rapid innovation in materials science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transforming-the-future-of-flight">Transforming the future of flight</h2>



The implications of GRX-810 extend far beyond improved engine components. Its application could significantly reduce fuel consumption, lower operating costs, and contribute to more sustainable aviation practices. 



"This breakthrough is revolutionary for materials development. New types of stronger and more lightweight materials play a key role as NASA aims to change the future of flight," explains Dale Hopkins, deputy project manager of NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/armd/tacp/ttt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Transformational Tools and Technologies</a> project.



NASA's GRX-810 alloy also empowers engine designers with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-discovery-first-evidence-of-a-self-healing-metal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new possibilities</a>. The alloy's exceptional strength-to-weight ratio allows for lighter designs without compromising performance, opening up previously unattainable trade-offs. 



This newfound flexibility could lead to more efficient and innovative engine designs, pushing the boundaries of aerospace engineering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-nasa-s-grx-810-alloy">Significance of NASA's GRX-810 alloy</h2>



GRX-810 marks a paradigm shift in materials science by combining advanced computational modeling with additive manufacturing. 



Evidently, this new alloy has immense potential to transform the aerospace industry. It promises lighter, more fuel-efficient aircraft and spacecraft that can endure the harshest environments.



As NASA continues to push the boundaries of innovation, GRX-810 stands as a testament to the agency's commitment to advancing the future of flight. The alloy's development reflects NASA's dedication to creating groundbreaking technologies. 



This ensures that the aerospace industry can meet the challenges of tomorrow with enhanced performance and sustainability. 



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NASA's new super-metal 'GRX-810' set to transform the future

NASA has achieved a significant breakthrough in the development of...

Super,Massive,Black,Hole,-,A,Black,Hole,Is,A

Astronomers have provided the first observational proof of a key prediction made by Einstein's theory of gravity concerning black hole "waterfalls" hiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">throughout the universe</a>.



The study confirms the existence of a "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-it-be-like-to-fall-into-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plunging-region</a>" around black holes, where matter stops circling the hole and instead falls straight in, experiencing some of the strongest gravitational forces yet identified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the galaxy</a>.



The research was led by Dr. Andrew Mummery and his colleagues at <a href="https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University Physics</a>, as part of their ongoing investigations into the outstanding mysteries surrounding black holes. 



The team utilized X-ray data gathered from NASA's space-based Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/nuclear-spectroscopic-telescope-array-nustar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NuSTAR</a>) and Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer (<a href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/nicer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICER</a>) telescopes to study smaller black holes relatively close to Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-basics">Understanding the basics</h2>



Black holes are regions in space where gravity reigns supreme. These invisible giants form when massive stars, having exhausted their nuclear fuel, collapse under their own immense weight. 



The resulting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primordial-black-holes-may-be-shifting-earths-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational pull</a> is so powerful that nothing, not even light, can escape its grasp once it crosses the event horizon, the point of no return. 



Black holes come in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">various sizes</a>, from stellar-mass black holes that are a few times more massive than our Sun, to supermassive black holes lurking at the hearts of galaxies, with masses millions or even billions of times greater. 



Despite their reputation for being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/18-black-holes-captured-devouring-nearby-stars-in-dramatic-tidal-disruption-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">destructive forces</a>, black holes play a crucial role in shaping the universe, influencing the formation and evolution of galaxies, and providing us with a unique laboratory to test our understanding of the fundamental laws of physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-s-black-hole-theory-triumphs">Einstein's black hole theory triumphs</h2>



Einstein's theory of gravity differs from Newton's in its prediction that particles cannot safely follow circular orbits sufficiently close to a black hole. 



Instead, they rapidly "plunge" toward the black hole at close to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speed of light</a>. This study marks the first time researchers have been able to demonstrate this phenomenon happening.



"This is the first look at how plasma, peeled from the outer edge of a star, undergoes its final fall into the center of a black hole, a process happening in a system around ten thousand light years away," Dr. Mummery explained.



There are many black holes in the galaxy, and astronomers now have a powerful new technique for using them to study the strongest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational fields</a>.



Einstein's theory predicted that this final plunge would exist, but this is the first time scientists were able to demonstrate it actually happening. 



"Think of it like a river turning into a waterfall – hitherto, we have been looking at the river. This is the first sight of the waterfall," Dr. Mummery enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-x-ray-vision-to-peer-into-black-hole-hearts">Using x-ray vision to peer into black hole hearts</h2>



The confirmation of the plunging region's existence marks an exciting new development in the study of black holes. It allows researchers to investigate this final area around them and fully understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-has-detected-most-distant-black-hole-merger-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational force</a> at play. 



As Dr Mummery stated, "This final plunge of plasma happens at the very edge of a black hole and shows matter responding to gravity in its strongest possible form."



Astrophysicists have long been trying to understand what happens close to a black hole's surface by studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-black-hole-ever-discovered-dates-back-to-the-dawn-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discs of material</a> orbiting around them. 



The existence of the plunging region, where it is impossible to stop a final descent into the black hole, has been a topic of debate for many decades.



The Oxford team's detection of this region using X-ray telescopes and data from the International Space Station settles this debate and opens up new avenues for research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-research-going-beyond-the-event-horizon">Black hole research going beyond the event horizon</h2>



While this study focused on small black holes closer to Earth, a second study team from Oxford University Physics is part of a European initiative to build a new telescope called <a href="https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/news/grant-build-new-telescope-africa-enable-colour-movies-black-holes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Africa Millimetre Telescope</a>. 



This telescope is expected to greatly enhance our ability to make direct images of black holes, both at the center of our own galaxy and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-supermassive-black-hole-found-in-the-shadows-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far beyond</a>.



The team hopes to observe and film, for the first time, the event horizons of large black holes, which are believed to drag material from space toward their center in a spiral as the black hole rotates. 



These represent almost unimaginable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-created-and-contained-in-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sources of energy</a>, and their observation would mark another significant milestone in our understanding of these fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-einstein-correct-once-again">Proving Einstein correct once again</h2>



As we continue to push the boundaries of our understanding of black holes, the incredible discoveries made by the Oxford University Physics team serve as a testament to the enduring power of Einstein's theory of gravity. 



In summary, by confirming the existence of black hole waterfalls at the plunging region, and detecting the strongest gravitational forces yet identified in the galaxy, these researchers have proven the voracity of new methods for exploring the most extreme environments in the universe. 



With the development of cutting-edge telescopes like The Africa Millimetre Telescope, we stand on the brink of a new era in black hole research, one that promises to unveil the secrets of these enigmatic cosmic giants and bring us closer to understanding the fundamental laws that govern our universe.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/531/1/366/7671518" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



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Black hole "waterfall" discovery proves Einstein right again

Astronomers have provided the first observational proof of a key...

A team of researchers has shed new light on the mysterious pockmarks that dot the seafloor off the coast of Central California. The findings reveal that powerful sediment flows, not methane gas eruptions, may be responsible for maintaining these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-mysterious-ocean-pits-linked-to-porpoises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric formations</a>.



The research was conducted by a collaborative team from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>), the United States Geological Survey (<a href="https://www.usgs.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a>), and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>. 



Their work provides crucial information to guide decision-making about responsible use and management of the seafloor off California, including site assessments for the development of offshore wind farms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-mystery-of-the-sur-pockmark-field">Solving the mystery of the Sur Pockmark Field</h2>



The Sur Pockmark Field, located off the coast of Big Sur, California, spans an area comparable to the size of Los Angeles and contains over <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/pockmarks_holes_ocean-floor_map_credit-mbari_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">5,200 circular depressions</a>. 



Each of these pockmarks measures approximately 200 meters across and five meters deep. Resource managers were particularly interested in understanding the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> in these formations due to planned offshore wind farms in Central California.



However, data collected by the experts found no evidence of methane gas in the pockmarks. Instead, they discovered that sediment gravity flows, akin to underwater avalanches of mud, sand, and water, have been maintaining these formations for hundreds of thousands of years.



“There are many unanswered questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-spreading-has-slowed-down-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a> and its processes,” said MBARI Senior Research Technician Eve Lundsten, who led the study. “This research provides important data about the seafloor for resource managers and others considering potential offshore sites for underwater infrastructure to guide their decision-making.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sending-in-the-robots-autonomous-underwater-vehicles-auvs">Sending in the robots: Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)</h2>



The research team utilized MBARI’s advanced underwater robots to study the Sur Pockmark Field. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) mapped the region with greater detail than previous sonar surveys. 



These maps guided the sampling process conducted by MBARI’s remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Doc Ricketts, which collected sediment samples to reconstruct the history of individual pockmarks.



The scientists discovered multiple layers of sandy deposits, known as turbidites, within the pockmarks, indicating that large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sediments-predict-future-stressors-for-cold-water-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sediment</a> gravity flows have occurred intermittently for at least the past 280,000 years. These flows cause erosion at the center of each pockmark, maintaining their distinctive shape over time.



“We collected a massive amount of data, allowing us to make a surprising link between pockmarks and sediment gravity flows. We were unable to determine exactly how these pockmarks were initially formed, but with MBARI’s advanced underwater technology, we’ve gained new insight into how and why these features have persisted on the seafloor for hundreds of thousands of years,” said Lundsten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-offshore-wind-energy-development">Implications for offshore wind energy development</h2>



Pockmarks found in other parts of the world have been associated with the release of methane gas, which could destabilize the seafloor and pose risks to structures like offshore wind turbines. 



The findings from the Sur Pockmark Field are crucial for ensuring the stability and safety of proposed offshore wind energy projects in Central California. 



MBARI's research, driven by the need for renewable energy development, has provided critical insights into the stability of the seafloor in this region.



“Expanding renewable energy is critical to achieving the dramatic cuts in carbon dioxide emissions needed to prevent further irreversible climate change. However, there are still many unanswered questions about the possible environmental impacts of offshore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-impacts-solar-wind-energy/">wind energy</a> development,” said MBARI President and CEO Chris Scholin. 



“This research is one of many ways that MBARI researchers are answering fundamental questions about our ocean to help inform decisions about how we use marine resources," Scholin continued.



The Sur Pockmark Field is now one of the best-studied seafloor areas on the west coast of North America, thanks to the efforts of MBARI and other institutions. 



However, questions remain about the initial formation of these pockmarks. Further research will be necessary to fully understand the processes that shaped these unique underwater features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-computer-modeling-and-further-research">Next Steps: Computer modeling and further research</h2>



In summary, by deploying advanced underwater technology and fostering collaborative research efforts, scientists have uncovered the surprising link between sediment gravity flows and the maintenance of the prehistoric formations in the Sur Pockmark Field. 



This discovery enhances our knowledge of the deep sea ecosystem and provides crucial information to guide decision-making for responsible use and management of the seafloor, particularly in the context of offshore wind energy development. 



As we continue to explore the mysteries of the deep, studies like this underscore the importance of ongoing research and collaboration in advancing our understanding of the complex and dynamic processes that shape our oceans.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JF007374" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface</a>.



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Mystery deepens over origin of thousands of massive holes on the ocean floor

A team of researchers has shed new light on the...

Established in 2000 by the non-profit organization <a href="https://www.tortoise.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Tortoise Rescue</a>, World Turtle Day aims to raise awareness about turtles and tortoises, which are increasingly threatened by human activities and environmental changes.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peltocephalus-maturin-giant-turtle-named-after-stephen-king-novel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Turtles</a> and tortoises are among the oldest surviving reptile groups in the world. These creatures, which have been around for over 200 million years, play essential roles in their ecosystems.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reintroduction-of-green-turtles-has-been-a-success-in-the-cayman-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aquatic turtles</a> contribute to the health of marine and freshwater environments by maintaining healthy seagrass beds and coral reefs, while land-dwelling tortoises help disperse seeds and maintain forest and grassland habitats. However, despite their ecological importance, many species are now critically endangered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-threats-to-turtles-and-tortoises-nbsp">Significant threats to turtles and tortoises&nbsp;</h2>



Turtles and tortoises around the world face significant threats from habitat loss due to various human activities. Many species depend on specific environments that are being increasingly encroached upon or destroyed.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-turtles-nbsp">Freshwater turtles&nbsp;</h3>



For freshwater turtles, the draining of wetlands, pollution of water bodies, and construction of dams disrupt their natural habitats, making it difficult for them to survive and reproduce.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-turtles">Marine turtles</h3>



Marine turtles suffer from similar issues as their nesting beaches are often prime targets for development and tourism, leading to habitat degradation and increased vulnerability to predators.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-terrestrial-tortoises-nbsp">Terrestrial tortoises&nbsp;</h3>



Terrestrial tortoises are not immune to these pressures. The expansion of agricultural land and urban areas into wild landscapes has led to the fragmentation of their habitats. This not only reduces the areas available for foraging and nesting but also isolates populations - making it harder for tortoises to find mates and leading to genetic bottlenecks.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-nbsp">Climate change&nbsp;</h3>



Climate change adds another layer of stress, altering the temperature and precipitation patterns that these species have adapted to over millennia, which can affect their food availability, nesting conditions, and ultimately their survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-these-threats">Addressing these threats</h3>



World Turtle Day seeks to address these issues by educating the public on the plight of turtles and tortoises and promoting actions to help safeguard them.&nbsp;



Activities associated with this occasion include educational workshops, conservation efforts like beach clean-ups, and advocacy work to promote stronger regulations on the trade of turtles and their parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-and-tortoises-what-s-the-difference">Turtles and tortoises: What's the difference?</h2>



Turtles and tortoises are both reptiles from the order Testudines, but they have distinct differences in their habitats and physical characteristics.&nbsp;



Turtles are generally adapted to life in water. They have streamlined bodies and webbed feet or flippers, which make them excellent swimmers. Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> are either fully aquatic or spend a significant amount of time in water bodies such as oceans, rivers, and lakes.



On the other hand, tortoises are exclusively land-dwellers and are not equipped for swimming. They have dome-shaped shells and stumpy, elephantine legs suitable for terrestrial life.&nbsp;



Tortoises tend to have a more herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, weeds, and fruit. Turtles are typically omnivorous, consuming both plant and animal matter depending on their environment.



The habitats of tortoises are mainly dry land areas like grasslands and deserts, while turtles can be found in a wide array of aquatic environments around the world.



These adaptations to different environments also reflect their differing reproductive behaviors and life spans. Tortoises are known for their longevity, whereas many turtles have shorter life spans. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-turtles-and-tortoises">Fascinating facts about turtles and tortoises </h2>



Turtles and tortoises are fascinating creatures with unique traits and behaviors that highlight their evolutionary success.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-shells">Turtle shells</h3>



One of the most remarkable features is their shells, which are actually part of their skeleton. The shells are made up of over 50 bones including the rib cage and spine, providing protection from predators - a function that is crucial for their survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-dependent-sex">Temperature-dependent sex</h3>



Interestingly, the sex of many turtle species is determined by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated. Warmer temperatures generally produce females, while cooler temperatures produce males. 



This temperature-dependent sex determination is critical and could be impacted by climate change, potentially skewing population dynamics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longevity-nbsp">Longevity&nbsp;</h3>



Another unique aspect is the longevity of tortoises. Some species are among the longest-living animals on the planet. 



For instance, the Aldabra giant tortoise is known to live over 150 years. This long lifespan is accompanied by a slow metabolism, which also contributes to their ability to survive without food or water for long periods.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigational-abilities-nbsp">Navigational abilities&nbsp;</h3>



Turtles also display remarkable navigational abilities. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea turtles</a> can travel thousands of miles across oceans and still return to the exact beach where they were born to lay their eggs. This homing ability involves a combination of magnetic orientation and possibly olfactory cues to find their way back after years and across vast distances.



The celebration of World Turtle Day is crucial not just for the survival of turtles and tortoises, but for the broader environmental impact that their protection would signify. 



By preserving these creatures, we also conserve vast tracts of ecosystems essential for other species, including humans. This interconnectedness of biodiversity is a central theme in the message of World Turtle Day.



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World Turtle Day: Protecting turtles, tortoises, and their vanishing habitats

Established in 2000 by the non-profit organization American Tortoise Rescue,...

3d,Rendering,Of,The,Caudipteryx

Recent research has uncovered a surprising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-debunk-bergmanns-rule-classic-climate-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detail</a> about feathered dinosaurs: they weren't entirely feathered. These ancient creatures sported a mix of reptile-like scaly skin and feathery patches, a revelation that's changing our understanding of the evolution of feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathered-dinosaurs-skin-under-uv">Feathered dinosaurs skin under UV</h2>



A seemingly unremarkable <a href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-024-48400-3/MediaObjects/41467_2024_48400_MOESM1_ESM.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur fossil</a>, when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, revealed an unexpected secret: patches of preserved skin that fluoresced a vibrant orange-yellow. 



This fascinating discovery occurred during the examination of a Psittacosaurus specimen by paleontologists at University College Cork (<a href="https://www.ucc.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCC</a>) in Ireland. This finding indicates that feathers were not the sole covering of this dinosaur's body. 



The UV light exposed areas of preserved skin where feathers were not present, suggesting a more complex integumentary system than previously thought.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"The fossil truly is a hidden gem. The fossil skin is not visible to the naked eye, and it remained hidden when the specimen was donated to <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/">Nanjing </a><a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U</a><a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/">niversity</a> in 2021. Only under UV light is the skin visible, in a striking orange-yellow glow," noted Dr. Zixiao Yang, one of the lead researchers.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-psittacosaurus-dinosaur">Understanding the Psittacosaurus dinosaur</h2>



Psittacosaurus, a small ceratopsian dinosaur, roamed the earth during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous period</a>, approximately 130 to 100 million years ago. 



This herbivorous creature thrived in what is now Asia, primarily in regions of modern-day China, Mongolia, and Russia. 



Psittacosaurus stood out among its contemporaries due to its distinctive parrot-like beak, which inspired its name, translating to "parrot lizard."



Growing to lengths of about 6.5 feet (2 meters), Psittacosaurus possessed a sturdy build and walked on two legs, although it could likely adopt a quadrupedal stance while feeding. 



Its skull featured a prominent beak and powerful jaws, well-suited for slicing through tough plant material. Unlike later ceratopsians, such as Triceratops, Psittacosaurus lacked the characteristic horns and neck frill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glassy-skin-of-feathered-dinosaurs">Glassy skin of feathered dinosaurs</h2>



The research team employed advanced imaging techniques, utilizing X-rays and infrared light to examine the fossilized skin in greater detail. 



This allowed them to observe the intricate cellular structure of the skin, which had been remarkably preserved over millions of years. 



Unexpectedly, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Low-Res_fossil-skin-under-an-electron-microscope.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> revealed that the skin was primarily composed of silica, a mineral compound most commonly known as the main component of glass. This discovery marks the first instance of silica-based skin preservation in vertebrate fossils. 



This fossil's well-preserved soft tissue hints at more hidden finds in other specimens. Researchers can now explore new areas in ancient biology and evolution. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zoned-development-concept">Zoned development concept</h2>



The most remarkable aspect of this discovery lies in what it reveals about the evolution of feathers.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"The evolution of feathers from reptilian scales is one of the most profound yet poorly understood events in vertebrate evolution. While numerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-fossil-feather-discovered-archaeopteryx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils of feathers</a> have been studied, fossil skin is much more rare," Prof. Maria McNamara, the senior author of the study, explains.
</blockquote>



The researchers introduce the concept of "zoned development." They suggest that soft, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-birds-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird-like</a> skin evolved only in feathered areas. The rest of the body retained scaly skin, similar to modern reptiles like lizards.



This unique adaptation allowed early feathered dinosaurs to protect against abrasion, dehydration, and parasites. Simultaneously, they could experiment with the evolutionary benefits of feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-dinosaur-history">Rewriting dinosaur history</h2>



This revelation challenges our previous understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of feathers</a>, suggesting a more gradual and complex process than previously thought. 



It paints a picture of a transitional period where dinosaurs sported a patchwork of scales and feathers, a far cry from the fully feathered creatures we often envision.



This research not only provides valuable insights into the evolution of feathered dinosaurs skin but also hints at a wealth of hidden information waiting to be discovered in other fossils. Who knows what other secrets lie hidden beneath the surface, waiting for the glow of UV light to reveal them?



As we continue to unearth the mysteries of the past, one thing is clear: the world of dinosaurs was far more diverse and fascinating than we ever imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathered-dinosaurs-beyond-the-skin">Feathered dinosaurs: Beyond the skin</h2>



Feathered dinosaurs have revolutionized our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life. The iconic Archaeopteryx, discovered in the 19th century, provided the first glimpse of a feathered dinosaur, bridging the gap between dinosaurs and birds with its avian and reptilian features. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-bright-rainbow-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Feathers</a> initially evolved for insulation, helping dinosaurs like Sinosauropteryx retain body heat. Later, feathers became crucial for display and communication, evident in the colorful plumage of some species. Microraptor, with its four wings, illustrates the early stages of gliding and flight evolution.



Modern technology has transformed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/locomotive-versatility-helped-dinosaurs-adapt-and-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">palaeontology</a>. High-resolution imaging and electron microscopy reveal intricate details of feather structure and pigmentation. 



Spectacular finds, like feathers preserved in amber, provide direct evidence of their color and pattern. Moreover, research on feathered dinosaurs sheds light on the origins of birds. 



By tracing their evolutionary steps, scientists understand how avian features like flight and feathers developed. This research also helps explain the diversity and adaptations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-less-intelligent-than-modern-day-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern</a> birds.



Feathered dinosaurs highlight the dynamic evolution from ancient theropods to today’s birds. As new technologies and discoveries emerge, our understanding of these fascinating creatures continues to grow, showcasing the intricate tapestry of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48400-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Feathered dinosaurs had scaly skin like modern-day lizards

Recent research has uncovered a surprising detail about feathered dinosaurs:...

In the quest to promote healthier aging and prevent cognitive decline, scientists have been diligently studying the brain for years. 



While much is known about the risk factors that can accelerate brain aging, less has been uncovered about effective ways to maintain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-for-the-aging-brain-mediterranean-diet-protects-cognitive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a> as we grow older. 



However, recent research has shed new light on the crucial role that specific nutrients play in the healthy aging of the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-neuroscience-and-nutritional-science">Combining neuroscience and nutritional science</h2>



The study, published in Nature Aging, was led by Aron Barbey, director of the Center for Brain, Biology and Behavior at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a>. 



At his side was Jisheng Wu, a doctoral student at Nebraska, and Christopher Zwilling, research scientist at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> at Urbana-Champaign. 



This brilliant team of scientists combined state-of-the-art innovations in neuroscience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-in-nutrition-science-dna-barcoding-reveals-dietary-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutritional science</a> to conduct a multimodal study that identified a specific nutrient profile in participants who performed better cognitively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-two-types-of-brain-aging">Identifying two types of brain aging</h2>



The cross-sectional study enrolled 100 cognitively healthy participants, aged 65-75, who completed a questionnaire with demographic information, body measurements, and physical activity. 



Blood plasma was collected following a fasting period to analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient biomarkers</a>, and participants also underwent cognitive assessments and MRI scans. 



The efforts revealed two types of brain aging among the participants: accelerated and slower-than-expected. Interestingly, those with slower brain aging had a distinct nutrient profile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-boosting-beneficial-nutrients">Brain-boosting beneficial nutrients</h2>



The beneficial nutrient blood biomarkers identified in the study were a combination of 



<ul>
<li>Fatty acids: Vaccenic, gondoic, alpha linolenic, elcosapentaenoic, eicosadienoic, and lignoceric acids</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Antioxidants and carotenoids: Including cis-lutein, trans-lutein, and zeaxanthin</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Two forms of vitamin E: Found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds to name a few</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Choline: Found in egg yolks and fish, to name two examples</li>
</ul>



This profile is correlated with nutrients found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-keeps-the-brain-sharp-even-in-old-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean diet</a>, which previous research has associated with healthy brain aging.



"We investigated specific nutrient biomarkers, such as fatty acid profiles, known in nutritional science to potentially offer health benefits," Barbey explained. 



This aligns with the extensive body of research in the field demonstrating the positive health effects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-can-live-longer-on-the-mediterranean-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean Diet</a>, which emphasizes foods rich in these beneficial nutrients.



The present study identifies particular nutrient biomarker patterns that are promising and have favorable associations with measures of cognitive performance and brain health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Linking diet, cognition, and brain function</h2>



One of the unique aspects of this study is its comprehensive approach, which integrates data on nutrition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cheese-may-contain-nutrients-that-prevent-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a>, and brain imaging. 



"This allows us to build a more robust understanding of the relationship between these factors. We move beyond simply measuring cognitive performance with traditional neuropsychological tests," Barbey noted. 



"Instead, we simultaneously examine brain structure, function, and metabolism, demonstrating a direct link between these brain properties and cognitive abilities," he continued.



According to their research, these brain properties are directly linked to diet and nutrition, as revealed by the patterns observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-improves-sperm-quality-and-fertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient biomarkers</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-brain-aging-research">Next steps in brain aging research</h2>



The researchers plan to continue exploring this nutrient profile as it relates to healthy brain aging. Barbey noted that it's possible, in the future, that the findings will aid in developing therapies and interventions to promote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/olive-oil-can-boost-brain-health-and-fight-off-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. 



"An important next step involves conducting randomized controlled trials. In these trials, we will isolate specific nutrients with favorable associations with cognitive function and brain health, and administer them in the form of nutraceuticals," he said. 



This approach will allow the scientists to definitively assess whether increasing the levels of these specific nutrient profiles reliably leads to improvements in cognitive test performance and measures of brain structure, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/regular-daytime-napping-increases-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">function</a>, and metabolism.



In addition to the ongoing research, Barbey is also co-editing an upcoming special collection for the Journal of Nutrition, titled "Nutrition and the Brain — Exploring Pathways to Optimal Brain Health Through Nutrition." 



"The National Institutes of Health recently launched a ten-year strategic plan to significantly accelerate nutrition research. Our work directly aligns with this critical initiative, aiming to contribute valuable insights into how dietary patterns influence brain health and cognitive function," Barbey concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-gracefully-with-a-healthy-brain">Aging gracefully with a healthy brain</h2>



In summary, this intriguing study led by Aron Barbey and his team at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has opened new doors in our understanding of the intricate relationship between nutrition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-weight-training-boosts-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. 



By combining cutting-edge techniques in neuroscience and nutritional science, they have identified a specific nutrient profile that is associated with slower brain aging and better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive performance</a>. 



This profile, rich in fatty acids, antioxidants, and other beneficial compounds, aligns with the well-known Mediterranean diet and offers hope for future interventions aimed at promoting healthier brain aging. 



As researchers continue to explore this fascinating field through randomized controlled trials and special collections like the upcoming "Nutrition and the Brain" in the Journal of Nutrition, we move closer to unlocking the secrets of optimal brain health and developing targeted strategies to nourish our minds throughout our lives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-024-00150-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



-----



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Eating foods with these key nutrients will dramatically slow brain aging

In the quest to promote healthier aging and prevent cognitive...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...