It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms. Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us. Energy: Fuel for evolution The boring billion...

Around two million years ago, Earth was home to early human ancestors living alongside saber-toothed tigers, mastodons, and massive rodents.&nbsp;



The planet experienced multiple ice ages, likely caused by factors such as Earth’s tilt, rotation, tectonics, volcanic activity, and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.&nbsp;



However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> (BU) has suggested that the sun’s location in the galaxy may have also played a significant role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-cloud-encounter">Interstellar cloud encounter </h2>



The experts found that around two million years ago, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-water-travel-through-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> encountered an interstellar cloud dense enough to disrupt the sun’s solar wind, which forms the protective heliosphere around the solar system.&nbsp;



The heliosphere shields Earth from harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-surges-of-cosmic-radiation-from-space-directly-linked-to-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic radiation</a> and galactic rays, which can alter DNA. The dense cloud compressed the heliosphere, briefly exposing Earth to the interstellar medium.



“This paper is the first to quantitatively show there was an encounter between the sun and something outside of the solar system that would have affected Earth’s climate,” said lead author Merav Opher, an astrophysicist at BU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-and-the-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Solar wind and the interstellar medium&nbsp;</h2>



Opher’s models, which propose that the heliosphere is shaped like a puffy croissant, have significantly influenced the understanding of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> interacts with the interstellar medium.



To investigate these phenomena, Opher and her team used sophisticated computer models to trace the sun’s position two million years ago.&nbsp;



They mapped the path of the Local Ribbon of Cold Clouds system, a series of large, dense, and cold clouds primarily composed of hydrogen atoms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-lynx-of-cold-cloud">Local Lynx of Cold Cloud</h2>



The simulations indicated that the Local Lynx of Cold Cloud, a part of this ribbon, could have collided with the heliosphere.



If such a collision occurred, Earth would have been exposed to the interstellar medium, which contains gas, dust, and radioactive particles from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hm-sagittae-star-exploded-nova-40-years-ago-has-not-dimmed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploded stars</a>. Normally, the heliosphere filters out these particles, but without it, they could reach Earth.&nbsp;



This scenario aligns with geological evidence showing increased levels of iron-60 and plutonium-244 isotopes in ocean sediments, lunar samples, Antarctic snow, and ice cores from that period, coinciding with a cooling phase on Earth. 



Iron 60 and plutonium 244 are very rare heavy metals that are created when massive stars explode.



“It is everywhere, in the deep ocean, on the moon, on ice in Antarctica,” said Opher. “These papers describe a global phenomenon. Something happened. And iron 60 is not produced on Earth. So I knew that somehow this iron 60 got trapped in dust, and somehow, 2 to 3 million years ago, we had more dust delivered to us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dense-cloud-compressed-the-heliosphere-nbsp">Dense cloud compressed the heliosphere&nbsp;</h2>



“Only rarely does our cosmic neighborhood beyond the solar system affect life on Earth,” said co-author Avi Loeb, the director of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>’s Institute for Theory and Computation.&nbsp;



“It is exciting to discover that our passage through dense clouds a few million years ago could have exposed the Earth to a much larger flux of cosmic rays and hydrogen atoms.”



The pressure from the Local Lynx of Cold Cloud could have kept the heliosphere compressed for hundreds of years to a million years, depending on the cloud’s size. Once Earth moved away from the cloud, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heliosphere-best-path-space-probes-beyond-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heliosphere</a> would have re-expanded to encompass all the planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-clouds-and-earth-s-climate-nbsp">Interstellar clouds and Earth's climate&nbsp;</h2>



While it is difficult to determine the exact impact of these cold clouds on Earth’s climate, Opher argued that the sun has likely encountered other cold clouds over billions of years and will do so again in the future.&nbsp;



Her team is now working on mapping the sun’s location seven million years ago and further back, using data from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency’s Gaia mission</a>, which is creating the largest 3D map of the galaxy.



“This cloud was indeed in our past, and if we crossed something that massive, we were exposed to the interstellar medium,” noted Opher. 



Her team at BU’s NASA-funded SHIELD (Solar wind with Hydrogen Ion Exchange and Large-scale Dynamics) DRIVE Science Center is now exploring the potential effects on Earth’s radiation, atmosphere, and climate.



“This is only the beginning,” Opher said. She hopes this research will lead to further exploration of how the solar system’s encounters with interstellar forces have shaped Earth’s history and life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02279-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Earth collided with an interstellar cloud millions of years ago

Around two million years ago, Earth was home to early...

Deep beneath our feet, in the heart of our planet, something unexpected is happening. Scientists have discovered that Earth's inner core, a solid iron-nickel sphere roughly the size of the moon, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-caps-changing-earths-rotation-need-negative-leap-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">is slowing down</a>.



This finding challenges previous assumptions about the inner core's behavior and raises intriguing questions about its impact on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-20-year-long-debate-settled">20-year long debate settled</h2>



The movement of the inner core has been a topic of scientific debate for over two decades. While some research suggested that the inner core rotates faster than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>'s surface, the new USC study provides unambiguous evidence to the contrary. 



According to <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/profile/john-vidale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Vidale</a>, Dean's Professor of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife</a> College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, the inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth's surface for the first time in approximately 40 years.



"When I first saw the seismograms that hinted at this change, I was stumped," Vidale admits. "But when we found two dozen more observations signaling the same pattern, the result was inescapable. The inner core had slowed down for the first time in many decades."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-of-earth-s-inner-core">Composition of Earth's inner core</h2>



The extreme pressure and temperature conditions at the center of the Earth cause the iron and nickel metals that compose the core to behave in unique ways, forming a solid inner core despite the incredibly high temperatures.



The inner core's density is estimated to be about 12.8 to 13.1 grams per cubic centimeter, which is slightly less dense than pure iron at Earth's surface. 



This difference in density suggests that the inner core may contain lighter elements such as sulfur, oxygen, or silicon in addition to iron and nickel.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a> is generated by the motion of the liquid iron outer core surrounding the solid inner core. This process, known as the geodynamo, is driven by the convection currents in the outer core and the Earth's rotation. The inner core plays a crucial role in stabilizing and sustaining the magnetic field.



Seismic waves traveling through the inner core exhibit anisotropy, meaning they travel at different speeds depending on their direction. This anisotropy suggests that the inner core has a complex structure, possibly with aligned iron crystals or layering.



Scientists believe that the inner core is gradually growing larger over time as the Earth cools and the outer core solidifies. This growth process is estimated to occur at a rate of about 0.5 to 1 millimeter per year, which means the inner core's age is approximately 1 to 1.5 billion years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repeating-earthquakes-and-seismic-waves">Repeating earthquakes and seismic waves</h2>



To determine the slowdown of Earth's inner core, Vidale's team employed a novel methodology. Their approach centered on analyzing seismic data collected from 121 repeating earthquakes near the South Sandwich Islands between 1991 and 2023. 



These repeating earthquakes, which originate from the same location and produce identical seismic wave patterns (seismograms), provide a consistent baseline to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>.



Additionally, the team incorporated historical data from twin Soviet nuclear tests (1971-1974) and repeated French and American nuclear tests. 



By comparing the seismic waves generated by these events over time, they were able to detect subtle changes in how long it took for the waves to travel through the Earth. 



These variations in wave travel time served as indicators of the inner core's shifting rotation patterns, ultimately leading to the discovery of its slowdown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-possible-culprits-identified">Two possible culprits identified</h2>



The exact cause of the inner core's slowdown remains unclear, but Vidale proposes two primary factors. 



First, the turbulent movement of the liquid iron outer core, responsible for generating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weak-magnetic-field-may-have-set-the-stage-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, could be exerting a drag force on the inner core, slowing its rotation. 



Second, gravitational interactions with the denser regions of the rocky mantle above the outer core could be pulling on the inner core, further contributing to its deceleration.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/earth-inner-core-rotation_slowing-down_credit-Edward-Sotelo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/earth-inner-core-rotation_slowing-down_credit-Edward-Sotelo_1s.jpg" alt="Earth's inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth’s surface. Credit: USC/Edward Sotelo" class="wp-image-1936479"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Earth's inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth’s surface. Credit: USC/Edward Sotelo</figcaption></figure>



These intricate interactions deep within the Earth highlight the interconnected nature of our planet's systems. 



The inner core's rotation is not isolated but rather influenced by the complex interplay of forces within the Earth's interior. 



Understanding these dynamics is crucial for comprehending how our planet functions and evolves over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-on-the-surface">Ripple effects on the surface</h2>



The implications of this change in the inner core's movement for Earth's surface are still a matter of speculation. Vidale notes that the backtracking of the inner core may alter the length of a day by fractions of a second. 



"It's very hard to notice, on the order of a thousandth of a second, almost lost in the noise of the churning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ringwoodite-mineral-confirms-vast-ocean-exists-400-miles-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> and atmosphere," Vidale adds.



While the immediate effects may be subtle, this discovery opens up a new avenue of research, offering a deeper understanding of the intricate processes that shape our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-into-earth-s-inner-core">Deeper into Earth's inner core</h2>



The USC scientists are eager to continue their research and chart the trajectory of the inner core in greater detail. 



By unraveling the mysteries of Earth's heart, they hope to shed light on the complex interplay of forces that drive our planet's evolution.



"The dance of the inner core might be even more lively than we know so far," Vidale concludes. 



This new discovery reminds us that even the most seemingly solid and unchanging parts of our world are in constant motion, influenced by a complex web of interactions that we are only beginning to understand.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07536-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Earth's inner core rotation is slowing down, making our days a bit longer

Deep beneath our feet, in the heart of our planet,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-takes-a-greater-toll-on-astronauts-brains-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space flight</a> significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic radiation causing permanent damage, which could jeopardize any mission to Mars, according to new research led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL). 



This study is the most extensive analysis of kidney health in space to date and includes the first health dataset for commercial astronauts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-flight-and-health-issues">Space flight and health issues</h2>



Researchers have known since the 1970s that space flight causes various health issues, such as bone mass loss, heart and eyesight weakening, and kidney stone development.&nbsp;



These problems are believed to stem from exposure to space radiation, including solar winds from the Sun and Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) from deep space, from which Earth's magnetic field partially shields astronauts in Low Earth orbit (LEO).&nbsp;



However, the 24 individuals who traveled to the moon experienced unmitigated GCR exposure for only short durations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-response-to-space-flight-nbsp">Kidney response to space flight&nbsp;</h2>



The current study aimed to explore how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-human-kidneys-feasible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kidneys</a> respond to space flight conditions. A UCL-led team from over 40 institutions across five continents conducted various experiments and analyses, using data and samples from 20 study cohorts. 



This included samples from over 40 LEO space missions involving humans and mice, mostly from the International Space Station, and 11 space simulations involving mice and rats.&nbsp;



Seven of these simulations exposed mice to simulated GCR doses equivalent to 1.5-year and 2.5-year Mars missions, replicating space flight beyond Earth's magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidneys-are-remodeled-in-space-nbsp">Kidneys are remodeled in space&nbsp;</h2>



The results indicated that both human and animal kidneys are 'remodeled' in space, with kidney tubules responsible for calcium and salt balance showing signs of shrinkage after less than a month.&nbsp;



This change is likely due to microgravity rather than GCR, although further research is needed to determine if the interaction between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> and GCR can worsen these structural changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-stone-formation-nbsp">Kidney stone formation&nbsp;</h2>



Previously, the primary reason for kidney stone formation in space was assumed to be microgravity-induced bone loss leading to a calcium build-up in the urine.&nbsp;



However, the recent findings suggest that space flight fundamentally alters how kidneys process salts, likely contributing to kidney stone formation.



A particularly concerning finding for potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars missions</a> is that mice exposed to simulated GCR for 2.5 years experienced permanent kidney damage and loss of function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronauts-on-long-space-missions">Astronauts on long space missions</h2>



“We know what has happened to astronauts on the relatively short space missions conducted so far, in terms of an increase in health issues such as kidney stones. What we don’t know is why these issues occur, nor what is going to happen to astronauts on longer flights such as the proposed mission to Mars,” said lead author Keith Siew, an expert in renal medicine at UCL.



“If we don’t develop new ways to protect the kidneys, I’d say that while an astronaut could make it to Mars they might need dialysis on the way back. We know that the kidneys are late to show signs of radiation damage; by the time this becomes apparent it’s probably too late to prevent failure, which would be catastrophic for the mission’s chances of success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facilitating-extended-space-travel-nbsp">Facilitating extended space travel&nbsp;</h2>



“Our study highlights the fact that if you’re planning a space mission, kidneys really matter,” added senior author Stephen B. Walsh, a professor at the same university.&nbsp;



“You can’t protect them from galactic radiation using shielding, but as we learn more about renal biology it may be possible to develop technological or pharmaceutical measures to facilitate extended space travel.”&nbsp;



“Any drugs developed for astronauts may also be beneficial here on Earth, for example by enabling cancer patients’ kidneys to tolerate higher doses of radiotherapy, the kidneys being one of the limiting factors in this regard.”



Though the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49212-1">Nature Communications</a>, only describes kidney health up to two and a half years, it provides the most comprehensive data available for this timeframe.&nbsp;



The findings underscore the necessity of addressing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health challenges</a> to ensure the success of long-duration space missions, such as those to Mars.



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Astronauts’ kidneys may not survive a roundtrip to Mars

Space flight significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic...

The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has captivated astronomers for centuries. These mesmerizing features are driven by the solar magnetic field, generated by a process called "dynamo action."



Having long been thought to originate deep within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-covered-with-moss-peculiar-structure-sunspot-groups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star's interior</a>, a new study challenges this long-held assumption, suggesting that the sun's magnetic activity may be shaped by a much shallower process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shallower-origins-of-solar-dynamo">Shallower origins of solar dynamo</h2>



In a paper published in Nature, the research team, led by Keaton Burns, a research scientist in MIT's <a href="https://math.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Mathematics</a>, presents a precise model of the sun's surface. 



By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun, they discovered that these surface changes were sufficient to generate realistic magnetic field patterns, closely resembling those observed by astronomers.



Geoffrey Vasil, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> and co-author of the study, emphasizes the importance of this new idea, stating.



"We know the dynamo acts like a giant clock with many complex interacting parts. But we don't know many of the pieces or how they fit together. This new idea of how the solar dynamo starts is essential to understanding and predicting it," Vasil explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-space-weather">Forecasting space weather</h2>



If the sun's magnetic field does indeed arise from its outermost layers, it could have significant implications for space weather forecasting. 



By better understanding the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-issues-severe-geomagnetic-storm-watch-first-time-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a>, scientists may be able to more accurately predict geomagnetic storms that have the potential to damage satellites and telecommunications systems.



"The features we see when looking at the sun, like the corona that many people saw during the recent solar eclipse, sunspots, and solar flares, are all associated with the sun's magnetic field," explains Keaton Burns.



"We show that isolated perturbations near the sun's surface, far from the deeper layers, can grow over time to potentially produce the magnetic structures we see."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-sunspots-and-the-solar-dynamo">Simulating sunspots and the solar dynamo</h2>



Rather than attempting to simulate the complex flow of plasma throughout the entire body of the sun, which requires millions of hours on national supercomputing facilities, Burns and his colleagues focused on studying the stability of plasma flow near the surface. 



By leveraging data from helioseismology, a field that uses observed vibrations on the sun's surface to determine the average structure and flow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma beneath the surface</a>, the team was able to develop a more targeted approach.



Burns draws an analogy to understanding the shape and stiffness of a drumhead by observing its vibrational modes in slow motion. "Similarly, we can use vibrations that we see on the solar surface to infer the average structure on the inside," he explains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedalus-project-powerful-fluid-dynamics-tool">Dedalus Project: Powerful fluid dynamics tool</h2>



To search for patterns that could explain the sun's magnetic field, the team utilized the Dedalus Project, a numerical framework developed by Burns that can simulate various types of fluid flows with high precision. 



The code has been applied to a wide range of problems, from modeling the dynamics inside individual cells to ocean and atmospheric circulations.



"My collaborators have been thinking about the solar magnetism problem for years, and the capabilities of Dedalus have now reached the point where we could address it," Burns notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspots-and-the-solar-cycle">Sunspots and the solar cycle</h2>



The team's simulations revealed patterns that match the locations and timescales of sunspots observed by astronomers since Galileo in 1612. 



Sunspots, which are relatively cooler regions that appear as dark spots on the sun's surface, are thought to be shaped by the sun's magnetic field and follow a cyclical pattern, growing and receding every 11 years.



The researchers found that certain changes in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun's surface layers were enough to generate magnetic structures in the same regions where sunspots are typically observed. 



In contrast, changes in deeper layers produced less realistic solar dynamo fields that were concentrated near the poles rather than the equator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspired-by-black-hole-accretion-disks">Inspired by black hole accretion disks</h2>



The team's motivation to examine flow patterns near the sun's surface stemmed from the similarity between these conditions and the unstable plasma flows observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disks around black holes</a>. 



Accretion disks are massive disks of gas and stellar dust that rotate towards a black hole, driven by the "magnetorotational instability," which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generates turbulence</a> in the flow and causes it to fall inward.



Burns and his colleagues suspected that a similar phenomenon might be at play in the sun and that the magnetorotational instability in the sun's outermost layers could be the first step in generating the sun's magnetic field.



While the team's findings may be met with some controversy, as most of the scientific community has been focused on finding solar dynamo action deep within the sun, Burns believes their results provide a better match to observations. 



The team continues to study whether these new surface field patterns can generate individual sunspots and the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-will-intensify-then-slow-as-the-solar-cycle-peaks-in-early-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year solar cycle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-deep-solar-dynamo-theory">Challenging the deep solar dynamo theory</h2>



In summary, this important study challenges the long-held belief that the sun's magnetic field originates from a solar dynamo deep within its interior. 



By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma near the sun's surface and comparing the results with observational data, the team has shown that the sun's magnetic field and its associated features, such as sunspots and flares, may arise from much shallower surface depths than previously thought. 



This finding offers a new perspective on the fundamental processes driving solar activity, and holds promise for improving space weather forecasting and protecting vital satellite and telecommunications systems. 



As the scientific community continues to debate and build upon this research, we move closer to unraveling the enigmatic nature of our nearest star and its far-reaching influence on our technology-dependent world.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01357-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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'Solar dynamo' and the secret origin of the Sun's magnetic field

The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has...

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> that grow toward the light and precipitate carbonates.



First appearing 3.48 billion years ago, these formations dominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> as the sole living carbonate factory for nearly three billion years.



They played a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, which introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> to our atmosphere and drastically altered Earth's environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-layers-and-stromatolites">Algae layers and stromatolites</h2>



Stromatolites are layered structures formed by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/clear-lake-turns-green-with-algal-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity of algae</a>, specifically cyanobacteria. These ancient formations date back 3.48 billion years and are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth. 



Cyanobacteria in stromatolites perform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, capturing sunlight and producing oxygen, which was crucial in transforming Earth's early atmosphere.



Stromatolites thrived for billions of years, dominating Earth's shallow marine environments and playing a pivotal role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a> around 2.4 billion years ago. 



This event introduced significant amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere, paving the way for more complex life forms to evolve.



Despite their ancient origins, stromatolites are not just relics of the past. They can still be found today in extreme environments where other life forms struggle to survive. 



Notable locations include Shark Bay in Australia, where hypersaline conditions limit competition, and now, Sheybarah Island in the Red Sea. These environments mimic conditions from the Proterozoic era, allowing stromatolites to thrive.



The recent discovery on Sheybarah Island by Volker Vahrenkamp and his team has renewed interest in these ancient structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-and-resurgence-of-stromatolites-and-algae-layers">Decline and resurgence of stromatolites and algae layers</h2>



Stromatolites initially thrived, eliminating competition with their oxygen production. However, as more life forms adapted to the oxygen-rich atmosphere, stromatolites began to decline. 



Today, they appear in the geological record primarily after mass extinctions or in extreme environments.



"The bacteria are always around, but they don't usually get the chance to make stromatolites," explains Volker Vahrenkamp, the author of a new study in Geology. "They are largely outcompeted by corals."



Today, stromatolites are found in niche environments like hypersaline marine settings (e.g., Shark Bay, Australia) and alkaline lakes. 



Until recently, the only known modern analogue to the biologically diverse, shallow marine settings of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughing-gas-supported-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic</a> era was the Exuma Islands in the Bahamas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-in-the-red-sea">Surprising discovery in the Red Sea</h2>



This changed when Vahrenkamp discovered living stromatolites on Sheybarah Island, located on the northeastern shelf of the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia. 



Initially studying tepee structures -- salt crust domes visible from space -- Vahrenkamp unexpectedly came across the stromatolite field.



"When I stepped on them, I knew what they were," says Vahrenkamp. "It is 2000 km of carbonate platform coastline, so in principle it is a desirable area to look for stromatolites… but then, it is the same in the Bahamas, and yet there is only one small area where you find them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-environmental-conditions">Unique environmental conditions </h2>



Sheybarah Island features an intertidal-to-shallow subtidal setting with alternating wet and dry conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-coast-has-warmed-significantly-and-experiences-many-extreme-temperature-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperature</a> variations from 46.4°F (8°C) to over 118.4°F (48°C), and oligotrophic conditions, similar to those in the Bahamas.



These environmental conditions suggest that other stromatolite fields might exist nearby. 



Vahrenkamp and his team are currently exploring this possibility, but finding these algae structures can be challenging due to their small size, about 15 cm across.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-stromatolite-growth">Understanding stromatolite growth</h2>



The Sheybarah Island field contains several hundred stromatolites formed by algae layers, ranging from well-developed examples to more sheet-like formations.



 "Perhaps they could be juvenile," hypothesizes Vahrenkamp, "but we don't know what a baby stromatolite looks like. They must start small, but we don't know."



One challenge in studying stromatolites is determining their growth rate. 



Dating them is difficult because they contain two types of carbonate: the microbe-precipitated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-are-disrupting-earths-largest-carbon-storage-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate</a> of interest and the misleading carbonate sand from the environment.



Vahrenkamp's team monitors the field monthly to record any changes. There are plans to transfer some stromatolites to an aquarium to study their growth in a controlled environment -- an exciting experimental prospect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-life-and-beyond">Implications for early life and beyond</h2>



Vahrenkamp's discovery provides an opportunity to better understand algae structures like stromatolites, their formation and growth.



This research can offer insights into early life and ocean evolution on Earth and aid in the search for life on other planets, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-search-for-signs-of-life-on-mars-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>.



Stromatolites, as some of the first life forms on Earth, offer a promising avenue for understanding what life might look like on Mars and how we could recognize it.



By studying these ancient algae structures, we continue to uncover the mysteries of early life on our planet and beyond.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/52/5/347/634859/Discovery-of-modern-living-intertidal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Stromatolites found in the Red Sea offer new clues to the earliest life on Earth

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of algae that...

After 128 years of exploration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> excavation, researchers have finally unearthed the skull of Genyornis newtoni.



The skull of Australia's own giant megafauna bird was discovered by researchers from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Adelaide, South Australia, shedding new light on the species that once roamed the Australian outback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-skull-fossils-of-genyornis-newtoni">New skull fossils of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



The only previously known skull of Genyornis newtoni, reported in 1913, was heavily damaged, leaving much about this bird a mystery.



However, recent excavations from the saline, dry beds of Lake Callabonna in South Australia have brought new, nearly complete skull fossils to light. 



These findings, attributed to field trips in 2019, provide a clearer picture of what this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient bird</a> looked like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-fossil-skull">Insights into the fossil skull</h2>



Published in the journal Historical Biology, the detailed description of this remarkable skull has enabled researchers to explore the ecology, functional morphology, and evolutionary relationships of Genyornis newtoni.



Weighing around 230 kg, this bird was approximately five times the weight of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-bird-may-soon-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cassowary</a>.



The skull features a massive braincase, large jaws, and a distinctive casque on its head. 



Its upper beak, in particular, shows surprising morphology, setting it apart from its closest relatives. 



"Genyornis newtoni had a tall and mobile upper jaw like that of a parrot but shaped like a goose, a wide gape, strong bite force, and the ability to crush soft plants and fruit on the roof of their mouth," explains Flinders University researcher Phoebe McInerney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-evolutionary-mysteries">Unraveling evolutionary mysteries</h2>



The skull also showed complex similarities to early diverging waterfowl lineages, such as the South American Screamers and the Australian Magpie Goose. 



"The exact relationships of Genyornis within this group have been complicated to unravel; however, with this new skull, we have started to piece together the puzzle which shows, simply put, this species to be a giant goose," McInerney adds.



Co-author Dr. Trevor Worthy was particularly excited about discovering the first fossil upper bill of Genyornis. 



"For the first time, we could put a face on this bird, one very different from any other bird, yet like a goose," he says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-past">Reconstructing the past</h2>



Examining the morphology of the skull provided researchers with insights into how the head functioned, including muscle and joint movement. 



"The form of a bone, and structures on it, are partly related to the soft tissues that interact with them, such as muscles and ligaments, and their attachment sites or passages," Co-author Jacob Blokland notes. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1s.jpg" alt="Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland" class="wp-image-1936557"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland</figcaption></figure>



Using modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-largest-eagle-was-a-massive-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> as comparatives, they are able to put flesh back on the fossils and bring them back to life.



Blokland has successfully reconstructed Genyornis newtoni through a scientifically accurate model, revealing its true form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aquatic-adaptations">Aquatic adaptations</h2>



The study on skull fossils also uncovered several unusual adaptations for aquatic habitats in Genyornis newtoni.



These adaptations include features that allowed the bird to protect its ears and throat from water influx when submerged. 



The ability to close off its ears and throat would have been crucial for an animal living in or around water.



These adaptations suggest that Genyornis newtoni was well-suited to life in aquatic environments. The bird's ability to thrive in such habitats indicates a strong ecological connection to freshwater areas.



However, the transition of freshwater bodies in northern South Australia to salt lakes may have played a significant role in the extinction of Genyornis newtoni. 



The loss of suitable freshwater habitats would have made survival increasingly difficult for this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-understanding-of-genyornis-newtoni">Greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



With this new skull, researchers have gained a greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni. They have identified its unique features, including its tall and mobile upper jaw and its strong bite force. 



The skull also provided information about the bird's way of life, such as its diet and habitat preferences.



This discovery offers invaluable insights into the history of these giant birds. Researchers now have a clearer picture of how Genyornis newtoni lived and interacted with its environment.



Additionally, this finding helps explain the factors that led to the species' eventual disappearance from the Australian landscape.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2024.2308212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Prehistoric 'giga-goose' bird recently discovered was a true giant

After 128 years of exploration and fossil excavation, researchers have...

Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe have unveiled a new dinosaur species, Musankwa sanyatiensis.



This discovery marks only the fourth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-tyrannosaurus-mcraeensis-discovered-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur species</a> named from Zimbabwe, with research published in Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.



This discovery, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> in London, is significant as it is the first dinosaur named from the Mid-Zambezi Basin of northern Zimbabwe in over 50 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-zimbabwean-dinosaurs">History of Zimbabwean dinosaurs</h2>



Musankwa sanyatiensis is only the fourth dinosaur named from Zimbabwe, following Syntarsus rhodesiensis (1969), Vulcanodon karibaensis (1972), and Mbiresaurus raathi (2022).



The new specimen's rocks date back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-oldest-known-dinosaur-recently-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Triassic period</a>, around 210 million years ago. The dinosaur is represented by a single hind leg, including the thigh, shin, and ankle bones.



"Despite the limited fossil material, these bones possess unique features that distinguish them from those of other dinosaurs living at the same time," says Dr. Kimberley "Kimi" Chapelle, assistant professor at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> and an honorary associate at Wits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-and-its-relatives">Musankwa sanyatiensis and its relatives</h2>



The dinosaur was named after the houseboat "Musankwa," which means "boy close to marriage" in the Tonga dialect. 



This vessel served as the research team's home and mobile laboratory during two field expeditions to Lake Kariba in 2017 and 2018, thanks to David and Julie Glynn and their crew -- Coster Katupu, Godfrey Swalika, Simbarashe Mangoroma, and Never Mapira.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1s.jpg" alt="Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett" class="wp-image-1936546"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett</figcaption></figure>



Evolutionary analysis shows that Musankwa sanyatiensis was a member of the Sauropodomorpha, a group of bipedal, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-necked-reptiles-tanystropheus-were-easily-decapitated-by-dinosaur-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-necked dinosaurs</a>.



It appears to be closely related to contemporaries in South Africa and Argentina. Weighing around 390 kg, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isle-of-wight-fossils-suggest-that-europe-had-unique-plant-eating-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-eating dinosaur</a> was one of the larger dinosaurs of its era.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-dinosaur-discovery-history">Africa's dinosaur discovery history</h2>



Africa has a significant history of dinosaur discoveries. This history began with the first dinosaur found in the southern hemisphere in South Africa. 



This discovery happened just three years after Sir Richard Owen introduced the term "dinosaur" in 1842. Since then, Africa has continued to yield important dinosaur fossils, contributing to our understanding of prehistoric life on the continent. 



The discoveries from Africa include many species that help scientists learn more about dinosaur diversity and evolution.



However, most known dinosaur fossils come from just ten countries, primarily in the northern hemisphere, leading to a sparse representation of African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-highlight-dinosaur-diversity-in-prehistoric-patagonia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur diversity</a>.



"The main reason for the underrepresentation of African dinosaur fossils is 'undersampling,'" says Barrett. "There have been fewer people looking for and unearthing dinosaurs compared to other regions of the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-zimbabwe-s-fossil-record">Importance of Zimbabwe's fossil record</h2>



Despite fewer discoveries in Africa, many fossils are historically and scientifically significant, including some of the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> like Nyasasaurus parringtoni from Tanzania and Mbiresaurus raathi from Zimbabwe.



The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic sediments of Zimbabwe are vital for studying the End-Triassic extinction event. This event occurred around 200 million years ago and significantly altered the diversity of life on Earth. 



By examining these sediments, scientists can gain insights into the environmental changes and biological impacts that occurred during this period. 



Understanding these changes helps researchers reconstruct the history of life on Earth and the factors that led to the mass extinction and subsequent evolution of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-paleontological-potential">Musankwa sanyatiensis paleontological potential</h2>



This new species highlights the untapped potential of Zimbabwe for further paleontological discoveries. 



"Over the last six years, many new fossil sites have been recorded in Zimbabwe, yielding a diverse array of prehistoric animals, including the first sub-Saharan mainland African phytosaurs, metoposaurid amphibians, lungfish, and other reptile remains," Barrett elaborates.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen" class="wp-image-1936548"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen</figcaption></figure>



As more fossil sites are explored, there is hope for uncovering further significant finds that will shed light on the early evolution of dinosaurs and their ecosystems. 



"Based on where it sits on the dinosaur family tree, Musankwa sanyatiensis is the first dinosaur of its kind from Zimbabwe," Dr. Chapelle explains. "It highlights the potential of the region for further paleontological discoveries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-by-international-scientists">Collaborative effort by international scientists</h2>



An international team from the University of the Witwatersrand (<a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wits</a>) in South Africa, the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, and <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> in New York, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the Natural History Museum in London, conducted the study.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app011002023.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a>.



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New dinosaur species is named Musankwa sanyatiensis

Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe...

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally, responsible for approximately one in three deaths. There were over 20 million CVD fatalities reported in 2021, according to a 2024 World Heart Federation report.



Despite significant advancements in heart disease prevention, treatment, and intervention, climate change threatens to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reverse these gains</a>.



NASA confirms that the average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/">global temperature</a> has risen by more than two degrees Fahrenheit over the last century, resulting in long-term shifts in weather patterns, disturbed ecosystems, and rising sea levels. Alarmingly, the ten hottest years on record have all occurred within the past decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cardiovascular-health">Climate change and cardiovascular health</h2>



A new study conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a> (BIDMC) has delved into the connection between climate change-related environmental stressors and cardiovascular disease. The team systematically reviewed 492 observational studies to explore this critical issue.



The findings reveal a strong association between extreme temperatures, hurricanes, and increased CVD mortality and incidence. 



Vulnerable populations, such as older adults, racial and ethnic minorities, and those from lower-income communities, are disproportionately affected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-environmental-stressors">The impact of environmental stressors</h2>



“Climate change is already affecting our cardiovascular health,” said Dhruv S. Kazi, associate director of the Richard A. and Susan F. Smith Center for Outcomes Research at BIDMC and the study's corresponding author. 



"Exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-related-cardiovascular-deaths-may-double-in-the-coming-decades/">extreme heat</a> can adversely affect heart rate and blood pressure, ozone or wildfire smog can trigger systemic inflammation, and living through a natural disaster can cause psychological distress." 



"Hurricanes and floods may disrupt healthcare delivery through power outages and supply chain disruptions. In the long term, the changing climate is projected to reduce agricultural productivity and the nutritional quality of the food supply, which could also compromise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-cardiovascular-health/">cardiovascular health</a>."



The research team screened nearly 21,000 peer-reviewed studies published between 1970 and 2023. 



These studies evaluated the associations between acute cardiovascular events, CVD mortality, healthcare utilization, and various climate change-related phenomena, including extreme temperatures, wildfires, air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-fuels-cardiovascular-deaths-worldwide/">pollution</a>, ground-level ozone, extreme weather events, sea level rise, salt-water intrusion, and climate-related migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-linked-to-cardiovascular-risks">Extreme weather linked to cardiovascular risks</h2>



Out of the 492 global observational studies included in the review, 182 examined extreme temperature, 210 focused on ground-level ozone effects, 45 investigated wildfire smoke, and 63 studied extreme weather events such as hurricanes, dust storms, and droughts. 



These studies spanned 30 high-income countries, 17 middle-income countries, and one low-income country.



The researchers found that exposure to extreme temperature was strongly linked to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and mortality, with the impact varying based on temperature and exposure duration. 



Extreme weather events, including tropical storms, hurricanes, floods, and mudslides, were also associated with heightened cardiovascular risk, often lasting months or even years beyond the severe weather event.



One study on Hurricane Sandy, which caused nearly $20 billion in damage in New York City alone in 2012, showed that the risk of death from cardiovascular disease remained elevated for up to 12 months after the storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-knowledge-gaps">Addressing knowledge gaps </h2>



The researchers also identified significant gaps in knowledge regarding the impact of climate change on cardiovascular risk in lower-income nations.



Only one study was conducted in a low-income country, and just five were based in Africa, where climate change is expected to have disproportionate effects. 



“Though data on outcomes in low-income countries are lacking, our study shows that several environmental stressors already increasing in frequency and intensity with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">climate change</a> are linked with increased cardiovascular risk,” noted senior author Dr. Mary B. Rice, a pulmonary and critical care physician at BIDMC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommendations-for-health-systems">Recommendations for health systems</h2>



These findings suggest that clinicians should be aware of climate-related cardiovascular risk in their community, whether related to extreme temperatures, wildfire smoke, or extreme weather events.



For instance, in areas prone to hurricanes or flooding, clinicians should help patients develop contingency plans to ensure uninterrupted access to medications and healthcare as needed. 



Health systems should also evaluate the resilience of their infrastructure to climate change.



“Climate change is already adversely affecting cardiovascular health in the U.S. and worldwide,” the researchers concluded. “Urgent action is needed to mitigate climate change-related cardiovascular risk, particularly among our most vulnerable populations.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/article-abstract/2820068">JAMA Cardiology</a>.



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Climate change worsens cardiovascular health risks

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally,...

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill our lives with giggles, cuddles, and the occasional diaper explosion. But did you know that the baby formula or breast milk they eat in their early months could shape their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> for years to come?



Scientists from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> are making exciting strides in ensuring all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> get the best nutrition possible through options such as baby formula, even if they aren't exclusively breastfed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-vs-formula-for-babies">Breast milk vs. formula for babies</h2>



Breast milk, nature's own superfood for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-an-infant-gut-have-their-unique-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a>, is packed with a unique blend of around 200 prebiotic sugar molecules. 



These sugars aren't just for sweetness; they play a crucial role in preventing disease and nurturing the growth of beneficial gut bacteria in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>.



But here's the catch: replicating this complex cocktail of sugars in commercial infant formula has been a challenge. 



While formula provides essential nutrients, it hasn't been able to match the full nutritional punch of breast milk. This is where the exciting world of plant engineering comes in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-plants-in-baby-formula">Power of plants in baby formula</h2>



Plants are like nature's very own sugar factories. They harness sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce a vast array of sugars, both simple and complex. 



So, a team of brilliant scientists thought, "Why not reprogram these sugar-making machines to produce the same sugars found in human breast milk?"



And that's precisely what they did.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-the-baby-formula-solution">Engineering the baby formula solution</h2>



In a recent study, researchers genetically modified plants to create human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), the special sugars found in breast milk. 



The scientists tweaked the plants' genes to produce the enzymes responsible for creating the specific linkages that make HMOs unique.



The result? Genetically modified Nicotiana benthamiana plants, close relatives of tobacco, started churning out 11 known HMOs along with a variety of other complex sugars similar to those found in breast milk.



"We made all three major groups of human milk oligosaccharides. To my knowledge, no one has ever demonstrated that you could make all three of these groups simultaneously in a single organism," explains Patrick Shih, the study's senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boon-for-babies-and-beyond">Boon for babies and beyond</h2>



This breakthrough isn't just about baby formula. The implications are far-reaching. Imagine healthier, more affordable formula for babies worldwide, or nutrient-packed non-dairy plant milk for adults. The possibilities are truly exciting.



Collin Barnum, the study's first author, emphasizes the significance of producing a specific HMO called LNFP1. 



"LNFP1 is a five-monosaccharide-long human milk oligosaccharide that is supposed to be really beneficial, but so far cannot be made at scale using traditional methods of microbial fermentation," Barnum notes.



"We thought that if we could start making these larger, more complex human milk oligosaccharides, we could solve a problem that that industry currently can’t solve."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-plants-to-plates">From plants to plates</h2>



Although engineered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E. coli bacteria</a> have been utilized to produce certain HMOs, the extraction and purification process is complex and costly.



This is due to the bacteria producing not only the desired HMOs but also potentially harmful byproducts. Separating these byproducts from the HMOs requires intricate procedures, increasing production expenses.



In contrast, plant-based production systems offer a potentially more efficient and cost-effective approach. By utilizing plants as biofactories for HMOs, the purification process may be simpler, as plants typically do not generate the same toxic byproducts as bacteria. 



This could streamline the extraction of HMOs, reducing costs associated with purification and making them more accessible for wider use.



"Imagine being able to make all the human milk oligosaccharides in a single plant. Then you could just grind up that plant, extract all the oligosaccharides simultaneously and add that directly into infant formula," notes Shih.



Of course, there are challenges to overcome before this becomes a reality, but the potential benefits are undeniable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-future-ahead-for-nutrition">Sweet future ahead for nutrition</h2>



The science of engineering plants to produce human milk sugars is still in its early stages, but the progress made so far is nothing short of remarkable. 



It's a testament to human ingenuity and our unwavering commitment to providing the best possible start for our little ones.



So, the next time you see a baby formula aisle, remember that the future of infant nutrition might just be growing in a field, not fermenting in a lab. And that's a sweet thought indeed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00996-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Engineered plants make baby formula as healthy as breast milk

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill...

An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> frost atop the Tharsis volcanoes on Mars. These volcanoes are not only the tallest on Mars but in the entire solar system.&nbsp;



This is the first time frost has been observed near Mars' equator, challenging existing views of the planet's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remnants-of-an-ancient-climate-cycle-nbsp">Remnants of an ancient climate cycle&nbsp;</h2>



“We thought it was improbable for frost to form around Mars’ equator, as the mix of sunshine and thin atmosphere keeps temperatures during the day relatively high at both the surface and mountaintop -- unlike what we see on Earth, where you might expect to see frosty peaks,” said lead author Adomas Valantinas, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> who led the work as a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>. 



“What we're seeing may be a remnant of an ancient climate cycle on modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, where you had precipitation and maybe even snowfall on these volcanoes in the past.”



The study revealed that this frost is present only for a few hours after sunrise before evaporating in the sunlight. It is incredibly thin, likely about one-hundredth of a millimeter thick, roughly the width of a human hair.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-frost-on-tharsis-volcanoes">Water frost on Tharsis volcanoes</h2>



Despite its thinness, the frost covers a significant area. Researchers estimate that at least 150,000 tons of water cycles between the surface and atmosphere daily during the cold seasons, equivalent to about 60 Olympic-size swimming pools.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936526"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



The Tharsis region, where the frost was found, contains numerous towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noctis-volcano-buried-glacier-discovered-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a>, some of which are one to two times the height of Earth's Mount Everest. Olympus Mons, for example, is as wide as France.&nbsp;



The frost is located in the calderas of these volcanoes, large hollows at their summits formed during past eruptions. The team suggests that air circulation above these mountains creates a unique microclimate allowing the frost to form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-frost-on-mars">Significance of frost on Mars</h2>



Modeling the formation of these frosts could help scientists uncover more of Mars' secrets, including the distribution and movement of water and the planet's complex atmospheric dynamics. 



This is crucial for future exploration and the search for potential signs of life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936528"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



The frost was detected using high-resolution color images from the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) onboard the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s Trace Gas Orbiter.&nbsp;



The findings were validated with observations from the High Resolution Stereo Camera on the ESA’s Mars Express orbiter and the Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery spectrometer on the Trace Gas Orbiter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-signatures-of-frost-on-mars">Tracing the signatures of frost on Mars</h2>



The researchers analyzed over 30,000 images to initially find and then confirm the frost. Valantinas filtered the images based on their location, time of day, and season to isolate spectral signatures indicative of water frost and identify where it formed on Mars' surface.



“This notion of a second genesis, of life beyond Earth, has always fascinated me,” said Valantinas, who began analyzing the images in 2018. 



As he transitions to his role at Brown, Valantinas plans to continue exploring Martian mysteries, pivoting towards astrobiology. 



Working with Brown planetary scientist Jack Mustard, he aims to characterize ancient hydrothermal environments that could have supported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-experiment-life-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a>. 



Samples from these environments might be returned to Earth by the NASA-led Mars Sample Return mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-on-mars">Signs of life on Mars</h2>



Signs of life on Mars have been a subject of intense scientific investigation. Researchers have been particularly interested in the presence of water, as it's a crucial ingredient for life.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-water">Liquid water</h3>



Mars rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance have found evidence of ancient riverbeds, lake beds, and mineral deposits that typically form in water, suggesting that Mars once had liquid water on its surface.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-nbsp">Organic molecules&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, organic molecules, which are the building blocks of life, have been detected in Martian soil samples.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane">Methane</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methane detection</a> has also piqued interest because on Earth, methane is predominantly produced by biological processes. However, methane can also be generated by geological processes, so its presence alone does not confirm life.&nbsp;



The seasonal fluctuations of methane observed by the Curiosity rover suggest that the gas may be produced and destroyed through unknown processes.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions">Future missions</h3>



Despite these promising signs, no definitive evidence of current or past life on Mars has been found yet. Future missions aim to bring back samples to Earth for detailed analysis, which may provide clearer answers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01457-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



Image Credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin



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Huge amount of water frost "unexpectedly" found on Mars' volcanoes

An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-reveal-alarming-effects-of-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gray whales</a> that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific Northwest coast have significantly decreased in body length since around 2000, according to a new study led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU). This reduction in size could have serious implications for the health and reproductive success of the gray whales and raises concerns about the state of the ecosystem. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-warning-sign-of-population-decline">Early warning sign of population decline</h2>



“This could be an early warning sign that the abundance of this population is starting to decline, or is not healthy,” said co-author K.C. Bierlich, an assistant professor at OSU’s Marine Mammal Institute in Newport. 



“And whales are considered ecosystem sentinels, so if the whale population isn’t doing well, that might say a lot about the environment itself.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-coast-feeding-group">Pacific Coast Feeding Group</h2>



The experts focused on the Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG), a small subset of about 200 gray whales from the larger Eastern North Pacific (ENP) population of around 14,500.&nbsp;



Unlike the majority that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrate</a> to the Arctic, this subgroup stays closer to shore along the Oregon coast, feeding in warmer, shallower waters. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-whales-with-worse-body-condition-nbsp">Smaller whales with worse body condition&nbsp;</h2>



Recent OSU studies have shown these whales are smaller and in worse body condition than their ENP counterparts, with the current study revealing a further decline in size over recent decades.



The <a href="https://mmi.oregonstate.edu/gemm-lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Institute’s Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna (GEMM) Lab</a> has been studying this subgroup since 2016, utilizing drones to measure their size. 



Analyzing images from 2016-2022 of 130 individual whales, researchers determined that a gray whale born in 2020 is expected to be 1.65 meters shorter as an adult than one born before 2000. This accounts for a reduction of over 13% of their total length, significant for whales that grow to be 38-41 feet long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-smaller-size-affect-whales">How does smaller size affect whales?</h2>



“In general, size is critical for animals,” said lead author Enrico Pirotta, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a> in Scotland. “It affects their behavior, their physiology, their life history, and it has cascading effects for the animals and for the community they’re a part of.”



Smaller whale calves may struggle with survival post-weaning, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales-are-getting-shorter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller adult whales</a> face reproductive challenges. 



“With them being smaller, there are questions of how effectively these PCFG gray whales can store and allocate energy toward growing and maintaining their health. Importantly, are they able to put enough energy toward reproduction and keep the population growing?” Bierlich said.



Researchers are also concerned about the impact of scarring from boat strikes and fishing gear entanglement, which could be exacerbated by the whales’ smaller size and lower energy reserves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gray-whale-size-and-ocean-cycles">Gray whale size and ocean cycles</h2>



The study also investigated ocean environmental patterns that regulate food availability for these whales, focusing on cycles of “upwelling” and “relaxation” in the ocean. Upwelling brings <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a> to shallower waters, while relaxation periods keep these nutrients in the light-rich areas for plankton growth, which is essential for the whales' prey.



“Without a balance between upwelling and relaxation, the ecosystem may not be able to produce enough prey to support the large size of these gray whales,” said co-author Leigh Torres, the&nbsp; director of the GEMM Lab at OSU.



The decline in whale size coincided with changes in these ocean cycles. “We haven’t looked specifically at how climate change is affecting these patterns, but in general, we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-the-southern-ocean-are-losing-weight-due-to-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is affecting the oceanography of the Northeast Pacific through changes in wind patterns and water temperature,” Pirotta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



With the knowledge that PCFG gray whales' body size is decreasing, researchers are now probing the potential downstream consequences and contributing factors.&nbsp;



“We’re heading into our ninth field season studying this PCFG subgroup. This is a powerful dataset that allows us to detect changes in body condition each year, so now we’re examining the environmental drivers of those changes,” Bierlich concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17366" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Gray whales in the North Pacific are shrinking in size

Gray whales that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> has reported significant advancements in reducing atmospheric levels of ozone-depleting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/use-of-banned-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-increasing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a>, confirming the success of historic regulations. 



Particularly, the experts found a notable decline in hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which are both harmful to the ozone layer and potent greenhouse gasses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limiting-the-use-of-ozone-depleting-chemicals-nbsp">Limiting the use of ozone-depleting chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, played a critical role by limiting the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Initially, HCFCs were introduced as replacements for the more harmful chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).&nbsp;



While the global production of CFCs has been banned since 2010, HCFCs are currently being phased out, with a target completion date of 2040.



“The results are very encouraging,” said lead author Luke Western, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Bristol’s School of Chemistry. “They underscore the great importance of establishing and sticking to international protocols.”&nbsp;



“Without the Montreal Protocol, this success would not have been possible, so it’s a resounding endorsement of multilateral commitments to combat stratospheric ozone depletion, with additional benefits in tackling human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humanity-should-brace-for-catastrophic-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopting-ozone-friendly-alternatives-nbsp">Adopting ozone-friendly alternatives&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that the total amount of ozone-depleting chlorine in all HCFCs peaked in 2021. This peak also marked the highest contribution of HCFCs to climate change, occurring five years earlier than predicted. Although the decrease in HCFC emissions between 2021 and 2023 was less than 1%, it indicates a positive trend.



“Their production is currently being phased out globally, with a completion date slated for 2040. In turn, these HCFCs are being replaced by non-ozone-depleting hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds. By enforcing strict controls and promoting the adoption of ozone-friendly alternatives, the protocol has successfully curbed the release and levels of HCFCs into the atmosphere,” Western explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-planet-for-future-generations">Protecting the planet for future generations </h2>



The study relied on high-precision measurements from globally distributed atmospheric observatories, using data from the <a href="https://agage.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment</a> (AGAGE) and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration</a> (NOAA). 



“We use highly sensitive measurement techniques and thorough protocols to ensure the reliability of these observations,” said co-author Martin Vollmer, an atmospheric scientist at the <a href="https://www.empa.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</a> (EMPA).



“This study highlights the critical need to be vigilant and proactive in our environmental monitoring, ensuring other controlled ozone-depleting and greenhouse gases follow a similar trend which will help to protect the planet for future generations,” said Isaac Vimont, a research fellow at NOAA.



Overall, the findings offer a hopeful outlook on the effectiveness of global protocols in reducing harmful emissions and addressing both ozone depletion and climate change. Continued vigilance and adherence to these protocols are necessary to ensure the full recovery of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-particles-erode-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone layer</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ozone-depletion">What is ozone depletion?</h2>



Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning of the Earth's ozone layer in the stratosphere. This phenomenon is primarily caused by the release of ozone-depleting chemicals containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industrial and consumer products. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors">Contributing factors</h3>



The most significant contributors are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other related substances.&nbsp;



When these chemicals are released into the atmosphere, they eventually reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cfcs-are-not-the-only-culprit-bushfire-smoke-may-also-destroy-ozone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratosphere</a>, where ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms. 



These atoms then react with ozone (O3) molecules, causing the ozone to break apart into oxygen molecules (O2) and single oxygen atoms, thus depleting the ozone layer.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-ozone-depletion">Impacts of ozone depletion</h3>



The depletion of the ozone layer has significant environmental and health impacts.&nbsp;



A thinner ozone layer allows more harmful UV-B radiation to reach the Earth's surface, which can lead to an increase in skin cancers, cataracts, and other health issues.&nbsp;



It also affects ecosystems, particularly marine life, as increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> can harm phytoplankton, the base of the marine food web.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02038-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Decline in ozone-depleting chemicals is an encouraging trend 

A new study led by the University of Bristol has...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...