It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms. Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us. Energy: Fuel for evolution The boring billion...

In our cosmic backyard, a fascinating phenomenon known as gravitational waves has been quietly reshaping the way we understand the universe. 



Originating from violent cosmic incidents and carrying whispers from far corners of the universe, these elusive ripples in the fabric of space-time were first observed in 2015. 



Today, we delve into a new study by <a href="https://profiles.ucr.edu/app/home/profile/yanou" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yanou Cui</a> from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, which opens up fresh avenues of thought in this field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-to-the-tune-of-simple-matter">Dancing to the tune of simple matter</h2>



Cui's study, appearing in the respected journal Physical Review Letters, revolves around a particular kind of ultra-light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-reveal-the-origin-of-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scalar field matter</a>. Imagine the incredibly small mass of an electron. 



Now, think of something a million or a billion times lighter than that. Mind-boggling, isn't it? These ultra-light particles, with no internal spin, pervade the universe, behaving more like waves than particles.



“This mechanism of creating detectable gravitational wave backgrounds may shed light on the puzzling <a href="https://news.berkeley.edu/2023/06/28/after-15-years-pulsar-timing-yields-evidence-of-cosmic-gravitational-wave-background/">gravitational wave signal recently captured by pulsar timing observatories</a>,” Cui explained. 



“Another exciting implication is that the very same form of matter may be identified as dark matter, the mysterious substance believed to make up most of the universe's mass which has puzzled scientists for decades.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symphony-of-gravitational-waves">Symphony of gravitational waves</h2>



To hear the tune of gravitational waves, they have to be loud enough and fall within detectable frequency ranges. These waves are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matter-spacetime-gravitational-waves-fabric-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ripples in spacetime</a> caused by some of the most energetic processes in the universe. 



Cui's research suggests that these simple forms of matter, such as primordial fields, kicked off a detectable background of gravitational waves shortly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">after the Big Bang</a>. This background provides a cosmic fingerprint of events that took place in the early universe. 



Once the universe's expansion rate overtakes the mass of the scalar field, the production of these gravitational waves comes to a halt. 



This transition marks a significant moment in the evolution of the universe, offering insights into the fundamental processes that have shaped our cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-post-big-bang-universe">Post-Big Bang universe</h2>



Imagine a universe merely a fraction of a second old, its expansion rate on par with the mass of the simple scalar field matter we just discussed. 



During this almost incomprehensibly brief moment, the universe was a hot, dense state, filled with an incredibly energetic mix of particles and radiation.



It's during this narrow time window that gravitational waves were born, rippling through the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twisted-galaxies-millions-of-light-years-away-captured-by-the-vlt-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fabric of spacetime</a>. 



As the universe expanded beyond this point, cooling and evolving, particle production stopped due to internal mechanisms, transitioning into a more stable phase. 



This early era laid the foundation for the complex structures we observe in the cosmos today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-breakthrough">Dark matter breakthrough?</h2>



Why haven't we come across these simple matter forms before? The answer lies in their elusive nature. Cui notes that their interaction with known matter is through a feeble gravitational connection, making them incredibly difficult to detect. 



"The gravitational wave signal we demonstrated is the way to detect them," emphasizes Cui. By identifying this matter as, potentially, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-discovers-dark-matter-clump-center-draco-dwarf-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, we can finally start unravelling this cosmic mystery.



The potential identification of this ultra-light scalar field matter as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-consist-of-particles-that-travel-faster-than-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> is no small feat. This discovery not only helps us understand the composition of the enigmatic dark matter but also provides a plausible explanation for the baffling pulsar timing observations made last year. 



These observations had left many scientists puzzled, as the timing anomalies could not be easily explained by existing models. By linking these anomalies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, researchers are opening up new avenues for further study and experimentation. 



This breakthrough could significantly advance our knowledge of the universe and its underlying mechanisms, potentially leading to more groundbreaking discoveries in the field of astrophysics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-demystifying-gravitational-waves-and-dark-matter">Demystifying gravitational waves and dark matter</h2>



This research is more than a scientific study - it's an invitation to explore the universe as never before. Cui's work lays the groundwork for us to use the cosmos as a gigantic laboratory, testing and probing fundamental physics principles.



When it comes to the cosmos, nothing exists in isolation. Cui's research underscores the interconnectedness of cosmic phenomena. 



The discovery and study of gravitational waves lead us to insights into dark matter, one of the most elusive elements of the universe.



Yanou Cui's research on gravitational waves and ultra-light scalar field matter provides a significant headway in solving the cosmic conundrum. It reminds us of the importance of exploring the universe with an open mind and inventive strategies.



With each discovery, we come closer to understanding the universe's intricate fabric, and every step forward on this journey unravels the secrets of the cosmos and our place within it. Stay tuned as we continue to decode the universe, one gravitational wave at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.021004">Physical Review Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gravitational waves, dark matter, and the big bang

In our cosmic backyard, a fascinating phenomenon known as gravitational...

Imagine a far-off planet, not too different from Saturn, but with a twist. This is HD 149026 b, charmingly known as Smertrios.



A team of astronomers led by Sayyed A. Rafi of the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> recently took a closer look at the mysterious atmosphere of Smertrios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curious-case-of-smertrios">Curious case of Smertrios</h2>



Smertrios is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/smertrios_saturn-like-planet_water-atmosphere_possible-life_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metal-rich hot Saturn planet</a> that plays the orbiting game around a yellow subgiant star, HD 149026. 



Positioned quite comfortably at a distance of about 248.5 light-years from us, it's a fascinating celestial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitable-exoplanet-gliese-12-b-only-40-light-years-away-earth-like-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">object</a> that we're still trying to understand.



This cosmic giant, though less massive, is about 0.81 times the size of Jupiter. It orbits its host star every 2.876 days from a distance of 0.043 AU. 



And if it could boast about one thing, it would be its sizzling equilibrium temperature - a whopping 1,693 Kelvin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drops-of-water-on-smertrios">Drops of water on Smertrios?</h2>



The ultimate goal of the astronomers was to comprehend the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-dioxide-found-on-distant-exoplanet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">composition</a> of Smertrios's atmosphere.



"Transmission spectroscopy presents one of the most successful approaches for investigating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-sized-exoplanet-orbiting-ultracool-dwarf-star-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheres of exoplanets</a>," the scientists noted.



"We analyzed the near-infrared high-resolution transmission spectrum of a hot Saturn, HD 149026 b, taken using CARMENES spectrograph."



The team found a water signal very close to where Smertrios should be. With a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 4.8, it was a discovery they could not ignore. 



However, the experts pointed out that this signal is only evidence -- not a confirmation -- of water vapor.



A tell-tale sign for the scientists was that Smertrios's carbon to oxygen ratio must be less than one. This is because the hydrogen cyanide abundance, expected to be very low if the atmosphere is homogeneous, depends on this ratio.



While the scientists did look for hydrogen cyanide, they did not find any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-habitable-worlds-observatory-hwo-telescope-aims-find-inhabited-planets-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a>. This, they believe, could be due to the low S/N dataset, so the presence of hydrogen cyanide cannot be entirely ruled out just yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-inexplicable">Measuring the inexplicable</h2>



The study also ventured into measuring the orbital and rest velocities of Smertrios. They clocked in at about 158.17 and 2.57 km/s, respectively. 



What's intriguing, though, is that the orbital velocity matched the expectations, but the rest velocity was highly red-shifted. 



This anomaly could be due to a variety of scenarios, such as peculiar atmospheric dynamics or an orbit with non-zero eccentricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-metallicity">Role of metallicity</h2>



Metallicity refers to the abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in a celestial object's atmosphere. Smertrios's high metallicity is an intriguing trait that's captured astronomers' imaginations. 



Why is this important? High metallicity can shape a planet's formation, structure, and even its atmosphere. 



By exploring Smertrios's metal-rich nature, we might uncover secrets about how planets form in metal-heavy environments.



This could reveal fascinating connections between a star’s metal content and the types of planets that orbit it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-exoplanetary-atmospheres">Implications for exoplanetary atmospheres</h2>



Detecting possible water vapor in Smertrios’s atmosphere changes how we understand exoplanet atmospheres. 



Water is vital in our hunt for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-k2-18-b-studied-again-confirm-presence-dms-gas-only-produced-by-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable environments</a> since it’s crucial for many chemical and physical processes. 



While Smertrios is much too hot to support life as we know it, finding water vapor hints at similar processes happening on more temperate exoplanets.



This discovery encourages us to dive deeper into studying exoplanet atmospheres, helping us better grasp the diverse atmospheric compositions and dynamics throughout the galaxy.



The study is published in the preprint server <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.01266" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Water detected on Saturn-like planet named Smertrios

Imagine a far-off planet, not too different from Saturn, but...

Forest succession plays a crucial role in the global climate system by influencing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-soil-sequesters-carbon-from-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestered</a> in our world's soils, which act as a vast, subterranean carbon sink.



As forests develop through different stages, the amount and quality of organic carbon stored in the soil can change significantly.



Soil stores large amounts of organic carbon, whose dynamic changes can have a huge impact on the global climate system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-process-of-forest-succession">The process of forest succession</h2>



Forest succession is a long-term ecological process that affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil organic carbon</a> (SOC) due to variations in plant community composition, microenvironment, plant debris stock, soil nutrient availability, and microbial community composition among different successional stages.



The process of forest succession involves complex interactions between vegetation, soil microorganisms, and environmental factors. 



As forests transition from early successional stages to mature ecosystems, the composition of plant species changes, affecting the quality and quantity of organic matter inputs to the soil. This, in turn, influences the soil's capacity to store and stabilize carbon over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtleties-of-soil-organic-carbon">Subtleties of soil organic carbon</h2>



A dedicated team of researchers at Taizhou University turned their attention to the subtleties of soil organic carbon (SOC) quality and stock during a forest's transition from one stage to the next.



With a focus on a subalpine forest series, the exploration looked into the deciduous broad-leaved, mixed broadleaf-conifer, middle-aged coniferous, and mature coniferous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazonian-dark-earth-could-be-used-to-boost-tree-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>. The study was focused on the region southeast of the Tibetan Plateau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-succession-and-soil-carbon">Forest succession and soil carbon</h2>



The key finding in the study revealed a curvilinear relationship between soil organic carbon and the progression of the forest.



More specifically, the mixed forest stage held the highest SOC stock compared to the other forest types. The researchers attribute this to an increased amount of wood debris found in mixed forests.



Interestingly, despite holding the highest soil organic carbon stocks, mixed forests displayed poorer SOC quality relative to the other forests in the series. In addition, the researchers found that the deeper soil layers held on average 66% of the first meter's SOC stocks.



More surprisingly, the quality of SOC in these deeper layers surpassed that of the surface soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balance-in-the-forest">Balance in the forest</h2>



The results of the study highlight the importance of mixed forests and plant debris in maintaining forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>.



The significant proportion of SOC stock and its superior quality in deeper soil layers also point towards the potential for these soils to release substantial amounts of carbon dioxide under global changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-the-research-forward">Taking the research forward</h2>



According to study lead author Fei Li, the research findings have important implications. First of all, more mixed forests need to be cultivated and managed carefully to optimize terrestrial carbon sequestration. 



Second, preserving plant debris should become a crucial strategy in sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-forests-rapidly-changing-repercussions-looming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest management</a>. Lastly, models simulating the dynamic changes of SOC under global changes should distinguish between surface and deep soil.



The implications of the study hold great promise for understanding the interplay between forests, soils, and the carbon cycle. With this greater understanding, we can be more strategic in mitigating the impacts of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-succession-and-biodiversity">Forest succession and biodiversity</h2>



Forest succession not only influences soil organic carbon but also plays a crucial role in maintaining and enhancing biodiversity. 



As forests transition through different stages, the diversity of plant and animal species changes, creating a dynamic environment that supports a wide array of life forms. 



During the early stages of succession, pioneer species establish themselves, creating habitats for various insects and small animals. 



As the forest matures, it supports more complex ecosystems, with a greater variety of flora and fauna. This biodiversity is not just an outcome of succession but a driver of ecosystem health, resilience, and stability.



Understanding the synergetic relationship between forest succession and biodiversity can help in formulating conservation strategies that enhance both carbon sequestration and species richness. 



Promoting mixed forests, as highlighted in the study, can thus serve dual purposes: optimizing carbon capture and fostering a rich tapestry of life that contributes to the overall health of our planet's ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2197562024000393?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecosystems</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mixed forests store the most soil carbon

Forest succession plays a crucial role in the global climate...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/41/7/msae114/7708214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a> reveals that scientists struggle to reliably distinguish between different types of coca plants in South America despite the <a href="https://www.unodc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a>'s efforts to monitor coca cultivation and related deforestation for decades. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-around-identification-nbsp">Limitations around identification&nbsp;</h2>



Typically, identification relies on leaf shape and size, but this method does not accurately differentiate between coca varieties used for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-fingerprints-non-users/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine</a> extraction, traditional purposes, and wild-growing plants.



“To monitor the changing landscape of coca plantations, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime collects annual data on their areas of cultivation,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“However, attempts to delineate areas in which different varieties are grown have failed due to limitations around identification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coca-plants-and-the-rising-demand-for-cocaine-nbsp">Coca plants and the rising demand for cocaine&nbsp;</h2>



Coca has been a crucial crop for Andean and Amazonian communities for at least 8,000 years and remains vital for millions of South Americans today.&nbsp;



Its leaves, rich in active compounds, are used for cultural rituals, medicinal treatments, nutritional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supplements</a>, and as an everyday stimulant. 



However, in recent decades, global demand for cocaine has driven intensive coca agriculture, placing it at the center of armed conflict and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-coca-plants-nbsp">Origins of coca plants&nbsp;</h2>



Coca plants belong to the diverse genus Erythroxylum, which includes over 270 species, primarily native to the American tropics.&nbsp;



Two main cultivated coca species are Erythroxylum coca (Huánuco coca) and Erythroxylum novogranatense. The former is native to wet mountain forests in Peru and Bolivia, while the latter is found in the dry valleys of the Cordilleras and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Traditional use of these plants includes flavoring and stimulant additives, such as for Coca Cola.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inadequate-classification-system-nbsp">Inadequate classification system&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers used statistical methods to analyze 1,163 leaf outlines from 342 digital herbarium specimens of wild and cultivated coca, finding significant overlap between species and varieties.&nbsp;



This overlap likely leads to field misidentifications and highlights the need for diverse plant classification sources.&nbsp;



An inadequate classification system can impede the identification of new varieties, crucial for both cocaine extraction and alternative uses like food supplements, fibers, or pigments.



“We are rethinking how to classify coca plants, both cultivated and wild, after adding new data about their leaves and genes,” said study co-author Fabio Andrés Ávila, a scientist at the New York Botanical Garden.&nbsp;



“This is important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/balancing-agricultural-expansion-and-biodiversity-loss-in-colombia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colombia's biodiversity</a> and for communities that use coca for traditional purposes, providing new information sources about the plants they depend on.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-relationships-between-coca-plants-nbsp">Genetic relationships between coca plants&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to leaf shape and size, the researchers explored genetic relationships between coca plants, comparing these findings with existing taxonomic classifications.&nbsp;



The experts assessed how well leaf traits matched genetic data and estimated when different coca species and varieties originated.&nbsp;



The results indicated that distinct coca plants began evolving long before humans arrived in South America, though the timeline for the emergence of cultivated, cocaine-yielding coca remains uncertain.



While leaf characteristics were found to be unreliable for identification, the study emphasizes the potential of genetic techniques for more accurate identification and monitoring of coca populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-sustainable-bioprospecting-programs">Developing sustainable bioprospecting programs</h2>



“One of the primary objectives of our research is to propose a stable classification system and a comprehensive genetic database. This will enable us to confidently identify the different populations, varieties and species of cultivated coca and their wild relatives,” said Oscar Alejandro Pérez-Escobar of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, another co-author of the paper.&nbsp;



“Such a system is crucial for developing sustainable bioprospecting programs and the coca tree holds immense potential in this regard. But first, it is essential to separate the plant’s valuable attributes from its association with the recreational drug, reshaping its perception and highlighting its positive uses.”



This study provides a new understanding of coca plant classification, which is essential for conservation, sustainable use, and reducing the plant’s association with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-drug-use-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recreational drug use</a>, thereby highlighting its beneficial uses.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wild coca plants are hard to distinguish from those used for cocaine

A new study published in the journal Molecular Biology and...

If you've ever wondered what keeps the universe together, you are not alone. Scientists around the globe have been engrossed in one question: what on earth (or should we say, in space) is dark matter? Despite the fact that it forms the majority of galaxies, this elusive matter is invisible and wrapped in mystery. It’s like the invisible ‘glue’ that binds the universe together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-galaxy-distribution">Dark matter galaxy distribution</h2>



Eduardo Vitral, lead author of the study from the Space Telescope Science Institute (<a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">STScI</a>), explains the complexity of understanding dark matter. 



Although computer simulations <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predict dark matter</a> should clump up in the center of a galaxy, most observations tell a different story.



Instead of an accumulation in the center (a density cusp), it seems the dark matter is spread more evenly across a galaxy. This discrepancy between theory and observation creates a layer of intrigue around dark matter.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dark-matter_Draco-Dwarf-Spheroidal_hubble-space-telescope_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/dark-matter_Draco-Dwarf-Spheroidal_hubble-space-telescope_1s.jpg" alt="Draco Dwarf galaxy where Hubble spotted a likely dark matter clump. Credit: Hubble/NASA" class="wp-image-1938739"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Draco Dwarf galaxy where Hubble spotted a likely dark matter clump. Credit: Hubble/NASA</figcaption></figure>



In an attempt to add clarity to this debate, a team of astronomers decided to peek through the lens of NASA's Hubble Space Telescope.



They meticulously observed the dynamic motions of stars within the Draco dwarf galaxy, a system located around 250,000 light-years from Earth.



"Our models tend to agree more with a cusp-like structure, which aligns with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-consist-of-particles-that-travel-faster-than-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological models</a>," said Vitral.



"While we cannot definitively say all galaxies contain a cusp-like dark matter distribution, it's exciting to have such well measured data that surpasses anything we've had before."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-galaxies-to-understand-dark-matter">Studying galaxies to understand dark matter</h2>



The astronomers employed a common approach to understanding dark matter distributions: studying the stars and their movements. 



By observing the stars and interpreting the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/glossary/#section-8d1cc847-0fb8-4e62-a0db-4745984f4c7f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doppler Effect</a>, they could gain valuable insights into the invisible matter's influence. 



However, there's a limit to what one can understand from this one-dimensional source of information. This is where a new perspective came into play.



In addition to observing the stars' shifting away from or close to us, the astronomers took the stars’ lateral movements into account (known as 'proper motion’). 



By blending line-of-sight velocity with proper motions, the team created an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unprecedented analysis</a> of the stars’ 3D movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-the-most-out-of-the-data">Getting the most out of the data</h2>



"Improvements in data and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improvements in modeling</a> usually go hand in hand," explained Roeland van der Marel of STScI, a co-author of the paper who initiated the study more than 10 years ago.



"If you don’t have very sophisticated data or only one-dimensional data, then relatively straightforward models can often fit."



He explained that the more dimensions and complexity of data you gather, the more complex your models need to be to truly capture all the subtleties of the data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-the-draco-dwarf-galaxy">Focusing on the Draco Dwarf Galaxy</h2>



With its relatively small size and spheroidal shape, the Draco dwarf galaxy, a satellite of the Milky Way, became the perfect candidate for their study.



Dwarf galaxies have a higher proportion of dark matter content, making them ideal for such research.



The team meticulously measured shifting stars over an 18-year period, thus reducing uncertainties and providing precise measurements.



"When measuring proper motions, you note the position of a star at one epoch and then many years later measure the position of that same star. You <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-stars-may-hold-the-key-to-understanding-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">measure the displacement</a> to determine how much it moved," explained Sangmo Tony Sohn of STScI, another co-author of the paper and the principal investigator of the latest observational program.



"For this kind of observation, the longer you wait, the better you can measure the stars shifting."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-dark-matter-studies">Future of dark matter studies</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methodologies and models</a> developed for the Draco dwarf galaxy will serve as a blueprint for future studies on other galaxies. The team is already analyzing Hubble observations of the Sculptor and Ursa Minor dwarf galaxies.



Moreover, the upcoming NASA's <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> will reveal new details of dark matter's properties among different galaxies, thanks to its ability to survey large swaths of the sky.



"This kind of study is a long-term investment and requires a lot of patience," reflected Vitral. "We're able to do this science because of all the planning that was done throughout the years to actually gather these data. 



The insights this brilliant team has collected are the result of a larger group of researchers that has been working on these things for many years.



So, the next time you look up at the stars, remember that astronomers are tirelessly working to understand the invisible ‘glue’ that binds the cosmos together. Their patience and perseverance might just provide the answer to the riddle of the invisible universe.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X">Astrophysical Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hubble discovers dark matter 'clump' in center of  another galaxy

If you've ever wondered what keeps the universe together, you...

The question of whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> ever supported life has fascinated scientists and the public for years. Central to this mystery is understanding the planet's past climate: was it warm and wet, like Earth, or cold and icy, which would make it less hospitable to life? 



A new study suggests the latter, drawing parallels between Martian soils and those found in Newfoundland, Canada, a region with a cold subarctic climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-climate-record-in-soil-and-rocks">Mars’ climate record in soil and rocks</h2>



Published on July 7th in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01495-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications: Earth and Environment</a>, the study examined soils on Earth that contain materials similar to those in Mars' Gale Crater. Scientists often use soil to uncover environmental history, as the minerals present can reveal landscape evolution over time. 



Understanding how these materials formed could answer long-standing questions about Mars’ ancient environment. The soils and rocks of Gale Crater offer a record of Mars' climate from three to four billion years ago, a period when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> was relatively abundant on the planet and life began on Earth.



“Gale Crater is a paleo lakebed - there was obviously water present. But what were the environmental conditions when the water was there?” said lead author Anthony Feldman, a soil scientist and geomorphologist at the <a href="https://www.dri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Desert Research Institute</a> in Las Vegas. 



“We’re never going to find a direct analog to the Martian surface, because conditions are so different between Mars and Earth. But we can look at trends under terrestrial conditions and use those to try to extrapolate to Martian questions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-ray-amorphous-materials-nbsp">X-ray amorphous materials&nbsp;</h2>



NASA's Curiosity Rover has been exploring Gale Crater since 2011, uncovering various soil materials known as “X-ray amorphous material.”&nbsp;



These materials lack the typical repeating atomic structure of minerals, making them difficult to characterize using traditional techniques like X-ray diffraction.&nbsp;



The Curiosity Rover's findings indicated that these amorphous materials made up between 15% and 73% of the soil and rock samples in the Gale Crater.



“You can think of X-Ray amorphous materials like Jello,” Feldman said. “It’s this soup of different elements and chemicals that just slide past each other.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-chemical-information-nbsp">Limited chemical information&nbsp;</h2>



The Curiosity Rover's chemical analyses showed that these amorphous materials were rich in iron and silica but deficient in aluminum.&nbsp;



Beyond this limited chemical information, scientists still don't fully understand what these amorphous materials are or what their presence implies about Mars' historical environment. Investigating how these materials form and persist on Earth could help answer these questions about Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soils-on-earth-with-chemical-similarities-nbsp">Soils on Earth with chemical similarities&nbsp;</h2>



Feldman and his team searched for similar X-ray amorphous materials in Newfoundland's Tablelands, Northern California’s Klamath Mountains, and western Nevada.&nbsp;



These sites had serpentine soils expected to be chemically similar to those in the Gale Crater: rich in iron and silicon but lacking aluminum.&nbsp;



The varying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>, snowfall, and temperature at these locations provided insight into the environmental conditions that produce and preserve amorphous materials.



Using X-ray diffraction analysis and transmission electron microscopy, the researchers found that the subarctic conditions in Newfoundland produced materials chemically similar to those in the Gale Crater, lacking crystalline structure. Soils from warmer climates like California and Nevada did not show these similarities.



“This shows that you need the water there in order to form these materials,” Feldman explained. “But it needs to be cold, near-freezing mean annual temperature conditions in order to preserve the amorphous material in the soils.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-understanding-of-mars-past-climate">Improved understanding of Mars' past climate</h2>



Amorphous material is generally considered unstable because its atoms haven't organized into a final, crystalline form.&nbsp;



“There’s something going on in the kinetics - or the rate of reaction - that is slowing it down so that these materials can be preserved over geologic time scales,” Feldman explained.&nbsp;



“What we’re suggesting is that very cold, close to freezing conditions, is one particular kinetic limiting factor that allows for these materials to form and be preserved.”



“This study improves our understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-impacted-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> of Mars. The results suggest that the abundance of this material in Gale Crater is consistent with subarctic conditions, similar to what we would see in, for instance, Iceland,” he concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Was Mars’ past climate supportive of life?

The question of whether Mars ever supported life has fascinated...

The,Square,With,Lawn,And,The,Modern,City,Skyline,Are

Turf is often a defining feature of urban life, where limited space for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor activities</a>, especially sports, is common. As cities grow, natural grass fields in public parks and sports courts are frequently replaced with artificial turf, a sturdier substitute designed to withstand continuous use.



However, while this solution addresses the wear-and-tear issue, it brings its own set of problems for city-dwellers and the urban environment. 



A group of innovative scientists from the Netherlands has found a way to make artificial turf work in our favor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-artificial-turf-2-0-for-cities">Unveiling artificial turf 2.0 for cities</h2>



This Dutch scientific team has developed an artificial turf system that incorporates subsurface water storage and capillary irrigation. 



The objective? To significantly reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/november-2023-was-earths-warmest-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface temperatures</a>, making cities cooler and safer.



“With circular on-site water management below the field, a significant evaporative cooling effect is achieved,” stated the research's lead author, Dr Marjolein van Huijgevoort from <a href="https://www.kwrwater.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KWR Water Research Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-works-tech-beneath-the-turf">How it works: Tech beneath the turf</h2>



Beneath the turf and shockpad lies a specially designed open water storage layer that revolutionizes how artificial turf interacts with its environment. 



This water retention system, equipped with strategically placed cylinders, collects rainwater and transports it back to the surface, enabling natural evaporation. 



This process delivers cooling effects precisely when needed, as evaporation only takes place when cooling demand exists.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/artificial-turf_water-cooled_urban-infrastructure_credit-Frontiers_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/artificial-turf_water-cooled_urban-infrastructure_credit-Frontiers_1s.jpg" alt="Water-cooled artificial turf. Credit: Permavoid" class="wp-image-1938730"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Water-cooled artificial turf. Credit: Permavoid</figcaption></figure>



Standard artificial turf can heat up to a scorching 70°C (158°F) under the sun, posing significant risks such as burns, heat-related illnesses, and even life-threatening conditions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-the-heat-rising-temperatures-push-the-limits-of-the-human-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat stroke</a>. However, this innovative solution changes the game entirely.



By harnessing the natural cooling power of evaporation, it transforms artificial turf from a potential hazard into a safe and comfortable playing surface, even on the hottest days. 



This advancement not only improves the safety and usability of urban sports fields but also contributes positively to the urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microclimate</a>, making cities more livable and sustainable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-down-the-heat-with-artificial-turf">Turning down the heat with artificial turf</h2>



Research conducted in Amsterdam demonstrated the efficacy of this novel concept. 



By replacing conventional turf with the self-cooling variant, temperatures markedly decreased. 



The team's research revealed that on a sweltering day in June 2020, the modified turf hit a surface temperature of 37°C (98.6°F) - a mere 1.7°C (3.1°F) above natural grass. 



In contrast, temperatures of the standard artificial turf skyrocketed to 62.5°C (144.5°F).



Substantial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature differences</a> were also observed above the turf.



“We found lower air temperatures 75cm above the cooled plots compared to conventional artificial turf fields, especially during the night,” notes van Huijgevoort. 



This discovery implies the cooled plots might facilitate reducing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat</a> island effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-of-both-worlds">Best of both worlds</h2>



This artificial turf, with its natural self-cooling capability, offers a combination of benefits. It's sturdy, maintains optimal temperatures, and promotes a safe sports environment. 



Another advantage is its impressive rainwater storage capability, nearly on par with natural grass. This storage capacity mitigates urban flooding by reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stormwater-drainage-system-helps-keep-street-trees-hydrated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stormwater drainage</a>. The system can also be manually watered during dry periods, making it a versatile solution.



Although installation costs might initially be double that of a conventional artificial turf, the researchers believe that a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis could truly reveal the value of this investment.



More research is needed to understand the wider impacts of this cooling turf on surrounding spaces and on cities overall. However, the preliminary results are encouraging. 



As cities grow and outdoor play areas become a necessity, this innovative turf might just be the game-changer we need, offering the benefits of subsurface water storage without the downsides of traditional artificial fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-environmental-benefits">Potential environmental benefits</h2>



Beyond cooling effects and urban flood mitigation, this innovative artificial turf could have several additional environmental benefits. 



By reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides associated with natural grass maintenance, this system may also help lower the urban chemical load. 



Moreover, the use of recycled materials in constructing the water storage layer can further enhance its sustainability profile. 



This approach aligns with global efforts to promote circular economies, where resources are reused and repurposed, minimizing waste and environmental impact. 



As cities continue to grapple with climate change challenges, solutions like these that offer both functional and environmental advantages will be increasingly valuable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-cities/articles/10.3389/frsc.2024.1399858/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Sustainable Cities</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Artificial turf with a twist is a cool solution for hot cities

Turf is often a defining feature of urban life, where...

Dishes,Forks,Glasses,In,Compostable,Bioplastic,,Plastic,Free.,Bologna,,Italy

Food waste is a significant issue when it comes to food production, where we invest huge amounts of energy, water, and capital. Yet, as per the statistics, an alarming 30-40% of it directly goes into the landfill in the United States. One can't help but wonder -- wouldn't it be remarkable if we could repurpose this waste into something more beneficial like bioplastics?



A group of enterprising researchers at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cals.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences</a>&nbsp;have taken on this challenge.



The team is leading a pioneering project. They are developing biodegradable bioplastics from food waste. This brilliant initiative gives these materials a new life. It promotes sustainability and addresses crucial issues such as plastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-win-the-battle-of-planet-vs-plastic-drastic-changes-are-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> and food waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-the-vision">Defining the vision</h2>



“By creating cost-effective&nbsp;bioplastics&nbsp;that naturally decompose, we can reduce plastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-production-increases-create-identical-plastic-pollution-increase/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> on land and in oceans and address significant issues such as greenhouse gas emissions and economic losses associated with food waste,” shares Zhiwu "Drew" Wang, the lead researcher, sheds light on the project's vision.



Considering that microplastics affect nearly 88% of all marine species, as mentioned by the World Wildlife Fund, this project holds significant importance for marine life preservation.



Quick biodegradability of Virginia Tech's bioplastics in seawater can substantially decrease the detrimental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspires-solutions-for-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> of pollution on marine life worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-microorganisms-to-produce-bioplastics">Harnessing microorganisms to produce bioplastics</h2>



The project employs a process akin to fermentation in microbreweries.&nbsp;



The team harnesses microorganisms to convert food waste into fats, which then convert into bioplastics. 



These bioplastics can be composted with ease, diminishing marine pollution caused by non-degradable microplastics. It's a revolutionary approach that holds promise on both national and global scales.



Wang hopes that these sustainable plastics will be beneficial for people, companies,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-harness-fruit-waste-to-extract-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste management</a>&nbsp;systems, and communities globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-and-innovation">Collaboration and innovation</h2>



Working closely with experts at Virginia Tech, the team is involved in purifying polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and creating valuable bioplastic products. Undergraduate and graduate student researchers also actively participate in this project.



Among the various sustainability solutions, Young Kim from the Department of Sustainable Biomaterials strongly advocates for the use of&nbsp;biodegradable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-breakthrough-plastics-that-wont-make-us-sick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a>.



He asserts, “Using bioplastic is a viable option to solve our increased plastic pollution. Our approach is to improve sustainability using biodegradable options.”



The popularity of home compostable packaging is on the rise. These include single-layer films for evaluating utility as actual products, replacing traditional coated paper products with PHAs.&nbsp;



PHAs, unlike polyethylene or polyactic acid coatings often found on single-use plastics, are fully biodegradable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-sustainable-alternatives">Creating sustainable alternatives</h2>



Student researchers like Chloe Taylor view this project as an opportunity to pave the way for creating sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics.&nbsp;



“It inspired me to pursue graduate studies because traditional plastics are unsustainable. We aim to create bioplastics that are viable alternatives and can be used in everyday products without harming the environment,” she shares.



A $2.4 million grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (<a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a>) funds this applied research, making new waves in the ocean of sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-food-waste-at-the-source">Addressing food waste at the source</h2>



One crucial aspect of this initiative is understanding and addressing food waste at its source.&nbsp;



Identifying the key contributors to food waste, such as production inefficiencies, overstocking in retail, and consumer habits, allows for targeted interventions.&nbsp;



Farmers, distributors, retailers, and consumers each play a role in the ecosystem, and through education and policy adjustments, significant&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-food-waste-greater-food-security-less-environmental-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste reductions</a>&nbsp;can be achieved.



By minimizing food waste before it even reaches the landfill, we can channel more raw material into bioplastic production, thus maximizing the environmental benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-food-waste-to-bioplastics">From food waste to bioplastics</h2>



The journey from food waste to functional bioplastic products is a testament to innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/norways-battle-against-plastic-pollution-represents-a-global-plague/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> and cutting-edge technology.&nbsp;



The process begins with the collection of food waste. This is followed by microbial conversion into polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Finally, it ends with the creation of a wide array of biodegradable products.



The versatility of these bioplastics means they can be used in packaging, agricultural films, and even household items.&nbsp;



This transformation mitigates plastic pollution. It also demonstrates the value of reimagining waste as a valuable resource. This approach fosters both environmental and economic sustainability.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Transforming food waste into biodegradable bioplastics

Food waste is a significant issue when it comes to...

Auroras have inspired awe for millennia, but with modern reliance on electricity, we are only now understanding their full impact on Earth's magnetic field. 



The same forces behind auroras also produce currents that can harm electrical infrastructure, such as pipelines. 



Now, a study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2024.1392697" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a> has shown that the impact angle of interplanetary shocks is crucial to the strength of these currents, offering a way to predict and protect against potential damage.



“Auroras and geomagnetically induced currents are caused by similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a> drivers,” explained lead author Denny Oliveira, a scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.



“The aurora is a visual warning that indicates that electric currents in space can generate these geomagnetically induced currents on the ground.”



“The auroral region can greatly expand during severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-geomagnetic-storm-alert-issued-sun-begins-erupting-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geomagnetic storms</a>. Usually, its southernmost boundary is around latitudes of 70 degrees, but during extreme events it can go down to 40 degrees or even further, which certainly occurred during the May 2024 storm - the most severe storm in the past two decades.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-auroras-and-earth-s-magnetic-field">Auroras and Earth's magnetic field</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-southern-united-states-this-week-huge-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auroras</a> occur through two primary processes: particles from the sun hitting Earth’s magnetic field, or interplanetary shocks compressing the magnetic field.&nbsp;



These shocks also generate geomagnetically induced currents that can damage electrical infrastructure. 



"The impact of interplanetary (IP) shocks on the Earth’s magnetosphere can greatly disturb the geomagnetic field and electric currents in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system," wrote the study authors. 



"At high latitudes, the current systems most affected by the shocks are the auroral electrojet currents." 



"These currents then generate ground geomagnetically induced currents that couple with and are highly detrimental to ground artificial conductors including power transmission lines, oil/gas pipelines, railways, and submarine cables." 



Stronger shocks mean stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents and auroras</a>, but frequent, less powerful shocks can also cause harm over time.



“Arguably, the most intense deleterious effects on power infrastructure occurred in March 1989 following a severe geomagnetic storm - the Hydro-Quebec system in Canada was shut down for nearly nine hours, leaving millions of people with no electricity,” said Oliveira.&nbsp;



“But weaker, more frequent events such as interplanetary shocks can pose threats to ground conductors over time. Our work shows that considerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-not-aurora-has-dawn-side-twin-swarm-satellites-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoelectric currents</a> occur quite frequently after shocks, and they deserve attention.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-angle-and-timing-of-the-shocks">Angle and timing of the shocks</h2>



Shocks hitting Earth head-on induce stronger geomagnetically induced currents due to greater compression of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. The researchers studied how these currents vary with the angle of shocks and the time of day.



Using data from interplanetary shocks and geomagnetically induced currents recorded from a natural gas pipeline in Mäntsälä, Finland, they calculated the shocks' properties, such as angle and speed, using interplanetary magnetic field and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> data.



Shocks were categorized into three types: highly inclined, moderately inclined, and nearly frontal.



The researchers found that more frontal shocks lead to higher peaks in geomagnetically induced currents, both immediately after the shock and during subsequent substorms.&nbsp;



Intense peaks often occurred around magnetic midnight when the north pole was aligned between the sun and Mäntsälä, also causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-not-aurora-has-dawn-side-twin-swarm-satellites-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">striking auroral displays</a>.



“Moderate currents occur shortly after the perturbation impact when Mäntsälä is around dusk local time, whereas more intense currents occur around midnight local time,” Oliveira explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-damage-to-infrastructure">Preventing damage to infrastructure </h2>



Predicting the angles of these shocks up to two hours in advance could enable preemptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect electrical grids</a> and other infrastructure from the strongest shocks.



“One thing power infrastructure operators could do to safeguard their equipment is to manage a few specific electric circuits when a shock alert is issued,” Oliveira suggested. “This would prevent geomagnetically induced currents reducing the lifetime of the equipment.”



However, the study did not find a strong correlation between the shock angle and the time it takes to induce a current, likely due to the need for more data from different latitudes.



“Current data was collected only at a particular location, namely the Mäntsälä natural gas pipeline system,” said Oliveira. “Although Mäntsälä is at a critical location, it does not provide a worldwide picture.”&nbsp;



“In addition, the Mäntsälä data is missing several days in the period investigated, which forced us to discard many events in our shock database. It would be nice to have worldwide power companies make their data accessible to scientists for studies.”



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Auroras are a visual warning of harmful shocks to Earth’s magnetic field

Auroras have inspired awe for millennia, but with modern reliance...

Can an infant barely a year old compose a symphony or craft the next great novel? Maybe not, but recent research suggests they might already be flexing their creativity in a very fascinating way.



In a remarkable new study from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, UK, and Central European University (<a href="https://www.ceu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEU</a>) in Austria, it has been discovered that infants can merge simple concepts into intricate ideas. 



It turns out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> are not only creative thinkers before they utter their first words but this inventive brainwork could also play a critical role in language acquisition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-creativity-skills">Infant creativity skills</h2>



Assistant Professor at the University of Birmingham's <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychology</a>, Dr. Barbara Pomiechowska, postulates that our astounding ability to combine ideas and invent new things may originate far earlier than we previously believed. 



“Human creativity has no boundaries: it has taken us to the moon and allowed us to cure deadly diseases – but despite its importance, we don’t yet know when and how this impressive ability to combine ideas and invent new things emerges," said Dr. Pomiechowska who conducted the research during her postdoctoral fellowship at CEU.



"This research shows that we must go right back to the beginning of language acquisition to solve this puzzle."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-does-creativity-come-from">Where does creativity come from?</h2>



The research aimed to uncover the roots of human creativity by studying infants. The scientists postulated that humans develop new thoughts and ideas by combining familiar concepts into novel structures.



However, how early in life these skills emerge remained an enigma. Enter our pint-sized participants.



Working with 60 babies all around the age of 12 months, the researchers began teaching the infants two new words to refer to quantities. 



It’s not exactly the stuff of rocket science, but the word ‘mize’ was introduced to mean ‘one’, and ‘padu’ to mean ‘two’. 



They then asked the babies to mix these new words with different object names, like identifying ‘padu ducks’ from a selection of pictures.



By using novel words for quantities, the researchers could test the babies' ability to combine concepts in the moment, rather than merely remembering combinations of words they knew from past experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creativity-in-infant-minds">Creativity in infant minds</h2>



Employing eye-tracking technology, researchers monitored where the cherubic learners looked. And what did they find? The babies successfully mixed the two concepts to understand what they were being probed about.



Dr. Agnes Kovacs, from CEU’s Department of Cognitive Science and CEU’s Cognitive Development Center, is of the opinion that this ability to blend different concepts helps babies not only decipher complex language but also learn about the physical and social world. &nbsp;



“For babies, this ability to combine different concepts is likely to help not only to interpret the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language input</a>, but also to learn about different aspects of the physical and social world. For adults, it’s an ability that helps to move past everything that’s already been thought of, opening the mind towards endless possibilities,” she said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conceptual-blending">Conceptual blending</h2>



The skill of conceptual blending -- merging multiple concepts to form a new understanding -- has long been regarded as a cornerstone of adult creativity and problem-solving.



This study sheds light on the possibility that this sophisticated cognitive ability starts developing at a much younger age. 



By demonstrating that infants can amalgamate concepts like quantities and objects, it suggests that the brain’s propensity for innovative thinking may be hardwired and nurtured from the earliest stages of life. 



This revelation revises our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive development,</a> emphasizing the importance of early intellectual stimulation and the potential to foster creativity even in infancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-childhood-education">Implications for early childhood education</h2>



Given these groundbreaking findings, the landscape of early childhood education could see transformative changes. 



Educational strategies could be adapted to better support and enhance the natural creative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-immune-systems-have-hidden-and-surprising-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities</a> of infants.



Activities that encourage conceptual blending, such as interactive storytelling or games that involve combining different objects and ideas, could play a significant role in educational curricula. 



Implementing such practices might not only bolster early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language skills</a> but also cultivate a generation of innovative thinkers.



Dr. Pomiechowska and Dr. Kovacs advocate for educational programs that are mindful of these creative capabilities, aiming to provide a stimulating environment that respects and nurtures the latent creative potential within every child.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



This research strides a step forward in our understanding of where and when creativity starts in infants. It paints a picture of babies not just as passive sponges soaking up the world but as active and engaged creative thinkers.



So, the next time you see a baby babbling away or playing with their toys, remember that within their tiny heads, creative sparks are already flying. After all, as this research suggests, it’s never too early to start thinking outside the crib.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2315149121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Infants show creativity skills even before they can talk

Can an infant barely a year old compose a symphony...

A recent study has explored predicting cognitive decline rates in individuals with early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a> and assessed the impact of newly approved drugs on this decline. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with considerable variability in the rate of cognitive decline,” wrote the researchers.



“The disease is highly prevalent, with roughly 100 million people estimated to be in the mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia stages of the disease.”&nbsp;



“From the MCI stage, it is estimated to take 4 years on average before people have progressed to dementia. New disease-modifying treatments targeting amyloid plaques slow disease progression in the MCI and mild dementia stages of AD. However, the clinical meaningfulness of these medications is debated.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variable-rate-of-cognitive-decline">Variable rate of cognitive decline</h2>



Published in the July 10, 2024, online issue of <a href="http://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology®</a>, the research aimed to address the variability in cognitive decline, which is a pressing concern for patients and caregivers.



“The rate of cognitive decline varies greatly from person to person, and people are very interested in what to expect from the disease in themselves or their loved ones, so better prediction models are urgently needed,” said study author Dr. Pieter J. van der Veere of <a href="https://www.amsterdamumc.org/en/organization/amsterdam-umc.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amsterdam University Medical Center</a>, Netherlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-to-predict-cognitive-decline-nbsp">Models to predict cognitive decline&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers developed predictive models to estimate how quickly individuals' scores on cognitive tests would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-reality-extreme-heat-worsens-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decline</a>. 



The team validated these models with data from 961 participants, averaging 65 years old - 310 with mild cognitive impairment and 651 with mild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/certain-personality-traits-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>. All subjects had amyloid-beta plaques, an early marker of Alzheimer’s, targeted by the new drugs.



Cognitive test scores range from 0 to 30. Participants with mild cognitive impairment had scores drop from 26.4 to 21.0 over five years, while those with mild dementia saw scores fall from 22.4 to 7.8 in the same period.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-prediction-rates">Accurate prediction rates</h2>



The models accurately predicted the rate of cognitive decline, although with some degree of uncertainty. For half of those with mild cognitive impairment, actual scores differed by less than two points from predictions, and for mild dementia, by less than three points.



A hypothetical case showed that a person with mild cognitive impairment and a baseline score of 28 would reach moderate dementia (score of 20) in six years.&nbsp;



However, with a drug reducing decline by 30%, this stage would be delayed to 8.6 years. For mild dementia with a baseline score of 21, reaching a score of 15 would take 2.3 years, or 3.3 years with the same treatment.



“Patients with AD and their care partners want to know their future cognitive functioning. Our prediction models can be used to inform patients about their cognitive decline, but our results also indicate that providing a precise prognosis is challenging,” wrote the researchers.



“Thus clinicians need to talk about the inherent uncertainty surrounding the predictions with their patients.”



The experts noted that visualizations of the uncertainty can form the basis for meaningful doctor-patient conversations about the predicted cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-life-and-daily-functioning-nbsp">Quality of life and daily functioning&nbsp;</h2>



“We understand that people with cognitive problems and their care partners are most interested in answers to questions like ‘How long can I drive a car?’ or ‘How long can I keep doing my hobby?’” said Dr. Van der Veere.&nbsp;



“In the future, we hope that models will help make predictions about these questions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-aging-physical-activity-has-a-direct-impact-on-life-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of life</a> and daily functioning.” 



“But until then, we hope these models will help physicians translate these predicted scores into answers for people’s questions.”&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Predicting the rate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s patients

A recent study has explored predicting cognitive decline rates in...

Australia is known for its unique and diverse wildlife, but few creatures play as crucial a role in preserving the country's ecological balance as the bettongs and potoroos of the marsupial family.



Marsupials are termed as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/otters-have-the-ability-to-restore-delicate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem engineers</a>" for the significant contribution they make to environmental health through their foraging habits.



What's more, their wide-ranging diet influences the survival and prosperity of various plant species. However, the declining numbers of these native marsupials and the degrading state of their ecosystems are concerning. 



So, a group of prominent experts in the field of ecology and evolution, based at the esteemed <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, have taken it upon themselves to delve deeper into this critical issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-diet-of-marsupials">Studying the diet of marsupials</h2>



Dr. Rex Mitchell, a research associate in the College of Science and Engineering at Flinders University, explained that the initial goal of the study was to understand the toughness of the foods these foragers consume.



This input would play an essential part in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-race-against-heat-the-numbats-fight-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a> rates in conservation, newly established reserves, and even in formulating captive diets.



Dr. Mitchell emphasized the importance of maintaining the distinct populations and distributions of bettongs and potoroos for supporting biodiversity and healthy ecosystems in Australia.



In essence, understanding the hardness of potoroid diets from various habitats and comparing this with farmed foods or dietary supplements used in captivity are pivotal steps for their conservation efforts.



Australia's potoroid marsupials are known for their rich gastronomic preference of roots and tubers, fruit, fungi, seeds, leaves, and even tiny animals and insects.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-secrets-how-bat-teeth-adapted-to-their-diverse-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary diversity</a> leads to the dispersal of seed and fungi across the landscape and promotes plant regeneration, establishing them as pivotal contributors to the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-nutritional-substitutes">Comparing nutritional substitutes</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in the New England region of NSW and the Simpson Desert in South Australia to measure the mechanical properties of food in the bettong and potoroo diets.



They compared these findings with commercially available alternatives to identify possible substitutes or additional food sources.



Dr. Mitchell detailed the fascinating behavior of potoroids like the woylie and burrowing bettong. They can crack open resilient shells of sandalwood and quandong seeds to get to the kernels inside. This impressive skill is even more astonishing considering the small size of bettongs' jaws.



The researchers found that dried seed shells are less tough but more stiff compared to fresh shells. As a result, it might be easier for bettongs to crack open dry shells, clarifying why they usually store the seeds to crack open later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-marsupial-care-with-dietary-research">Enhancing marsupial care with dietary research</h2>



With new knowledge gained about the mechanical properties of potoroids' food compared to farmed foods, the researchers continue to develop better captive breed regimes and feed formulations. 



The team tested farmed foods such as commercial nuts, mushrooms, potatoes, dried and fresh fruits, alongside wild foods known to be consumed by potoroids in their natural habitats.



This fascinating research not only sheds light on the dietary needs of Australia's unique marsupials but also underscores the importance of maintaining their populations for a balanced and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/including-animals-carbon-cycle-models-boosts-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a>.



The findings may ultimately lead to the formulation of nutritious and suitable substitutes for these ecosystem engineers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-habitat-loss-and-predation">Tackling habitat loss and predation</h2>



While understanding the dietary needs of marsupials is crucial, another significant aspect of their conservation involves addressing habitat loss and predation.



Urban expansion, agricultural development, and climate change continue to encroach on the natural habitats of bettongs and potoroos, making it increasingly difficult for these marsupials to thrive. 



Additionally, introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats pose a severe threat to the survival of these small marsupials.



To combat these challenges, comprehensive strategies are required, which include habitat restoration, predator control programs, and the establishment of safe havens and wildlife corridors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-ecological-balance">Restoring ecological balance</h2>



Efforts are also being made to reintroduce bettongs and potoroos into protected areas where they have previously disappeared. These rewilding projects aim to restore ecological balance and enhance biodiversity by reintroducing these marsupials into their native ranges.



By combining dietary research with habitat management and predator control, scientists and conservationists are taking a holistic approach to ensure the long-term survival of Australia's unique animals.



The study serves as a reminder that the intricate balance of Australian ecosystems hinges on the survival and prosperity of bettongs and potoroos.



Through continued research, community engagement, and integrated conservation efforts, there is hope for a future where these marsupials can thrive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marsupials are key to healthy ecosystems in Australia

Australia is known for its unique and diverse wildlife, but...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...