Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown.



Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-origins-of-the-wheel">Redefining the origins of the wheel</h2>



A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and compelling insights into this fascinating puzzle.



This discovery represents an exciting development that shatters the conventional timeline, moving it far beyond the previously accepted era of 4000 BC in ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesopotamia</a>.



It was during that period when the wheel was first recognized as an essential tool, initially used in pottery-making and preceding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a> innovation of wheeled vehicles by centuries.



This newfound understanding prompts a reevaluation of how early humans harnessed rotational technology and its transformative impact on the trajectory of human civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-rotational-tools">Development of rotational tools</h2>



The spotlight is now shining on an archaeological discovery in Israel that has potentially rewritten this humble invention’s history and shifted our understanding of early human ingenuity.



Over a hundred perforated pebbles - primarily composed of limestone and bearing a circular shape with a central hole - were unearthed at the Nahal-Ein Gev II site, a location that has already provided valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life.



This extraordinary find represents a key milestone in the development of rotational tools, including our beloved wheel, and emphasizes the sophisticated craftsmanship and resourcefulness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early societies</a>.



It reveals not only the ingenuity behind these tools but also hints at the broader implications for the evolution of technology and innovation in human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invention-of-a-wheel-shaped-tool">Invention of a wheel-shaped tool</h2>



What's astonishing is that these ancient stones date back to approximately 12,000 years, far surpassing any previously known examples. 



Scholars from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> suggest that these stones served as spindle whorls - round weighted objects attached to a spindle stick.



This tool was instrumental in gathering fibers such as wool and spinning them into yarn, demonstrating the human use of rotation with a wheel-shaped tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-wheels-in-form-and-function">The first wheels in form and function </h2>



Professor Leore Grosman emphasized the importance of these artifacts, describing them as early examples of wheel-shaped tools connected to a rotating axle.



"These perforated stones are actually the first wheels in form and function - a round object with a hole in the center connected to a rotating axle, used long before the appearance of the wheel for transportation purposes," said Professor Grosman.



This early use eventually paved the way for more advanced wheel-based rotational inventions, including the renowned potter's wheel and, later, the significantly useful cart wheel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-prehistoric-innovation">Fingerprints of prehistoric innovation</h2>



"The most important aspect of the study is how modern technology allows us to delve deep into touching the fingerprints of the prehistoric craftsman, then learn something new about them and their innovativeness, and at the same time, about our modern technology and how we're linked," noted the researchers.



Their study embodies the "wheel and axle" concept, a revolutionary mechanism that triggered technology's transformation from linear to rotary motion.



The paper concludes that the ancient origins tied to the carts' prominence during the Bronze Age now focus on a much-earlier wheel-shaped tool.



So, the next time you marvel at the complexity of modern machinery, remember its connection to these humble stones from 12,000 years ago, and appreciate the role of human innovation throughout the ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ingenuity-and-innovation">Human ingenuity and innovation</h2>



This discovery not only enriches our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> but also illustrates the seamless progression from simple tools to complex mechanisms.



The spindle whorls unearthed at Nahal-Ein Gev II showcase the fundamental principles of rotational technology, a concept that would eventually lead to the wheel's application in pottery, transportation, and machinery.



By examining these early developments, researchers draw parallels between ancient creativity and modern technology, highlighting the continuous thread of human ingenuity through the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0312007&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plos One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Who invented the wheel? It all started with stones

Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown. Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools. Redefining the origins of the wheel A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and...

<div>A study in which free-foraging bee colonies were placed in the field has shown that pesticide exposure can affect colony development.</div>
<div>

A class of pesticides called neonicotinoids have faced scrutiny in recent years for potentially contributing to bee declines. If bees decline then many plants will go un-pollinated, including important crops we rely on for food.

However, the extent to which neonicotinoids are to blame is not fully understood, and three neonicotinoids are currently under restriction within the EU while more evidence is gathered.

To date studies looking at the effect of neonicotinoids on bees have either been in the lab, or in the field where colonies are placed next to treated crops. However, lab studies are often unrealistic, and field studies are difficult to control, meaning other factors in the environment could play a role in any changes to the colony.

Now, in a study that balances the pros and cons of these two approaches, a team led by researchers from Imperial College London have developed a way of housing colonies in the field. This allowed them to control pesticide exposure and closely monitor colony activity and development.

Unlike some previous studies they did not find any large effect on bee foraging behaviour following neonicotinoid exposure. However, they did find evidence that the colony produced a lower number of new queens and males, which underpins colony success. The results are published today in the Journal of Applied Ecology.

Senior author Dr Richard Gill from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial said: "Neonicotinoids found in the environment are unlikely to directly kill individual foraging bees, but when exposure is relatively persistent and combined with other stressors associated with land use change, they could have detrimental effects at the colony level."

Lead author Dr Andres Arce, also from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial, add: "Sub-lethal effects like this are important to consider in pesticide risk assessments, and our study provides a helpful method to determine long-term effects on colony health in the field under controlled exposure."

The team placed pairs of bee colonies in a rural setting that was not near any farms, to reduce the possibility that the bees would pick up other pesticides from the environment. One colony from each of the pair was then supplied with neonicotinoids mixed with a nectar substitute.

Although supplied with nectar, the bees still needed to forage for pollen, which the researchers used to assess their behaviour. Each colony was housed in a box with a tube for entrance and exit. When bees returned through the tube with pollen, the researchers either snapped photos of them or took the pollen from one of their pollen baskets.

The amount of pollen brought back per bee and per colony was measured across the day for five weeks. The make-up of each colony was also measured at the start and end of the study and compared across colonies.

The team hope to improve the automation of the study to make it as easy as possible for companies to test new pesticides in ways that reflect real-world scenarios.

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank">Imperial College London</a>


</div>
<div></div>

New study shows direct impact of pesticides on bee colonies

A study in which free-foraging bee colonies were placed in...

<div>An ornithological mystery has been solved! Puzzling red feathers have been popping up in eastern North America's "yellow-shafted" population of Northern Flickers, but they aren't due to genes borrowed from their "red-shafted" cousins to the west, according to a new study in The Auk: Ornithological Advances. Instead, the culprit is a pigment that the birds are ingesting in the berries of exotic honeysuckle plants.</div>
<div>

The Northern Flicker comes in two varieties--the birds of the west have a salmon pink or orange tinge to the undersides of their wings, while the eastern birds are yellow. Where the two populations meet in the middle, they frequently hybridize, producing birds with a blend of both colors. For years, however, flickers far to the east of the hybrid zone have been popping up with red-orange wing feathers. The prevailing explanation has been that they must somehow have genes from the western population, but Jocelyn Hudon of the Royal Alberta Museum and his colleagues have determined that the eastern birds' unusual color actually has a different source: a pigment called rhodoxanthin, which comes from the berries of two species of invasive honeysuckle plants.

Hudon and his colleagues used spectrophotometry and chromatography to show that rhodoxanthin, rather than the type of carotenoid pigment that colors western red-shafted birds, was present in the feathers of yellow-shafted flicker specimens with the aberrant red coloration. Data from a bird-banding station helped confirm that the birds acquire the red pigment during their fall molt about early August, which coincides with the availability of ripe honeysuckle berries. The honeysuckles have also been implicated as the source of unusual orange feathers in Cedar Waxwings.

"At one point considered valuable wildlife habitat and widely disseminated, the naturalized Asian bush honeysuckles are now considered invasive and undesirable in many states. This is clearly not the last we have heard of aberrantly colored birds," says Hudon. "The ready availability of a pigment that can alter the coloration of birds with carotenoids in their plumages could have major implications for mate selection if plumage coloration no longer signaled a bird's body condition."

"This is the pinnacle of a lengthy series of papers on the pigments deposited in primary feathers. Hudon et al. make use of the most up-to-date spectrometric and biochemical analyses to identify and quantify the pigments," according to Alan Brush, an expert on feather color and retired University of Connecticut professor who was not involved with the study. "In addition to demonstrating that the red pigments in the molting yellow-shafted feathers are derived from their diets, not the result of interbreeding with the red-shafted form, they illuminate the dynamic nature of pigment deposition during molt, an accomplishment in itself."


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="http://www.aoucospubs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Central Ornithological Association</a>
<div></div>

Invasive honeysuckle plants die woodpecker's wings red

An ornithological mystery has been solved! Puzzling red feathers have...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">A new mapping project has identified regions worldwide that are most susceptible to dramatic permafrost thaw formations, known as thermokarst, and the resulting release of greenhouse gases.</div>
University of Alaska Fairbanks researchers David McGuire and Vladimir Romanovsky were part of the project, which was led by University of Alberta researcher David Olefeldt. They found that about 20 percent of the globe's northern permafrost region is potential thermokarst landscape. The research can be used in infrastructure and ecosystem planning and greenhouse gas modeling.

The journal Nature Communications published the study this week.

Northern permafrost soils store twice as much carbon as is currently in the atmosphere. When permafrost thaws, the organic matter in the previously frozen soil begins to decay, releasing greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane. Those gases can contribute to climate warming and further permafrost thaw.

"The most dramatic changes are likely to occur where permafrost thaw is accompanied by land surface collapse, known as thermokarst," Olefeldt said. Scientists can use the new map to test assumptions about how fast the soil organic matter will turn into greenhouse gases in these areas.

Thermokarst occurs when thawing soil contains large amounts of ice. When that soil and ice thaws, the water drains away, leaving a void that can lead to more than two dozen distinct collapse landforms, including gullies, slumps, wetlands and lakes. Each type affects greenhouse gas emissions in its own way, and up until now no one has been able to account for all of them at the global scale.

"There haven't been good estimates on how thermokarst disturbance could affect the release of carbon out of the soil," said McGuire, who is part of the Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at the UAF Institute of Arctic Biology and U.S. Geological Survey.

Scientists have been hindered by both the diversity of the thermokarst landforms and a lack of information on where these thermokarst landforms are most likely to occur in a warming world.

"This map is a first step to answer how the landscape will change with the thawing of permafrost in a warming climate. This is the big picture, it is useful as a general idea of what we should expect on a circumpolar scale," said Romanovsky, a researcher at the UAF Geophysical Institute.

One of the most important results of the project was developing a method to prepare a map that will help scientists and resource managers estimate the effects of a warming climate on permafrost in these regions, Romanovsky said. "In Alaska we can see that some areas will be more vulnerable than others. For example, you can see from the map that the Yukon Delta and the North Slope regions will probably undergo significant landscape changes."


</div>
<div></div>
<div>--</div>
<div></div>
<div>Credit: <a href="http://www.uaf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a></div>

Study identifies thermokarst areas at risk of releasing greenhouse gases

A new mapping project has identified regions worldwide that are...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">NASA's Aqua satellite flew over the northwestern Pacific Ocean as Tropical Depression 24W formed and analyzed the storm in infrared light.</div>
The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder or AIRS instrument that flies aboard NASA's Aqua satellite analyzed Tropical Depression 24W (TD24W) in infrared light at Oct.12 at 12:29 a.m. EDT (429 UTC). Coldest cloud top temperatures exceeded minus 63 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 53 degrees Celsius) in bands of thunderstorms east of the center from the northeastern to the southern quadrants. Storms with temperatures that cold are high in the troposphere and NASA research has shown they have the ability to generate heavy rain.

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JWTC) bulletin on Oct. 12 at 11 a.m. EDT (1500 UTC) noted that TD24W has maximum sustained winds near 30 knots (34.5 mph/55.5 kph). It was located near 13.2 degrees north latitude and 129.8 degrees east longitude, about 526 nautical miles east of Manila, Philippines. TD24W was moving to the west-northwest at 11 knots (12.6 mph/20.3 kph).

JTWC forecasts 24W to strengthen into a typhoon and make landfall in Luzon, northern Philippines sometime on Oct. 15.


</div>
<div></div>
<div>--</div>
<div></div>
<div>Credit: <a href="http://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noopener">NASA</a></div>

Tropical Depression 24W forms east of Philippines

NASA's Aqua satellite flew over the northwestern Pacific Ocean as...

<div>
<div class="img-wrapper">It was an eye-opening event when NASA's Aqua satellite passed over Typhoon Songda early on Oct 12. The storm was transitioning into an extra-tropical storm far away from any land areas as it moves through the Northwestern Pacific Ocean.</div>
Satellite imagery on Oct. 10 showed high clouds had covered the eye. On Oct. 12 at 03:05 UTC (Oct. 11 at 11:05 p.m. EDT) the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite captured a visible image of Typhoon Songda as the eye re-emerged. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) estimates that the ragged eye is about 23 nautical miles (26.4 miles/42.6 km) wide.

JTWC forecasters said "[Infrared imagery showed that] central convection has begun to collapse as evidenced by the warming cloud tops. Additionally, the overall structure has become more asymmetric with severe elongation and dispersion along the northern peripheries."

The National Hurricane Center defined a tropical cylcone's transition to an extra-tropical storm as when "a cyclone has lost its "tropical" characteristics. The term implies both poleward displacement of the cyclone and the conversion of the cyclone's primary energy source from the release of latent heat of condensation to baroclinic (the temperature contrast between warm and cold air masses) processes. It is important to note that cyclones can become extra-tropical and still retain winds of hurricane or tropical storm force."

The final advisory on Songda was issued at 5 a.m. EDT (0900 UTC) by the JTWC. At that time, maximum sustained winds were near 120.8 mph (105 knots/194.5 kph). Songda was far from any land areas. It was centered near 32.5 degrees north latitude and 153.8 degrees east longitude, about 770 nautical miles (886 miles/1,426 km) southeast of Misawa, Japan. Songda was speeding through the open waters of the Northwestern Pacific Ocean at 31 mph (27 knots/50 kph) and was quickly becoming extra-tropical.


</div>
<div></div>
<div>--</div>
<div></div>
<div>Credit: <a href="http://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noopener">NASA</a></div>

Typhoon Songda becoming extra-tropical

It was an eye-opening event when NASA's Aqua satellite passed...

A new study has found that African and Asian elephants are more different than previously believed. In particular, the social relationships between the elephants is dependent on the species, with African elephants exhibiting a more hierarchical structure than their Asian counterparts.

The new work by Shermin de Silva, director of the Uda Walawe Elephant Research Project; CSU Associate Professor George Wittemyer; and Volker Schmid, biologist at the University of Regensburg, contrasted the dominance interactions exhibited by adult female Asian elephants in Sri Lanka and a similarly aged group of female African savannah elephants in Kenya.

Although elephants have been historically thought to exhibit a clear matriarchal structure, this structure was not present in the Asian elephants studied, and the Asian elephants showed less than a third of the dominant behavior as the African elephants. "Female Asian elephants are a bit more like lionesses than like African savannah elephants," said de Silva, who conducted this research while a postdoctoral fellow at Colorado State University.

The team extended their analysis to include other types of social interactions, including those between young and old members of the group. In the case of the Asian elephants, the older members tended to "win" confrontations, but did not exhibit other forms of social order, unlike the African elephants.

The research group attributed these social differences to the ecological differences between the African savannah habitat and the island habitat in Sri Lanka. The cohesive matriarchal structure of the African elephants is an advantage given the sparse rainfall, distributed resources and large predators common on the savannah -- factors which increase competition between the animals. In contrast, the environments of the Asian elephants studied were safer with plentiful water and food. This results in more independence for each animal because they are less dependent on teamwork with other animals. The researchers refer to this phenomenon as an "ecological release." Based on these observations, the researchers suggested that elephants may be prone to experiencing increased conflict when confined to smaller areas, where movements are more constrained and direct competition cannot be avoided.

A James Smithson fellow at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, de Silva is founder of the conservation nonprofit Trunks &amp; Leaves Inc. Wittemyer also serves as scientific director of Save the Elephants.

---

Author:

Earth.com Staff

Asian elephants don't exhibit much dominant behavior

A new study has found that African and Asian elephants...

<div>Sand dunes pull double duty -- offering a visual treat both for their undulating curves and their ability to attract birds and other wildlife, while affording protection from storm surges and the threat of rising sea levels.</div>
<div>

But conservationists have discovered that restoring sand dunes isn't as simple as dredging sand from Gulf floor and plopping it onshore. Plants transplanted to the new dunes, an important step in stabilizing the sand, seldom thrive.

Kerri Crawford, assistant professor of biology and biochemistry at the University of Houston, has been funded by the Texas Sea Grant program -- which is supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration -- to study the coastal dune ecosystem in Galveston and along the Texas coast.

Efforts in Galveston to rebuild sand dunes along the beach have met with mixed success, as many of the native plants used in the restoration projects don't survive, said Crawford, a plant ecologist who studies diverse plant communities and who is working with the nonprofit Artist Boat on the project.

"We're looking at, is there something we can do better to promote plant growth and stabilize the dunes?" she said. "The first thing I think of is, are they missing the microbial community the plants are used to? Sand dunes are pretty hostile environments for plants, and the right microbes can help."

Sand used to rebuild dunes, generally dredged from the Gulf floor or the Houston Ship Channel, is unlikely to have the soil microbes that promote healthy plant communities, she said. Tests showed the restored dunes and beaches had low levels of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, a type of fungus found coexisting with about 80 percent of terrestrial plants, for example.

In tests conducted at the UH Coastal Center, about 30 miles south of the main campus, Crawford is using the fungus in a series of experiments, set up in 100-gallon pots of sand seeded with two species of grasses native to the Texas coast, bitter panicum and sea oats.

While the fungus often works in tandem with plants, sending out shoots to forage for nutrients in exchange for absorbing carbon produced by photosynthesis, it also can overwhelm some species. To determine what soil microbes are needed - and how those microbes can affect plant diversity - Crawford will study the impact of both arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and soil samples taken from natural plant communities in Galveston. Ultimately, they will collect soil samples and isolate and sequence the soil DNA, in addition to studying how plants perform under varying conditions.

Once the initial plant colonies are established, researchers will seed the pots with additional native plant species to determine how the addition of the microbes affects broader plant diversity.

"Maybe it helps the (original) plants and improves dune stability, but could it affect other plant species?" Crawford asked. "We hope to see that treatment leads to greater growth and stability but doesn't crowd out other species."


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="http://www.houston.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Houston</a>
<div></div>

Scientists are restoring coastal sand dunes by using microbes

Sand dunes pull double duty -- offering a visual treat...

<div></div>
<div>

Scientists at the University of Bristol are working with the energy industry to develop an 'early warning tool' to predict the sudden, en masse appearance of jellyfish swarms which can cause serious problems by clogging the water intakes of coastal power plants.

The reduction in cooling water caused by these 'swarms' means coastal power plants have, on occasion, had to run at reduced efficiency or temporarily shut down as a precautionary measure.

This can have an impact on the provision of electricity to customers and incur a significant cost to the supplier.

A persistent difficulty lies in identifying the origin of swarms, or blooms, and predicting when they will impact coastal sites.

The University of Bristol team, led by Drs Sally Wood and Erica Hendy from the School of Earth Sciences, will be developing their ideas by working with EDF Energy at its Torness power station.

Torness supplies around a third of Scotland's electricity and was offline for a week in June 2011 following a precautionary shutdown of both reactors after a blockage of cooling filters caused by a swarm of moon jellyfish.

Dr Sally Wood, said: "The aim of the project is to develop a robust tool for the rapid evaluation of the likelihood and scale of jellyfish ingress at Torness based on simulated patterns of historic bloom dispersal within the North Sea from the last 20 years.

"To achieve this we will be translating previous research using a state-of-the-art marine dispersal modelling system to simulate the transport of jellyfish blooms by ocean currents, incorporating specific biological behaviours of jellyfish."

The project, which has been funded by the National Environment Research Council (NERC) and EDF Energy, has two objectives:
<ul>
 	<li>Provide gridded maps, specific to the time of year or oceanographic conditions, giving the probability that a bloom arising at any source location within the North Sea will be transported within the vicinity of Torness, as well as minimum and peak arrival times.</li>
 	<li>Test the suitability of the tool for providing an early warning of potential ingress threat from jellyfish blooms at other locations, including validation with historic and satellite-based observational data.</li>
</ul>
Dr Erica Hendy added: "We hope that this tool will allow rapid risk evaluation and inform any potential operational response by EDF when a jellyfish blooms is located in the future.

"The tool will also identify locations in the North Sea where ongoing monitoring is essential for an early warning system for Torness power station.

"The methodology we will be using is deliberately generic to allow adaptation to other sensitive coastal sites and we have already received support from other organisations that can be affected by jellyfish blooms such as the farmed salmon industry."

Pietro Bernardara, from EDF Energy R&amp;D UK centre, said: "Jellyfish swarms are an occasional but challenging issue for our power stations. They can have an impact on the amount of electricity we are able to supply to consumers and can cost the business money.

"That is why EDF Energy's R&amp;D and Torness power station teams are pleased to be working with the University of Bristol to develop a tool that will allow us to continue delivering, safe, secure and responsible nuclear electricity."

Professor Rich Pancost, Director of the University of Bristol's interdisciplinary Cabot Institute, under which the project falls, said:

"We are very excited by the potential of this project. The approach the team are using was developed in order to study the dispersal of coral larvae and help us understand the future of our coral reefs. Now it is being adapting to solve a very different challenge.

"The University's collaborations make a real contribution to society but they also help our science evolve - and I have no doubt that new applications will be discovered as the project progresses."


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="http://www.bris.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Bristol</a>
<div></div>

Jellyfish cause serious problems at coastal power plants

Scientists at the University of Bristol are working with the...

<div>Rice University scientists are leading an effort to detect genetically modified organisms -- GMOs -- in the environment.</div>
<div>

With federal support, researchers led by Rice's Scott Egan, an assistant professor of biosciences, are building tools to detect, quantify and track the dispersal of genetically engineered crops and animals and their byproducts.

The technology being developed over five years will allow researchers to sample water from the environment and analyze it for the presence of DNA or proteins from organisms that have been engineered for specific purposes but may have unintended consequences.

"Bt-corn is a good example," Egan said. "This genetically modified corn has a gene from bacteria that kills some of the herbivorous insects that attack it. It's a wonderful invention that lets us produce more corn per unit area.

"But then that corn and the detritus -- the leaves, stems and roots -- get into the creek system. And lo and behold, a very close relative to the herbivores that attack the corn is the caddisfly, which lives within the aquatic system." Caddisflies are a critical member of aquatic ecosystems, Egan said, and negative impacts to the species could cascade throughout the aquatic environment. He noted a study had already found Bt proteins from Bt-corn distributed throughout aquatic systems in a county in Indiana.

"That's the spirit behind the grant," he said. "We have these wonderful (genetic) technologies but we should also have the tools to detect them if they get outside their intended ranges."

The project is not specific to any genetically altered crop or species, Egan said. "It's meant as a tool that can be used in any situation to detect and quantify, and get that information back to the stakeholders in the field or Department of Natural Resources folks who care about whether certain chemicals are floating around."

The technology is being developed with consecutive grants totaling about $1 million from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture, funneled through its Biotechnology Risk Assessment Research Grants. The funding has made possible an ambitious plan to outline where and how genetically modified organisms could impact nature.

Egan's multidisciplinary team includes physicists, biogeochemists, eco-hydrologists and engineers at Rice, Notre Dame and Purdue universities and the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies in New York.

Having developed and tested a light transmission spectrometer (LTS) to find signs of genetically modified DNA in the wild, the collaborators will now refine it to not only find signs of proteins related to genetically engineered organisms but also to quantify them.

"Think of LTS like a printer," Egan said. "Our Notre Dame physics collaborators made it, and our adaptation is like a printer cartridge. Neither would work alone, but the adaptation of their technology allows us to detect species. By itself, LTS just measures small things, and that might have other applications in industry."

Egan, who grew up in Texas and joined Rice in 2013, considers this part of his work ecological forensics and thinks of the portable LTS as the ecologist's equivalent of a "Star Trek" tricorder.

"The tricorder inspired what we're trying to do," Egan said.

He said the LTS will bind nanoparticles to target DNA or antibodies to proteins from genetically modified organisms. Upon binding, Egan said, the targets become big enough for detection and quantification.

"We have nanoparticle physicists in the field who don't do biology but deal with the way in which light is absorbed and fragmented and scattered at the nanoscale," he said. "They can interpret that information to measure things at very small scales."

The researchers hope to detect ever smaller amounts of genetic material from plant and animal detritus. "Right now, LTS requires about 50 copies of the target DNA per milliliter of water, which is pretty high," Egan said. "Lab-based qPCR works at about three copies per mil. That's something we're working toward." QPCR stands for quantitative polymerase chain reaction, a method to monitor the amplification of a targeted DNA molecule.

Initial tests of LTS will take place in controlled environments, he said. "First, in the lab, we'll test microcosms in baby pools or cattle tanks. Second, we'll work at three awesome field-like experimental setups, where we can scale up ecological capacity. One is the Cary Institute, which has replicated synthetic streams in a giant greenhouse. We'll add some complexity, change the substrate from tiny gravel to large gravel, add biofilm, things like that.

"We'll also explore this at a truly outdoor experimental system called ND-LEEF (the Notre Dame Linked Experimental Ecosystem Facility), which has flow-through systems with a creek running into a pond running into a wetland. We can release water that was in contact with a genetically modified organism that would have its DNA or proteins to test for their presence.

"Third, we'll test at the flume flow-through at the hydrodynamics lab at Purdue, where they divert part of a river through the lab, and we can explore particle flow and how to detect them. Then we will literally go out in the field for verification," Egan said.

In the future, Egan said LTS technology may be of interest to space scientists who look for the origins of life. "We should be grinding into the center of meteorites and trying to detect very low concentrations of DNA," he said.


--</div>
<div></div>
<div>Credit: <a href="http://www.rice.edu" target="_blank">Rice University</a></div>

New device will hunt GMOs that escape into the environment

Rice University scientists are leading an effort to detect genetically...

<div>Scientists at Imperial College London have discovered a feedback mechanism at the heart of photosynthesis that protects plants from damage by light.</div>
<div>

The researchers have discovered that the key enzyme in photosynthesis can tune its activity to avoid being damaged by light and oxygen.

Knowing how photosynthesis is regulated and protected could allow scientists to improve the process, potentially making agriculture and food production more efficient.

For example, understanding how this regulatory mechanism works could help researchers to identify the factors that are beneficial for plant growth and to define how to adjust these in order to optimise growth in controlled cultivation.

Photosystem II, the central enzyme in photosynthesis, uses solar energy to remove electrons from water. The electrons are used to fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, creating a form of carbon that constitutes the fuel and building blocks for life. Photosystem II changed the planet by putting most of the energy into the biosphere and all of the oxygen into the atmosphere.

When leaves close their pores to prevent water loss, this also prevents air exchange so that carbon dioxide cannot enter the system. As the carbon dioxide inside the leaf is used up, the electrons have nothing left to react with and so they build up.

Although carbon dioxide is not entering the system, light still is, generating excess electrons. As the electrons have nowhere to go, they instead engage in 'back-reactions' that form a 'killer molecule' called singlet oxygen. This killer molecule can damage the photosystem II enzyme.

Now, by using a technique called spectro-electrochemistry, researchers have discovered a mechanism that protects the enzyme from this damage. The trapped electrons trigger the release of a bicarbonate molecule from the enzyme, which was previously thought to be constantly bound to it.

The new study, published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows that this bicarbonate release not only slows down the water-splitting reaction but crucially also protects the enzyme from light damage due to the harmful back-reactions.

Bicarbonate is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water, so its concentration is related to the amount of carbon dioxide in the local environment. As well as low carbon dioxide levels causing electrons to build up and trigger the release of bicarbonate, the study also suggests the possibility that the level of carbon dioxide itself in the local leaf environment could impact on the bicarbonate binding.

"This is such an intuitive feedback mechanism at the heart of biology that I think it will go into school textbooks," said lead author, Professor Bill Rutherford FRS from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial.

"Now that we understand this new mechanism in the lab, the next step is to define when it kicks in out there in the field - not to mention the forest, greenhouse, plant pot, sea, lake and pond."

Dr Andrea Fantuzzi, co-lead author also from the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial, added: "The role of bicarbonate has long been a mystery. Otto Warburg, Nobel laureate, friend of Einstein and one of the twentieth century's leading biochemists, puzzled over this problem in the 1950s.

"Now the mystery is solved and a new regulatory mechanism defined. Not only is the question solved, but it could have real implications for understanding limitations to plant growth."


</div>
--

Credit: <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Imperial College London</a>
<div></div>

Plants have a mechanism that protects them from damage by light

Scientists at Imperial College London have discovered a feedback mechanism...

In 2010, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano -- its crater covered by glacier ice -- erupted, spewing clouds of ash that led to delays in flights to and from Europe. Now Katla, another Iceland volcano, is rumbling. To mark Earth Science Week, Oct. 9-15, 2016, the National Science Foundation (NSF) spoke with geologist Benjamin Edwards of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pa., and Sonia Esperanca, a volcanologist and program director in NSF's Division of Earth Sciences, about Eyjafjallajökull and other volcanoes hidden under glaciers. NSF's Division of Earth Sciences supports Edwards' research.

Q: How often do volcanoes covered by snow and ice erupt?

Esperanca: Volcanoes at high latitudes on continents are often covered by ice and snow, sometimes through the summer months. Volcanologists are always concerned when a volcano beneath a glacier becomes active. When scalding-hot lava melts vast amounts of ice and snow, for example, severe mudflows may result.

Q: Is Eyjafjallajökull Iceland's only glacier-covered volcano?

Edwards: Iceland has many glacierized volcanoes [volcanoes at least partly covered by ice], including the recent earthquake-rattled Katla, Grímsvötn, Bárðarbunga and others. However, even Iceland's ice-free volcanoes like Hekla can have ash-rich eruptions. The key to knowing where ash will go during an Iceland eruption is to follow the Northern Hemisphere jet streams. Sometimes, they flow across Iceland and head into the Arctic, where much of the ash falls into the ocean; at other times they can quickly whisk the ash into northern Europe.

Q: Did lava from the 2010 eruption flow beneath the glacier's ice?

Edwards: Yes, a lava flow traveled down the Gigjökull glacier, which covers Eyjafjallajökull. In part, the lava followed pathways left by floods that melted ice at the beginning of the eruption. Other lava flows twisted and turned along pre-existing drainage tunnels beneath the ice. We found lava in these passageways when we first visited the eruption site in 2011. Since then, the roofs of most of these ice tunnels have completely melted.

[caption id="attachment_88956" align="alignleft" width="150"]<img class="size-thumbnail wp-image-88956" src="http://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Gigjökull-glacier_1big_NSF-150x150.jpg" alt="Gigjökull glacier" width="150" height="150" /> Gigjökull glacier[/caption]

Q: Is this the first time under-ice lava has been observed?

Edwards: Although this isn't the first time lava has traveled beneath ice at a modern-day volcanic eruption, these ice-lava deposits are probably the best documented. Our team made several flights over the eruption site during and immediately afterward. While the lava was flowing, however, the area was too dangerous for close observations.

Q: Does under-ice lava create special hazards for people living downstream?

Edwards: It can. Our work shows that ice-melting increased from lava traveling beneath the glacier. The rate of melting depends on how fast the lava is flowing and how much ice comes into contact with it, or is close enough to be affected by the lava's heat. Explosive glaciovolcanic eruptions usually produce the most rapid ice-melting.

Q: The process of lava flowing under ice must create beautiful, if ephemeral, structures in a glacier. Did you see tunnels, arches and other formations?

Edwards: We observed lots of arches in the ice in 2011, but these were mostly gone by 2012. Overall the response of Gigjökull glacier to the eruption was mixed. A canyon carved in the upper part of the glacier had "healed itself" by 2012. However, the damage to the lower part of the glacier seems to have been severe enough that, coupled with melting due to climate change, the end of the glacier lost about half its width. It doesn't seem like it's going to recover, based on views in 2014.

Q: Does ice "cool" burning-hot lava?

Edwards: Theoretically, lava can melt about five to ten times its own volume of ice -- if all the heat from the lava, which could be 1,200 degrees Celsius [about 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit], melts the ice. But nature generally is not that efficient, in part because meltwater can quickly carry heat away from the lava-ice interface. Also, because about 20 percent of the potential heat released by the lava comes from crystals that grow inside the lava, quickly turning it into glass, some of the potential heat is lost.

Q: Can new snowfall "rebuild" a glacier that has lost ice to an eruption?

Edwards: Yes, depending on how badly the ice was damaged and how much snow falls. At Veniaminof Volcano in Alaska, lava flows come out of a cone that sits above a caldera filled with ice. The flows melt into the ice for 30 to 50 meters [98 to 164 feet], but after one or two years are again covered by ice and snow. At Gigjökull in Iceland, part of the glacier seemed to recover very quickly, and other parts seem to have been damaged beyond repair.

Q: Is there anywhere else on Earth such glacier-volcanoes exist and have erupted, or might in the near future?

Edwards: Our work shows that at least 180 volcanoes around the globe have glaciers that have been mapped to within 1 kilometer [about two-thirds of a mile] of a known volcanic vent. More than 400 may be within striking distance: a 5 kilometer [3.1 mile] radius of damage from volcanic ash or lava flows.

Q: Can Iceland residents and visitors get close enough to the Eyjafjallajökull glacier-volcano to see the effects of the 2010 eruption?

Edwards: Yes, anyone can take a bus or a four-wheel drive vehicle to the base of the Gigjökull glacier, with its now-empty lake basin that once contained a glacial lagoon. If you look carefully, you can just see the end of the lava flow.

Eyjafjallajökull volcano: The dangerous volcano beneath a glacier

In 2010, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano -- its crater covered by...

Today's supercapacitors, energy storage devices capable of quickly delivering a large charge, feature carbon-derived components -- the production of which requires harsh chemicals and large amounts of energy.

Recently, scientists at MIT built a supercapacitor without carbon. In place of carbon, scientists deployed metal-organic frameworks, or MOFs.

"We've found an entirely new class of materials for supercapacitors," Mircea Dincă, an MIT associate professor of chemistry, told MIT News.

MOFs are porous, sponge-like materials with a lot of surface area -- an important quality for supercapacitor materials. Unfortunately, MOFs aren't all that conductive, another important quality.

"One of our long-term goals was to make these materials electrically conductive," Dincă said.

It's a goal some scientists thought was impossible.

Though MOFs don't conduct electricity very well, they do conduct ions, positively charged atoms and molecules. Ion conductivity is a key component of high-functioning electrode. The quality gave researchers hope that an MOF could be used in supercapacitors.

Through trial and error, researchers were able to develop an electrically conductive MOF using nickel.

When researchers made a supercapacitor using the novel material, they matched the performance of today's best carbon-based supercapacitors. In some respects -- like its ability to withstand many charge-discharge cycles -- it outperformed commercial supercapacitors.

Though the production of MOFs currently requires the use of rather expensive materials, the production process involves fewer toxic chemicals.

Researchers hope their findings -- detailed in the journal Nature Materials -- are just the beginning. The MOF used by Dincă and his research partners boasts one of the smaller surface areas of the class. New and improved MOFs could offer even greater capacity.

---

Credit: MIT/UPI

Scientists create carbon-free supercapacitor

Today's supercapacitors, energy storage devices capable of quickly delivering a...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...