Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered.



This fossil find from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaurs-the-basics">Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics</h2>



These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. 



Unlike birds or bats, pterosaurs had a unique wing structure formed by a membrane of skin and muscle that stretched from an elongated fourth finger to their body. This created a lightweight and flexible flying apparatus that allowed them to soar and glide.



Different pterosaur species came in an astonishing range of sizes, from tiny creatures the size of sparrows to massive pterosaurs with wingspans around 33 feet wide. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny &quot;flaplings&quot; no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954862"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny "flaplings" no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Some had long, spear-like beaks perfect for fishing, while others sported elaborate head crests that might have been used for display, communication, or even temperature regulation. 



Their bones were incredibly lightweight and hollow, similar to modern bird bones, which helped them achieve flight with minimal energy expenditure.



Pterosaurs were incredibly successful and adaptable creatures that survived for an impressive 160 million years before finally going extinct along with the dinosaurs during the catastrophic asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period. 



Their fossils have been discovered on every continent, revealing that they occupied diverse environments from coastal regions to inland areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-pterosaur-discovery">First pterosaur discovery</h2>



Almost 250 years ago, a fossil unearthed in a Bavarian quarry introduced the world to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-new-species-named-abfab-had-wings-wide-as-car/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a>. 



This fossil, named&nbsp;Pterodactylus, offered the first glimpse into the Mesozoic skies, where these creatures soared above the dinosaurs.



Though the first specimen was modest in size - comparable to a turtle dove - it revolutionized our understanding of prehistoric life and showcased the extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flying reptiles</a>.



Over time, however,&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;faded from public attention, overshadowed by its larger and flashier relatives, such as&nbsp;Pteranodon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus. 



Yet, among scientists,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus genus remained a vital subject of study that played a central role in shaping our understanding of pterosaur anatomy, flight, diet, and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-pterodactylus-family">Finding Pterodactylus family</h2>



Despite its significance, confusion has long surrounded&nbsp;Pterodactylus. 



Fossils attributed to this genus were often mixed with other species, making it challenging to determine which truly belonged to&nbsp;Pterodactylus. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ambiguity</a> persisted for centuries - until now.



Using UV fluorescence, paleontologists Robert Smyth and Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> conducted a meticulous analysis of&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils housed in museums across Europe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954860"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



By shining powerful UV light on fossilized bones, they illuminated previously invisible features that distinguish the&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;family from other pterosaurs. Their work revealed dozens of misclassified fossils, including over 40 specimens that were reidentified as&nbsp;Pterodactylus.



“By examining lots of fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to reidentify more than forty specimens as&nbsp;Pterodactylus,” said lead author Robert Smyth. 



“UV stimulated fluorescence is astonishing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden were glowing in plain sight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-face-of-nbsp-pterodactylus">New face of&nbsp;Pterodactylus</h2>



This discovery has profoundly altered the scientific understanding of&nbsp;the genus Pterodactylus. Previously thought to be a rare find, nearly 50 specimens have now been confirmed.



This expanded collection allows researchers to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pivotal pterosaur</a>. 



Remarkably, soft tissues are preserved in over 20 of the specimens, which provides unprecedented insights into a range of features.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954857"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



“We can now construct a complete and highly detailed skeletal anatomy for this key pterosaur,” explained co-author Dr. Dave Unwin. “Soft tissues are fossilised in more than twenty examples so we can also reconstruct head crests, body shape, foot webs, and even the wings.”



The result is akin to a family portrait, showcasing Pterodactylus at every stage of its life. The smallest hatchlings, endearingly called “flaplings,” were robin-sized. 



These grew into “teenage” forms before reaching adulthood, where they boasted raven-sized bodies and wingspans of up to ten times their body length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-technique">A revolutionary technique</h2>



The study highlights the transformative potential of UV fluorescence in paleontology. 



While the technique is well-known, the combination of advanced light sources and a systematic approach has yielded groundbreaking results in this case.



“UV stimulated fluorescence is a well-known technique,” Dr. Unwin noted. 



“But the difference in this case is that we have been able to combine new, high-quality light sources with a systematic "catch-all" approach, and it's going to have a revolutionary impact on our understanding of pterosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterodactylus-family-and-future-study">Pterodactylus family and future study</h2>



This discovery not only redefines&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;but also highlights the value of revisiting and reexamining existing collections of fossils.



With nearly 50 examples now identified, researchers have an unprecedented opportunity to explore the life history of one of the most important pterosaurs. 



From its early days as a tiny flapling to its commanding presence in the skies,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils provide a vivid window into the Mesozoic era.



As families come together this festive season, paleontologists celebrate their own remarkable reunion - a long-lost family, brought back to light after 150 million years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



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Pterodactylus: New pterosaur family members discovered that lived 150 million years ago

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered. This fossil find from the University of Leicester allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood. Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic...

Could the decades-long mystery of unusual star movements in Omega Centauri, the largest star cluster in the Milky Way, finally be solved?



Located in the constellation Centaurus, Omega Centauri is a massive cluster containing nearly ten million stars. Astronomers have long puzzled over the unexpected high velocities of stars near its center. 



The debate centers on whether these movements are caused by an “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermediate-mass-black-holes-survive-and-thrive-in-giant-star-clusters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intermediate-mass black hole</a>” (IMBH), weighing around 100,000 times the mass of the Sun, or a cluster of smaller “stellar-mass” black holes, each just a few times the Sun's mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cluster-or-a-singular-giant">A cluster or a singular giant?</h2>



Astronomers have theorized that Omega Centauri’s center might host a cluster of black holes, naturally forming through stellar evolution. 



However, experts also speculated that most of these black holes would have been ejected over time due to gravitational interactions with other stars, which made the presence of a single intermediate-mass black hole more plausible.



The case for an IMBH gained further strength when new evidence suggested that certain fast-moving stars near the cluster's center could only achieve such speeds through interactions with a massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-speed-stars-reveal-hidden-black-hole-in-omega-centauri/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-supermassive-black-holes">Formation of supermassive black holes</h2>



IMBHs are particularly intriguing to astronomers as they might represent a missing link between stellar-mass black holes and supermassive black holes.&nbsp;



Stellar-mass black holes form when massive stars collapse, while supermassive black holes - millions to billions of times the Sun's mass - dominate the centers of large galaxies. 



Understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> form - possibly starting as IMBHs - remains one of astronomy's greatest mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-velocities-in-omega-centauri">Star velocities in Omega Centauri</h2>



In a fresh approach to this enigma, researchers from the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a>, the <a href="https://www.iac.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias</a> (IAC, Spain), and the Annecy-le-Vieux Laboratoire de Physique Théorique (France) examined the anomalous star velocities in Omega Centauri using a new type of data: pulsar accelerations.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pulsars</a> are remnants of dying stars, typically weighing up to twice the Sun’s mass but only about 20 kilometers in diameter. Spinning up to 700 times per second, they emit radio waves in a lighthouse-like pattern that sweeps past Earth.&nbsp;



Acting as natural, highly precise clocks, pulsars allow scientists to measure their accelerations and, in turn, the gravitational forces acting on them.



For the first time, the team combined pulsar acceleration measurements with data on star velocities. This innovative approach enabled them to probe the gravitational field at the cluster’s center and differentiate between the effects of an IMBH and a cluster of stellar-mass black holes.&nbsp;



The results leaned toward the latter explanation: a cluster of smaller black holes rather than a single IMBH.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hunt-for-intermediate-mass-black-holes">The hunt for intermediate-mass black holes </h2>



“The hunt for elusive intermediate-mass black holes continues. There could still be one at the center of Omega Centauri, but our work suggests that it must be less than about six thousand times the mass of the Sun and live alongside a cluster of stellar-mass black holes,” noted study co-author Justin Read, an astronomer at the University of Surrey. 



“There is, however, every chance of us finding one soon. More and more pulsar accelerations are coming, allowing us to peer into the centers of dense star clusters and hunt for black holes more precisely than ever before.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-studying-omega-centauri">Significance of studying Omega Centauri </h2>



Study lead author Andrés Bañares Hernández, an astronomer at IAC, noted that we have long known about supermassive black holes at galaxy centers and smaller stellar-mass black holes within our own galaxy.&nbsp;



“However, the idea of intermediate-mass black holes, which could bridge the gap between these extremes, remains unproven,” said Hernández.



“By studying Omega Centauri - a remnant of a dwarf galaxy - we have been able to refine our methods and take a step forward in understanding whether such black holes exist and what role they might play in the evolution of star clusters and galaxies." 



"This work helps resolve a two-decade-long debate and opens new doors for future exploration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulsars-a-key-to-further-discoveries">Pulsars: A key to further discoveries</h2>



The researchers also highlighted Omega Centauri as a prime environment for studying the formation and behavior of pulsars, given the cluster’s density and gravitational complexity.&nbsp;



The recent discovery of numerous pulsars within Omega Centauri has provided new opportunities to investigate their origins.



“The formation of pulsars is also an active field of study because a large number of them have recently been detected. Omega Centauri is an ideal environment to study models of their formation, which we have been able to do for the first time in our analysis," Hernández noted.



While the mystery of an IMBH in Omega Centauri remains unresolved, this study represents a significant step forward.&nbsp;



The new data and techniques for analyzing gravitational fields and pulsar accelerations could soon reveal whether intermediate-mass black holes exist and, if so, what role they play in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>’s cosmic architecture.



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Mysterious star movement in Omega Centauri may finally be explained

Could the decades-long mystery of unusual star movements in Omega...

Humpback,Whale,Breaching.,Humpback,Whale,Jumping,Out,Of,The,Water.

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel distances, often covering thousands of miles between feeding and breeding areas. 



Scientists recently recorded an adult male humpback whale making an unexpected journey from South America to Africa, traveling more than 8,106 miles (13,046 kilometers). 



This new finding suggests there is still much to learn about how whales spread across oceans, especially in the Southern Hemisphere.



“These animals are distinct individuals, and they’ll do surprising things. These oceans are very much connected spaces, and whales travel beyond borders," enthused Ted Cheeseman, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-journey">Record-breaking journey</h2>



A new study detailed this whale’s journey as the longest migration ever recorded for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a single whale</a>. The trek also marked the first time researchers documented an adult male humpback traveling between the Pacific and Indian oceans. 



The whale was first spotted off the coast of Colombia in 2013 and seen again near that area a few years later. But in 2022, it turned up near Zanzibar, off the coast of East Africa. 



Researchers noted that the typical migration route can exceed 4,971 miles (8,000 kilometers) one way, and this whale’s path was close to twice that distance, according to the study published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-behavior">Humpback whale travel behavior</h2>



Scientists say this unexpected movement sheds light on how adaptable humpbacks can be. They say that global data are needed to better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understand whale behavior</a>. 



Such large-scale research could show how whales respond to environmental changes and whether factors like shifting ocean temperatures or reduced food availability push them to seek new territories. 



The whale’s travel between distinct breeding grounds highlights that humpbacks, while often returning to the same places, are not completely predictable. 



“Our dogmatic thinking is that (whales) always go to the place where they came from,” said Ari Friedlaender, professor of ocean sciences at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, who was not involved in the study. 



“But there has to be some movement where you get some (animal) explorers that decide, for whatever reason, to follow a different path," Friedlaender told CNN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-unique-individual">Tracking a unique individual</h2>



Humpbacks exist in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans all over the world</a> and are known for covering huge distances. This whale’s journey stands out because it involved switching between two separate breeding areas. 



Males often travel widely when competing for mates, and scientists note that these movements may depend on shifting conditions. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1s.webp" alt="The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K." class="wp-image-1953566"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K. </figcaption></figure>



They tracked the whale using a platform called <a href="https://happywhale.com/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Happy Whale</a>, which Cheeseman cofounded. It lets citizen scientists, researchers, and whale watchers share their whale photos, helping experts identify whales by the unique underside of their tails. 



“When (whales) dive, they lift their tails, and anyone taking a picture of their tail can record the identity of the animal,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-patterns-in-a-changing-world">Changing patterns in a changing world</h2>



Humpbacks generally show strong loyalty to their breeding sites, though occasional shifts happen. 



Researchers do not fully understand why whales change their breeding locations, but they see that males and females can both move between different spots. 



Scientists think that environmental conditions, competition, and mate availability may influence these changes. Instead of repeating their old routes, some whales may strike out in new directions. 



Cheeseman explained that the whale in this study may have left Colombia due to competition with other males for mates or because of food scarcity, noting that these conditions might push whales to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-perform-full-body-scrubs-on-their-return-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">explore new waters</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



In the 20th century, whaling in the Indian Ocean killed nearly 95% to 99% of the humpback population there, according to Cheeseman. 



That leaves many questions unanswered about their current habits. Researchers say that understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humpback behavior</a> is like observing a classroom full of youngsters without many older individuals around. 



“We’re looking at their behavior like going into a kindergarten classroom,” Cheeseman said. “There’s maybe one adult, someone who’s middle-aged and a whole bunch of children.” 



These shifting demographics mean whales are making new cultural patterns, and unexpected movements could shape how these creatures interact with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-humpback-whale-travel">Documenting humpback whale travel</h2>



Since the 1970s, whale watchers and scientists have used tail photography to identify individuals. Platforms like Happy Whale now let many people submit images, broadening the amount of information available. 



Cheeseman noted that the database currently includes around 109,000 individual whales. The increased collaboration encourages more inclusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-fail-to-respond-to-vessel-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research projects worldwide</a>. 



“(Happy Whale) is going to bring more opportunity for sharing and networking to make our global research partnerships more inclusive,” Friedlaender said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-futures-and-new-connections">Uncertain futures and new connections</h2>



This whale’s travel outside its usual breeding pattern raises questions about acceptance in its new location. Changes in travel routes may mean whales encounter different populations. 



As these movements occur, whales could begin mixing genes and behaviors, influencing how future generations migrate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-felt-less-stressed-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choose their homes</a>. 



Cheeseman said that new sightings will provide more clues. “With every photograph we receive we’re looking for every whale we know,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-creates-communities">Humpback whale travel creates communities</h2>



The Indian Ocean now holds younger populations of humpbacks trying to find their way. Some may follow old patterns, while others search for new possibilities. 



In addition, shifts in migration might change social bonds and behaviors.



“These different paths can connect populations that we otherwise would never think would be in touch with each other to share information and genes that make these populations into more of a global community," Friedlaender concluded.



No one can say when or where this whale will appear next, but future sightings and photographs may deepen our understanding. The world’s oceans hold many secrets about how humpbacks live, move, and interact. 



As more data come to light, researchers and regular folks can pool their knowledge, helping piece together how whales adapt to changing waters and shifting relationships.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241361" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Humpback whale travels farther than any mammal ever recorded

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel...

Have you ever wondered how our brain stores memories? For two decades, it has been acknowledged that electrical waves in our brains during deep sleep have a crucial role in memory formation. However, the details of this process have remained a mystery. 



Following an extensive study, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.charite.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin</a> has proposed a compelling explanation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sleep-and-memory-formation">Deep sleep and memory formation </h2>



How do memories become permanent? Most experts agree that while we are immersed in the land of dreams, our brains have a quick recap of the day's happenings. Here's how it works.



The short-term memory info in the hippocampus is transferred to the long-term memory in the neocortex. 



The unsung heroes of this operation are "slow waves." These are slow, synchronous oscillations of electrical voltage in the cortex that occur during our deepest sleep phase.



"We’ve known for many years that these slow waves contribute to the formation of memory. When slow-wave sleep is artificially augmented from outside, memory improves," explained Professor Jörg Geiger.



But there's been a lingering question - what exactly is happening inside our heads when this process occurs?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-waves-and-brain-connectivity">Slow waves and brain connectivity </h2>



"Synaptic mechanisms that contribute to human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory consolidation</a> remain largely unexplored. Consolidation critically relies on sleep," noted the researchers.



"During slow wave sleep, neurons exhibit characteristic membrane potential oscillations known as UP and DOWN states. Coupling of memory reactivation to these slow oscillations promotes consolidation, though the underlying mechanisms remain elusive."



To put it simply, these slow electrical waves influence the strength of synaptic connections between the neurons in the neocortex, and thus their receptivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-mechanisms-of-memory-formation">Mysterious mechanisms of memory formation </h2>



With the use of unique, intact human brain tissue, the team has been able to uncover some of the processes that are linked to memory formation during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-improves-memory-formation-and-recall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep sleep</a>.



The study was focused on tissue samples from 45 patients who had undergone treatment for epilepsy or a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-antidepressants-could-help-treat-brain-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain tumor</a> at Charité, the Evangelisches Klinikum Bethel (EvKB) hospital, or the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE).



The experts managed to simulate the voltage fluctuations of slow waves during deep sleep in this tissue, then gauged the response of the nerve cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-timing-of-long-term-memory-storage">The timing of long-term memory storage</h2>



The researchers discovered that synaptic connections between neurons in the neocortex peak at a very specific moment during the voltage fluctuations. They found that the synapses function most efficiently right after the voltage swings from low to high.



"During that brief time window, the cortex can be thought of as having been placed in a state of elevated readiness. If the brain plays back a memory at exactly this time, it is transferred to long-term memory especially effectively,” explained Franz Xaver Mittermaier, lead author of the study.



Worldwide, research groups are exploring ways to use electrical impulses or auditory signals to influence slow waves during sleep. Current stimulation approaches are optimized through the trial-and-error method, which is time-consuming and laborious.



This new understanding of the "perfect timing" could aid in devising methods to boost memory formation more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-memory-through-sleep">Enhancing memory through sleep</h2>



The insights from this study open the door to new applications for memory enhancement. By understanding the exact timing when synaptic connections are most effective, researchers can refine techniques to influence slow-wave activity.



This could revolutionize treatments for memory-related conditions, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-why-some-brains-resist-alzheimers-disease-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a> or age-related cognitive decline.



Beyond clinical applications, optimizing memory during sleep could benefit learning and performance, offering new possibilities for education and skill acquisition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-the-findings">Broader applications of the findings</h2>



The findings of this research extend beyond memory formation and cognitive impairment. By deepening our understanding of how the brain operates during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, scientists can explore innovative applications in various fields.



For instance, optimizing sleep-related brain activity could aid in treating sleep disorders or managing stress-related conditions. 



Additionally, this knowledge might inspire advances in technology, such as brain-computer interfaces designed to enhance cognitive performance. The findings may even lead to memory retention training programs that are tailored to individual sleep patterns.



Ultimately, the potential to harness the power of deep sleep could transform how we approach mental health and neurological well-being.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53901-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Experts pinpoint the exact timing of memory formation during sleep

Have you ever wondered how our brain stores memories? For...

Deep meditative states are often described as “pure consciousness experiences,” where individuals feel alert but do not perceive anything other than “awareness itself.” These states of meditation are frequently characterized as "timeless," with no sense of past, future, or any other temporal features. 



Yet, a paradox emerges: if one is consciously aware and alert, wouldn’t one also be aware of the passage of time? Can these profound meditative states genuinely be devoid of any temporal dimension?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-timeless-meditation">Understanding timeless meditation</h2>



In an article published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pq/pqae081" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Philosophical Quarterly</a>, Professor Akiko Frischhut from <a href="https://www.sophia.ac.jp/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sophia University</a> in Japan examines this intriguing contradiction.



“My paper aims to give a coherent conceptualization of deep meditative states, focusing in particular on phenomenal temporality during meditation,” she explained. 



“The central question is whether it is possible to have an experience that is completely timeless, without any temporal feature whatsoever.”



Thomas Metzinger, a prominent philosopher, has argued that first-person accounts of deep meditation from diverse cultures and eras consistently describe these states in strikingly similar terms. 



A common theme is that such states of meditation feel both “completely timeless” and “continuously ongoing.”



However, if something is described as “ongoing,” it implies the presence of duration, meaning that it cannot be entirely timeless. 



This contradiction forms the basis of Frischhut’s investigation. She argues that deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meditative states</a> must inherently involve at least one minimal temporal quality: duration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeless-meditation-no-beginning-or-end">Timeless meditation: No beginning or end</h2>



To resolve this paradox, Frischhut introduces the “Extended Now Interpretation (ENI).” This concept identifies a critical ambiguity in the term “timeless.”&nbsp;



While some use the word to mean entirely devoid of any temporal features, others apply it to describe a state with an indeterminate duration that lacks specific temporal structures such as change, order, succession, beginning, or end.&nbsp;



Meditators may describe their experience as “timeless” because they perceive no temporal structure, even though they experience a sense of ongoing duration.



Frischhut’s argument suggests that deep meditative states occur within what can be described as an extended present. 



During these states, meditators perceive no change or progression of moments, yet they are immersed in an experience with duration. 



According to the ENI, “timelessness” refers not to the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a> entirely but rather to the absence of any discernible temporal framework within the experienced duration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alertness-in-deep-meditative-states">Alertness in deep meditative states</h2>



Frischhut delves deeper into the role of sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-light-instantly-enhances-brain-function-alertness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alertness</a> in providing meditators with an implicit awareness of duration, even in the absence of explicit temporal markers.&nbsp;



This form of alertness, found in deep meditative states, can be thought of as a poised state of attention. Over time, meditators either maintain this alert state or slip into less attentive conditions.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/meditation_awareness_time-perception_graphic_credit-Sophia-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/meditation_awareness_time-perception_graphic_credit-Sophia-University_1s.webp" alt="In this study, a researcher from Sophia University presents an in-depth analysis of how and why deep meditative states are often described as &quot;atemporal&quot; or &quot;timeless.&quot; Credit: Akiko Frischhut from Sophia University, Japan" class="wp-image-1953771"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In this study, a researcher from Sophia University presents an in-depth analysis of how and why deep meditative states are often described as "atemporal" or "timeless." Credit: Akiko Frischhut from Sophia University, Japan</figcaption></figure>



The choice to remain alert -- or the potential to lose alertness -- provides a subtle sense of time’s passage, Frischhut argues. This awareness does not require meditators to consciously track successive moments. 



Instead, the very act of maintaining attention creates an awareness of duration, even without recognizing the progression of one moment to the next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-lack-of-memory">Addressing the lack of memory</h2>



A significant challenge to Frischhut’s argument lies in the fact that meditators often report an absence of memory during these deep states.&nbsp;



Without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/">memory</a>, how can one perceive any sense of time? To address this, Frischhut posits that the experience of alertness itself carries a unique phenomenological quality that distinguishes it from a lack of alertness.



She draws an analogy to hearing two consecutive knocks on a door: the second knock feels different because it follows the first. 



Similarly, even without conscious memory, the flow of alertness from one moment to the next provides meditators with an implicit awareness of duration. 



This seamless continuity of momentary alertness allows meditators to experience a sense of ongoing presence, even without actively recalling or recognizing previous moments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-cool-but-why-does-it-matter">This is cool, but why does it matter?</h2>



This analysis sheds new light on the nature of deep meditative states and helps clarify reports that have emerged consistently throughout human history.&nbsp;



Frischhut, whose academic focus includes unusual states of consciousness, hopes her findings will spark further discussion in this relatively underexplored area.



“In my opinion, non-ordinary states of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a> such as deep meditative states, dreams, and psychedelic states have not been sufficiently investigated in contemporary philosophy,” Frischhut said.



She emphasizes that exploring how time is perceived in these altered states could offer profound insights into human cognition and the workings of the mind.&nbsp;



By examining the subtle dynamics of phenomenal temporality, Frischhut’s work paves the way for a deeper understanding of how we experience time across both ordinary and extraordinary states of consciousness.



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No past, no future: Why deep meditation experiences feel 'timeless'

Deep meditative states are often described as “pure consciousness experiences,”...

Concerns about TikTok’s influence on youth are common, but a new study led by Emilie Owens provides a more nuanced view.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3366/ircl.2024.0562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Research in Children's Literature</a>, the study explores how TikTok shapes teenagers' lives and behaviors, offering insights that challenge the platform’s negative reputation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenagers-and-their-phones">Teenagers and their phones</h2>



Owens, a doctoral student in media studies at the <a href="https://www.uio.no/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oslo</a>, set out to better understand the relationship between teenagers and their phones. “My goal has been to get to know teenagers and their phones. I wanted to be in the room with them,” she explained.&nbsp;



Her curiosity was driven by the often critical attitudes adults hold toward TikTok.&nbsp;



While acknowledging its commercial downsides, Owens emphasizes the positive role the platform can play for teens. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Teenagers</a> in my research say that TikTok makes them happy and provides comfort. They also see it as a social activity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-teenagers-use-of-tiktok">Exploring teenagers’ use of TikTok</h2>



Over seven months, Owens conducted her study in an international high school in Oslo.&nbsp;



To capture authentic teenage behavior, she encouraged students to interact with TikTok as they normally would, occasionally assigning tasks such as finding or creating content.&nbsp;



By observing them in action, she gained a deeper understanding of their relationship with the platform.



Owens initially expected significant gender differences in TikTok use, but her findings painted a more complex picture.&nbsp;



While a small group of boys gravitated toward sarcastic, political, and controversial content, the majority of students - regardless of gender - focused on humorous memes, quirky videos, and educational material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenagers-learning-through-tiktok">Teenagers learning through TikTok</h2>



One surprising outcome of the study was how much teenagers claimed to learn from TikTok. A 16-year-old girl noted that TikTok often provided clear explanations of current events or academic topics.&nbsp;



“All of these controversies going on? There's always someone explaining it there. Or I have actually seen Russian ladies, like, describe math to me, and I understand it,” she said.&nbsp;



Similarly, a 17-year-old boy praised the platform’s short videos for getting “straight to the point without any explanation,” which he found particularly effective.



TikTok, Owens observed, often acts as a lens through which teenagers view the world. They use it in various contexts, from passing time while waiting for the bus to engaging socially by sharing videos with friends.&nbsp;



“In such cases, TikTok becomes a social focal point, a kind of lens through which they can see the world together,” Owens explained.&nbsp;



This shared experience can bridge cultural divides, particularly in international classrooms where students come from different backgrounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-the-good-and-the-bad">Balancing the good and the bad</h2>



Despite TikTok’s positive aspects, teenagers are aware of its potential downsides. Some prefer YouTube, feeling it offers more substantial educational value. Others temporarily delete TikTok to focus on schoolwork.&nbsp;



One teenager mentioned the physical strain of prolonged use, noting that “after twelve hours, your eyes get sore.” While this may not be literal, it reflects the platform’s potential to consume significant amounts of time.



The content on TikTok also elicited mixed reactions. Teenagers recognized that the type of accounts they follow could influence their mood and motivation.&nbsp;



As one 16-year-old boy put it:&nbsp; “If you follow a certain type of people, it can be motivating. But if you follow a certain group, it can be very demotivating as well.”&nbsp;



The term “brain rot” was humorously used by the teens to describe the sillier, less meaningful content, though they didn’t take this label too seriously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-customized-digital-world">A customized digital world</h2>



Owens reflects on what it means for today’s teenagers to grow up with TikTok. The platform offers a highly customized experience, where users can easily move on to something else if they don’t like what they see.&nbsp;



“It certainly gives them a more customized world. They learn to expect things to be the way they want them,” Owens noted.&nbsp;



While the long-term implications remain unclear, she suggests this tailored digital environment could shape their expectations and interactions in significant ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-relationship-between-teenagers-and-tiktok-nbsp">Complex relationship between teenagers and TikTok&nbsp;</h2>



For parents, Owens points to the work of University of Oslo professor Elisabeth Staksrud, who emphasizes the importance of parental involvement in teenagers’ digital lives.&nbsp;



Owens echoes this advice: “It’s probably wise to be realistic. Young people use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-less-time-on-social-media-improves-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a> now, and it’s an important part of their lives. Approach it as you would any other issue in a teenager’s life. Ask them what’s happening and show that you care.”



Owens’ study reveals a nuanced relationship between teenagers and TikTok. While the platform poses challenges, it also offers opportunities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>, social connection, and entertainment.&nbsp;



By understanding this balance, parents, educators, and researchers can better navigate the evolving digital landscape and support teenagers in making the most of their online experiences.



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Growing up in a digital world: TikTok makes teenagers happy

Concerns about TikTok’s influence on youth are common, but a...

Proper food intake is essential for pregnant humpback whales to complete their extraordinary annual migration between Hawaii and Alaska.&nbsp;



Researchers with the <a href="https://www.mmrphawaii.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Research Program</a> (MMRP) at the <a href="https://www.himb.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mānoa Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology</a> (HIMB) have revealed the energetic demands and vulnerabilities of these migratory mothers-to-be.&nbsp;



The findings, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1113/JP287304" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Physiology</a>, show that while the initial stages of pregnancy are relatively low in energy cost, the final trimester dramatically increases the mother’s energetic needs - just when she must fast and cover great distances without feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whales-astonishing-migrations">Humpback whales’ astonishing migrations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-felt-less-stressed-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humpback whales</a> feed in polar waters and then embark on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a> reaching up to 5,000 kilometers to the tropical regions where they mate and give birth.&nbsp;



During pregnancy, which lasts about 10 months, these females must travel and fast, relying solely on the energy reserves built up in feeding grounds.&nbsp;



By examining a combination of recent and historical data, the researchers found a direct correlation between maternal size and fetal growth: larger mothers carry larger fetuses that grow at faster rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-demands-of-pregnant-whales">Energy demands of pregnant whales</h2>



These findings allowed the team to estimate the energy demands for different stages of pregnancy. The first two-thirds of the pregnancy required only minimal extra energy, accounting for just 0.01–1.08% of the mother’s energy expenditure.&nbsp;



The most significant strain came in the final 100 days, when energy needs soared to 98.2% of the pregnancy’s total metabolic cost.



“It was surprising to see how the peak of energy requirements coincided with the onset of fasting in pregnant females, ultimately highlighting how crucial those final 100 days of pregnancy are for this migratory species,” said lead author Martin van Aswegen, a PhD student at MMRP.



“Females that are late in the pregnancy are therefore particularly vulnerable to disruptions in energy balance, given periods of greatest energetic stress coincide with fasting and migration to sub-tropical breeding grounds.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-period-for-pregnant-whales">Vulnerable period for pregnant whales</h2>



According to van Aswegen, the study highlights a particularly vulnerable period for pregnant humpback whales.&nbsp;



“This is important, because once these whales leave their high-latitude feeding grounds, they have a finite amount of energy available to invest in their offspring over a 3–5 month fasting period, with energy requirements being even higher after calf birth.”



Humpback whales depend on abundant feeding during summer months in high-latitude regions to gather the energy reserves necessary for migration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduction</a>.&nbsp;



The new data highlights how critical it is for these whales to have access to sufficient prey before beginning their long journeys southward to deliver calves in warmer, predator-scarce waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-calf-production-raises-concerns">Declining calf production raises concerns</h2>



Recent observations have shown a worrying trend: there has been a 75.6% decline in the number of humpback whale mothers with calves off Hawaiʻi between 2013 and 2018.&nbsp;



In Southeast Alaska, a recent study documented that calf production between 2015 and 2019 was about six times lower than in pre-2015 years, while midsummer calf mortality increased tenfold from 2014 to 2019.&nbsp;



These declines coincided with significant, extended changes in the marine food web, leading to poor feeding conditions for humpback whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-lives-of-humpback-whales">Complex lives of humpback whales</h2>



“This research underpins future studies on humpback whale energy demands,” said Lars Bejder, co-author of the study and director of MMRP.&nbsp;



“Our drone-collected whale health database, developed in partnership with the <a href="https://www.alaskawhalefoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska Whale Foundation</a>, includes over 11,000 measurements from 8,500 individual North Pacific whales. Its extensive temporal and spatial scale offers invaluable insights into the effects of large-scale climatic events on this iconic sentinel species.”&nbsp;



Bejder noted that sustaining such long-term, wide-scale studies is crucial for understanding these impacts within the context of natural variability in whale health.”



“This research underscores the value of collaboration in tackling complex questions about the lives of humpback whales,” added Jens Currie, co-author and chief scientist at <a href="https://www.pacificwhale.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Whale Foundation</a>.&nbsp;



“Through large-scale collaborations, we're able to gain critical insights into the challenges migratory whales face during pregnancy to better inform conservation strategies. Together, we can address large-scale ecological challenges that no single institution could achieve alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pressure-faced-by-pregnant-whales">The pressure faced by pregnant whales</h2>



By analyzing the whales’ energy use and nutritional demands, this study sheds light on key factors influencing whale reproductive success.&nbsp;



Understanding the energetic pressures faced by pregnant females can guide future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts aimed at safeguarding feeding grounds and migration routes.&nbsp;



In a warming ocean where prey availability and distribution are changing, such science-based insights will prove essential for ensuring that humpback whales continue to complete their life cycle and thrive for generations to come.



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The hidden struggles of pregnant humpback whales

Proper food intake is essential for pregnant humpback whales to...

As the holiday season unfolds, shopping reaches its peak. This year, a staggering 197 million people shopped from Black Friday to Cyber Monday, and spent a record $33.6 billion on Black Friday alone. 



Behind the shopping frenzy lies a fascinating intersection of brain activity, neuroscience, and economics, as explored by Dr. Uma Karmarkar, a leading expert in neuroeconomics.



Karmarkar investigated the psychological and physical factors that drive consumer behavior, offering insights into why we buy - and how we can make more intentional choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-science-and-shopping-behavior">Brain science and shopping behavior</h2>



"Neuroeconomics is a field of study that uses theories and methods from neuroscience, psychology, and economics to better understand how people make real-world decisions," said Dr. Karmarkar, an associate professor at <a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego</a>.



With a PhD in neuroscience, as well as a PhD in consumer behavior, Dr. Karmarkar bridges the gap between basic brain science and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday human actions</a>, such as shopping.



Her journey into neuroeconomics began with studying how brain cells process information for tasks like memory and learning. She found that the decision-making process is complex and engaging.



"I found it very exciting that we could build models from brain to behavior on how we make choices about health or career or finances, or even shop for groceries," said Dr. Karmarkar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processes-involved-in-shopping">Brain processes involved in shopping </h2>



When shopping, our brains engage in multiple processes. The ventral striatum, a key brain region, evaluates how much we like an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fashion-industrys-plastic-waste-is-a-major-environmental-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">item</a>, even when we're not actively shopping. 



If we consider making a purchase, additional brain regions help weigh the price, willingness to pay, and overall decision.



Interestingly, these processes remain consistent between in-person and online shopping. However, environmental factors like interacting with physical products or being surrounded by other shoppers can create subtle differences in how decisions are made.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="1wHE5lBtkb-4130361-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-brands-in-decision-making">Role of brands in decision-making</h2>



Brands play a powerful role in consumer decisions, offering familiarity and confidence. This sense of assurance activates reward centers in the brain. 



"These relationships to brands are strong and multi-faceted, but they’re not the same relationships that we have with people," noted Dr. Karmarkar.



Understanding these distinctions can help consumers recognize how brand loyalty shapes their choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-companies-trick-our-brains-into-shopping">How companies trick our brains into shopping</h2>



Businesses leverage insights from neuroeconomics to fine-tune marketing strategies. For instance, Dr. Karmarkar's eye-tracking research highlights how product recommendations can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mortality-salience-fear-of-death-main-driver-early-halloween-shopping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence purchases</a>.



"I've also done some work with eye-tracking - that is, measuring what people look at, and for how long - to help know what information they paid attention to or found useful," said Dr. Karmarkar.



She found that consumers are more likely to buy an item if it is advertised or displayed among other, similar and recommended items on a page.



Dr. Karmarkar used the example of a person <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">searching online</a> for a sweater to purchase. "The presence of matched products on the page helps you feel more engaged with a 'sweater-specific' decision," she explained.



On the other hand, mismatched recommendations, such as unrelated items like earrings or home goods, can distract consumers and make them less likely to buy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternatives-for-more-sustainable-joy">Alternatives for more sustainable joy</h2>



The same brain regions that respond to the rewards of shopping also react to other pleasures, suggesting alternatives for more sustainable joy.



"It doesn’t have to be a sacrifice," said Dr. Karmarkar. Activities like massages or finding "new-to-me" items through secondhand shopping can provide similar satisfaction without the environmental cost of buying new products.



Our craving for novelty often drives the impulse to shop, as the reward from new items can feel more intense than the ongoing enjoyment of what we already own. Recognizing this tendency can help consumers find rewarding alternatives that align with their values.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-becoming-a-conscious-consumer">Becoming a conscious consumer</h2>



Dr. Karmarkar emphasizes the importance of intentional shopping, and highlights how the brain plays a key role in making conscious choices.



"To be a more conscious consumer, think about what your goals are before you get into shopping situations," she advised. Making a list or setting a budget can help curb impulsive buying, as it’s harder to make deliberate choices in the moment.



The research also suggests expanding your "consideration set" - thinking about other ways to spend your money and time. If a product still feels worthwhile after weighing other options, it might be the right choice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-shopping">New perspective on shopping</h2>



Dr. Karmarkar’s work reveals the intricate interplay between our brains and shopping behaviors. By understanding the science behind our choices, we can navigate the holiday season - and everyday shopping - with greater awareness.



Whether it’s embracing sustainable habits or rethinking our relationship with brands, the journey toward intentional consumption starts with a deeper understanding of ourselves.



This information is published in a <a href="https://rady.ucsd.edu/why/news/2024/12-09-the-science-of-shopping.html">report</a> by the Rady School of Management.



Video Credit: Patagonia 



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Shopping mania: Part of your brain is always browsing

As the holiday season unfolds, shopping reaches its peak. This...

The mental load - the invisible labor of planning, organizing, and managing family life - encompasses tasks ranging from scheduling doctor’s appointments to planning birthday parties.



This cognitive household labor can feel especially overwhelming during the holiday season, when to-do lists seem endless.



A new study highlights that mothers are bearing the lion's share of this mental load in many households - not just during the holidays, but every single day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-the-mental-load">Distribution of the mental load</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a> and the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Melbourne</a> reached these conclusions after analyzing responses from 3,000 parents in the United States. 



The results shed light on how the mental load is unevenly distributed within families.



The experts found that mothers take on a significant 71% of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chores-can-improve-brain-health-in-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">household tasks</a> that require mental effort, including everything from daily activities, like meal planning and organizing schedules, to managing household finances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mothers-fathers-and-household-mental-labor">Mothers, fathers, and household mental labor </h2>



When it comes down to the fine details of the mental load, it seems that mothers and fathers often undertake different tasks.



Mothers take on a whopping 79% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-are-more-worried-about-chores-and-its-a-heavy-mental-load/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daily tasks</a>, such as cleaning and childcare, which is over twice the share of dads, who manage these daily tasks at a rate of 37 percent.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fathers-experience-slight-shrinkage-of-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fathers</a> appear to focus more on episodic tasks like managing finances and home repairs, taking up 65% of these tasks. 



However, mothers are also involved in episodic tasks - taking on 53% of these tasks - highlighting an often overlooked duplication of effort.



Interestingly, the study illuminates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-with-more-children-risk-faster-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> often overestimate their contributions, with fathers being the most likely to do so. Fathers also tend to view the household mental labor as equally shared, yet mothers would beg to differ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hard-at-work-the-single-parent-reality">Hard at work: The single parent reality</h2>



Single parents undoubtedly have the most demanding burden as they have to juggle the entire mental load. The study revealed that single fathers take on significantly more compared to married fathers.



The primary goal of the research was to understand individual parents’ perceptions of the mental load, rather than the perception shared by couples.



Due to the inclusion of parents from a wide variety of family types, including LGBTQ+ and single parents, the findings are relevant to a diverse spectrum of households.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-mental-load-more-fairly">Sharing the mental load more fairly</h2>



Dr. Ana Catalano Weeks is a political scientist in the Department of Politics, Languages &amp; International Studies at the University of Bath. She noted that the effects of the mental load are not confined to the home.



"This kind of work is often unseen, but it matters. It can lead to stress, burnout and even impact women’s careers. In many cases, resentment can build, creating strain between couples," said Dr. Catalano Weeks.



"We hope our research sparks conversations about sharing the mental load more fairly - something that benefits everyone."



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maternal-mortality-the-overlooked-needs-of-mothers-after-childbirth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mothers</a>, who are disproportionately affected by the mental load, are feeling the pressure, with a recent Gallup study showing that working mothers are twice as likely as fathers to contemplate reducing their hours or leaving their jobs due to parental responsibilities.



"Going forward, the challenge for governments and employers who care about attracting the top talent is how to create policies that are supportive of both mothers and fathers sharing the unpaid work at home," said Dr. Catalano Weeks.



"One policy that comes to mind is well-paid, gender-neutral parental leave – which both the U.K. and U.S. are way behind on compared to the rest of Europe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-stress-with-teamwork">Reducing stress with teamwork</h2>



As the holiday season fast approaches, it's a perfect time to discuss the disproportionate weight of the mental load.



A conversation leading to an action plan on how to share these tasks can help make the holidays - and everyday life - more seamlessly balanced, giving mothers a well-deserved break.



Small changes, like dividing tasks more equitably or setting realistic expectations, can go a long way in reducing stress and promoting teamwork. By addressing the mental load together, families can create a more supportive environment that benefits everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jomf.13057" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Marriage and Family</a>.



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Mothers carry the heaviest weight of the 'mental load'

The mental load - the invisible labor of planning, organizing,...

Scientists have announced the discovery of a species of lipstick vine that is completely new to science, found in the depths of the Philippine rainforest.



This species, which has never been documented in botanical records, has sparked a wave of excitement among scientists and nature enthusiasts alike. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-expedition-into-the-heart-of-luzon">An expedition into the heart of Luzon</h2>



A daring expedition by a team of botanists in 2022 led them into Barangay Balbalasang <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a>, a remote and virtually inaccessible part of Luzon island. 



The journey began with days of rugged travel to reach the rainforest, which was filled with unforgiving thickets that demanded to be sliced with machetes. In these wild conditions, the researchers discovered their prize.



The team included Jayson Mansibang, Adriane Tobias, and Pastor L. Malabrigo from the <a href="https://uplb.edu.ph/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Philippines Los Baños</a>, along with Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the Oxford Botanic Garden and Arboretum.



The researchers stayed with the Banao Tribe, an indigenous community that protects the local forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lipstick-vine-unlike-any-other">A lipstick vine unlike any other</h2>



Among the species found in the forest, one stood out - a specimen of the lipstick vine, a genus known as Aeschynanthus.



This plant had a distinct pattern of delicate purple mottling which painted its flowers in a pattern similar to that of a European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/foxgloves-rapidly-evolved-in-the-presence-of-hummingbirds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foxglove</a>.



"We were trekking through dense vegetation when suddenly we spotted a luminous white, purple-spotted flower dangling above our heads," said Dr. Thorogood.



"We suspected immediately that it was new to science. It’s so exciting that beautiful species like this are still there waiting to be described.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery-of-a-new-lipstick-vine">The discovery of a new lipstick vine </h2>



The team named the plant Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus from the Latin ‘penta,’ meaning five, and ‘trichomatus’ referring to the trichomes - hair-like outgrowths deep in the throats of the flowers.



Lipstick vines, encompassing nearly 180 tropical and subtropical species, are known for their tubular, bud-like appearance. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woody-vines-amplify-the-effects-of-lightning-in-tropical-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vines</a>, often adorning other plants and trees, boast vibrantly colored flowers that attract birds for pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-concerns-amid-climate-change">Conservation concerns amid climate change</h2>



Sadly, this newfound beauty already faces a critical risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>. Rapid climate change, driving increasingly intense typhoons, relentlessly threatens the plant's natural habitat.



The Barangay Balbalasang rainforest remains remarkably intact, housing numerous species that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. The researchers hope that the new discovery can help support conservation efforts to protect the region.



"We dedicate this discovery not only to the unique beauty of the Banao forest but also to the Banao People themselves, who, through their care and stewardship, have ensured the conservation of rare species within these precious forests," said Tobias.



"It’s rare to find Aeschynanthus in such an environment, and as young botanists, we were thrilled to discover something so distinct.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-s-plant-data-darkspots">The world's plant data darkspots </h2>



“Many new species remain undocumented in the world’s ‘plant data <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">darkspots</a>’ - up to 15% of the world’s flora in fact," noted Dr. Thorogood.



"Finding these ‘known unknowns’ is essential for understanding and protecting biodiversity. That’s what makes discoveries such as this one so important for conservation science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-lipstick-vines">Ecological importance of lipstick vines</h2>



The discovery of Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus sheds light on the ecological importance of lipstick vines in tropical ecosystems. 



As epiphytes, these plants grow on trees without harming them, creating microhabitats that support diverse wildlife. 



Their vividly colored flowers play a vital role in attracting pollinators, particularly birds, which are essential for maintaining the delicate balance of tropical rainforests.



Beyond their ecological contributions, lipstick vines are indicators of environmental health. Their presence often signifies a well-preserved ecosystem, as these plants thrive only in stable and intact habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-a-unique-rainforest">Protecting a unique rainforest </h2>



The discovery of this new species in Barangay Balbalasang emphasizes the rainforest’s unique biodiversity and the urgent need to safeguard it.



With nearly 180 known species of Aeschynanthus, each adapted to its specific environment, the newly discovered species offers valuable insights into the evolution of plant-pollinator relationships and the resilience of tropical flora in the face of climate change. 



Protecting Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus is not just about preserving a single species; it is about safeguarding the intricate web of life that it supports.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nsojournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/njb.04580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nordic Journal of Botany</a>.



Image Credit: Chris Thorogood



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Beautiful new 'lipstick vine' found in the Philippine rainforest

Scientists have announced the discovery of a species of lipstick...

A recent discovery in Türkiye is shaking up our understanding of human evolution. Scientists have identified a new fossil ape, Anadoluvius turkae, from an 8.7-million-year-old site near Çankırı. 



This find challenges the long-held belief that human ancestors evolved solely in Africa, suggesting instead that Europe played a significant role in our evolutionary history.



The fossil, uncovered at the Çorakyerler site with support from Türkiye's Ministry of Culture and Tourism, reveals that Mediterranean fossil apes were more diverse than previously thought. 



These apes are part of the earliest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-species-of-human-ancestors-literally-crossed-paths-1-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group of hominins</a>, which includes not only African apes like chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas but also humans and their fossil ancestors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-out-of-africa-maybe-not">Out of Africa? Maybe not</h2>



This discovery adds weight to the theory that the ancestors of African apes and humans may have evolved in Europe before migrating to Africa between nine and seven million years ago.



Professor David Begun from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> and Professor Ayla Sevim Erol from <a href="https://www.ankara.edu.tr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ankara University</a> led the international team of researchers who conducted the study. 



"Our findings further suggest that hominines not only evolved in western and central Europe but spent over five million years evolving there and spreading to the eastern Mediterranean before eventually dispersing into Africa, probably as a consequence of changing environments and diminishing forests," explained Professor Begun. 



"The members of this radiation to which Anadoluvius turkae belongs are currently only identified in Europe and Anatolia."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-partial-skull-of-anadoluvius-turkae">Partial skull of Anadoluvius turkae</h2>



The conclusion drawn from the study is based on the analysis of a well-preserved partial cranium discovered in 2015. 



This fossil includes most of the facial structure and the front part of the braincase, providing valuable insights into the ape's anatomy. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/human-ancestor_Anadoluvius-turkae_early-ape_evolved-europe_credit-Sevim-Erol_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/human-ancestor_Anadoluvius-turkae_early-ape_evolved-europe_credit-Sevim-Erol_1s.webp" alt="A new face and partial brain case of Anadoluvius turkae, a fossil hominine—the group that includes African apes and humans—from the Çorakyerler fossil site located in Central Anatolia, Türkiye. Credit: Sevim-Erol, A., Begun, D.R., Sözer, Ç.S. et al." class="wp-image-1953373"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new face and partial brain case of Anadoluvius turkae, a fossil hominine—the group that includes African apes and humans—from the Çorakyerler fossil site located in Central Anatolia, Türkiye. Credit: Sevim-Erol, A., Begun, D.R., Sözer, Ç.S. et al.</figcaption></figure>



"The completeness of the fossil allowed us to do a broader and more detailed analysis using many characters and attributes that are coded into a program designed to calculate evolutionary relationships," Begun explained. 



"The face is mostly complete, after applying mirror imaging. The new part is the forehead, with bone preserved to about the crown of the cranium. Previously described fossils do not have this much of the brain case."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-of-anadoluvius-turkae">Life of Anadoluvius turkae</h2>



Anadoluvius was roughly the size of a large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male chimpanzee</a>, weighing between 50-60 kilograms. This size is notably large for a chimp and is comparable to the average size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-gorilla-day-supporting-the-guardians-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female gorilla</a>, which weighs around 75-80 kilograms. 



The fossil suggests that Anadoluvius lived in a dry forest environment and likely spent a significant amount of time on the ground.



"We have no limb bones but judging from its jaws and teeth, the animals found alongside it, and the geological indicators of the environment, Anadoluvius probably lived in relatively open conditions, unlike the forest settings of living great apes," said Professor Sevim Erol. 



"More like what we think the environments of early humans in Africa were like. The powerful jaws and large, thickly enameled teeth suggest a diet including hard or tough food items from terrestrial sources such as roots and rhizomes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-earth-with-anadoluvius-turkae">Sharing Earth with Anadoluvius turkae</h2>



The ecosystem in which Anadoluvius lived was similar to today's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African grasslands</a> and dry forests. It coexisted with animals such as giraffes, warthogs, rhinos, diverse antelopes, zebras, elephants, porcupines, hyenas, and lion-like carnivores. 



Research indicates that this ecological community likely dispersed into Africa from the eastern Mediterranean sometime after eight million years ago.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/human-ancestor_Anadoluvius-turkae_excavation_evolved-europe_credit-Sevim-Erol_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/human-ancestor_Anadoluvius-turkae_excavation_evolved-europe_credit-Sevim-Erol_1s.webp" alt="Excavation of the Anadoluvius turkae fossil, a significantly well-preserved partial cranium uncovered at the Çorakyerler fossil site in Türkiye in 2015. The fossil includes most of the facial structure and the front part of the brain case. Credit: Ayla Sevim-Erol" class="wp-image-1953375"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Excavation of the Anadoluvius turkae fossil, a significantly well-preserved partial cranium uncovered at the Çorakyerler fossil site in Türkiye in 2015. The fossil includes most of the facial structure and the front part of the brain case. Credit: Ayla Sevim-Erol</figcaption></figure>



"The founding of the modern African open country fauna from the eastern Mediterranean has long been known and now we can add to the list of entrants the ancestors of the African apes and humans," Erol added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-a-big-deal">Why is this a big deal?</h2>



Anadoluvius turkae is positioned on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a> alongside other fossil apes from nearby regions, such as Ouranopithecus from Greece and Graecopithecus from Bulgaria. 



These fossils are the best-preserved specimens of early hominins and offer the strongest evidence to date that this group originated in Europe before moving into Africa.



The study's detailed analysis shows that Balkan and Anatolian apes evolved from ancestors in western and central Europe. 



This suggests that the entire group of hominins likely evolved and diversified in Europe, rather than separate branches moving independently into Europe from Africa over millions of years and then going extinct.



"There is no evidence of the latter, though it remains a favorite proposal among those who do not accept a European origin hypothesis," Begun noted. 



"These findings contrast with the long-held view that African apes and humans evolved exclusively in Africa. While the remains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early hominins</a> are abundant in Europe and Anatolia, they are completely absent from Africa until the first hominin appeared there about seven million years ago."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



While the discovery of Anadoluvius turkae provides compelling evidence for a European origin of hominines, it does not definitively prove the theory. 



More fossils from Europe and Africa, dating between eight and seven million years old, are needed to establish a clear connection between the two regions.



This new evidence supports the hypothesis that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a> originated in Europe and dispersed into Africa along with many other mammals between nine and seven million years ago, though it does not definitively prove it.



"For that, we need to find more fossils from Europe and Africa between eight and seven million years old to establish a definitive connection between the two groups," Begun concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anadoluvius-turkae-and-human-origins">Anadoluvius turkae and human origins</h2>



To sum it all up, if hominines did indeed originate in Europe, it could reshape our understanding of how and where humans evolved. 



It also highlights the importance of fossil sites outside of Africa, which have been underexplored in the quest to trace human origins.



Anadoluvius turkae adds a new species to the fossil record while providing a fresh perspective on the evolutionary journey of hominins. 



By bridging the gap between European and African fossil records, this discovery encourages scientists to revisit existing theories and consider new possibilities in the story of human origins.



As researchers continue to analyze the fossil and search for more evidence, the story of Anadoluvius turkae will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in shaping our understanding of where we come from and how we evolved.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-05210-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Humans originated in Europe, not Africa, according to fossil discovery

A recent discovery in Türkiye is shaking up our understanding...

For the first time, scientists have observed a massive glacial lake outburst in real-time in East Greenland. 



This rare event, captured by researchers from the University of Copenhagen, involved the release of over 3,000 billion liters of meltwater - equivalent to three times Denmark's annual water consumption - over just a few weeks.



The outburst provides critical insights into the immense power of meltwater and its potential hazards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-glacial-outburst">What is a glacial outburst?</h2>



A&nbsp;glacial outburst&nbsp;(also known as a&nbsp;glacial lake outburst flood, or GLOF) is a sudden and rapid release of water from a glacial lake.



These lakes form when meltwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-discovery-transforms-sea-level-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> collects behind natural dams of ice or debris. Over time, the pressure of the trapped water can cause the dam to break, allowing the water to rush out in large volumes. 



This can lead to flooding, erosion, and sometimes destruction of infrastructure or communities downstream. Glacial outbursts are becoming more frequent due to climate change, as rising temperatures increase glacier melt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-glacial-outburst">Greenland's glacial outburst</h2>



The glacial outburst occurred when Catalina Lake, located in East Greenland, suddenly unleashed its vast water reserves into the Scoresby Sound fjord. This staggering release of 3.4 cubic kilometers (about 0.8 cubic miles) of water places the event among the top three largest ever recorded.



Between September 23 and October 11, the lake's water level plummeted by 154 meters. For the first time, scientists used satellite imagery to monitor and measure the event in real time.



"We have previously found traces of similar outburst floods, but due to polar night and clouds obstructing the potential for satellite observations, this is the first time that researchers have been able to monitor an event and measure the water volumes in real time," explained Aslak Grinsted, a climate researcher from the <a href="https://nbi.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niels Bohr Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-the-glacial-lake-outburst">Mechanics of the glacial lake outburst</h2>



Catalina Lake had been accumulating meltwater for over 20 years. The lake's water was trapped behind the massive Edward Bailey Glacier, which blocked its natural outflow. 



Over time, the water lifted the glacier, carving a 25-kilometer (15.5 miles) tunnel beneath the ice. This channel became the escape route for the lake’s water, unleashing it into Scoresby Sound, the world's largest fjord.



This type of event has been occurring with increasing frequency due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising global temperatures</a>.



"The danger from glacier-dammed lakes is increasing due to global warming. It's vital to improve our understanding of this phenomenon to issue timely warnings should there be an imminent risk," emphasized Grinsted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-threat-of-glacial-floods">Global threat of glacial floods</h2>



Although Greenland’s sparse population meant this event caused no harm, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speed-of-greenland-ice-melt-confirmed-to-be-rapidly-increasing-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential risks</a> are enormous in more densely populated areas. 



In regions like the Himalayas, GLOFs have destroyed villages and claimed lives. A 2023 study revealed that 15 million people worldwide live under the threat of deadly glacial floods.



"I expect that we will witness outbursts from even larger ice-dammed lakes as Greenland's ice sheet retreats in coming centuries," noted Grinsted.



"At the end of the last Ice Age, Lake Missoula had an outburst that was 2,500 times larger than the recent Catalina event. To understand these massive forces, we must study the largest outbursts when they occur."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-power-and-energy-potential">Enormous power and energy potential </h2>



The energy released during such outbursts is truly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collapse-of-main-atlantic-ocean-circulaton-current-amoc-is-already-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immense</a>. "In this case, the energy released by the glacier flood was equivalent to the output of the world's largest nuclear power plant running at full capacity for 22 days," explained Grinsted.



The amount of energy from Greenland's glacial outburst could theoretically power a small town, providing 50 megawatts of electricity continuously. 



However, the logistical challenges of harnessing this energy remain significant. The nearest settlement to the Catalina Lake event is 180 kilometers away, with only 350 inhabitants.



"As with many other natural resources in Greenland, infrastructure is a problem. But if a brilliant engineer could figure out how to harness these meltwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-melting-new-tipping-point-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbursts</a>, there's enormous power and energy potential in them," concluded Grinsted.



The Greenland outburst highlights the growing risks posed by climate change and the need for continued research into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-will-the-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacial dynamics</a>. 



By understanding these massive forces, scientists hope to develop strategies for early warnings and, potentially, ways to harness their energy for sustainable purposes.



Image Credit: University of Copenhagen



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Massive glacial outburst observed in Greenland for the first time

For the first time, scientists have observed a massive glacial...

Astronomers have utilized NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to delve deeper than ever into the enigmatic surroundings of quasar 3C 273.&nbsp;The study has uncovered new features that bring the experts closer to understanding the processes powering these celestial beacons.&nbsp;



Quasars, short for "quasi-stellar objects," are some of the most luminous and energetic phenomena in the universe. 



They are powered by supermassive black holes at the centers of distant galaxies, where matter spirals inward, forming an accretion disk that releases immense amounts of energy as it heats up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weird-things-in-the-quasar-s-environment">Weird things in the quasar’s environment </h2>



The latest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-spots-a-mysterious-explosion-lfbot-in-a-place-it-should-not-have-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> observations provide unprecedented detail about the quasar’s environment, including what researcher Bin Ren from the Côte d'Azur Observatory describes as “weird things.”&nbsp;



The team observed various peculiar structures within 16,000 light-years of the central black hole, including blobs of differing sizes and a mysterious L-shaped filament.&nbsp;



These features may include satellite galaxies that could feed material into the black hole, further fueling the quasar’s immense energy output.



“Thanks to Hubble's observing power, we're opening a new gateway into understanding quasars,” Ren said. “My colleagues are excited because they've never seen this much detail before.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quasar-3c-273-a-celestial-powerhouse">Quasar 3C 273: A celestial powerhouse</h2>



Quasar 3C 273 is not only one of the closest quasars to Earth but also the first to be identified. It was discovered in 1963 by astronomer Maarten Schmidt.&nbsp;



Located 2.5 billion light-years away, quasar 3C 273 emits energy exceeding that of the brightest elliptical galaxies by a factor of ten. If it were much closer to Earth - within a few tens of light-years - it would shine as brightly as the Sun.



The term quasi-stellar object reflects the quasar’s starlike appearance in the night sky. However, as Schmidt noted, its extreme luminosity could only be explained by the accretion of material onto a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>, marking the discovery of a new class of cosmic phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-hubble-s-advanced-instruments">Insights from Hubble’s advanced instruments</h2>



In 1994, Hubble's sharp imaging revealed that quasars’ host environments are far more complex than initially assumed. Earlier observations hinted at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic collisions</a> and mergers funneling debris toward supermassive black holes, effectively reigniting quasars.



Now, with its Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), Hubble has pushed these insights further by employing a coronagraph, which blocks the intense light from the quasar’s core.&nbsp;



This approach allowed researchers to focus on fine details of the quasar’s host galaxy, unveiling dusty disks and intricate galactic interactions.



The coronagraph enabled astronomers to examine regions eight times closer to the black hole than ever before. For context, observing the quasar's core is likened to trying to spot an ant on a car's headlight while staring directly into the glare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quasar-host-morphology">Understanding quasar host morphology</h2>



The STIS instrument also provided remarkable observations of the quasar’s 300,000-light-year-long extragalactic jet. This enormous stream of material is traveling at nearly the speed of light.&nbsp;



By comparing new data with archival images from 22 years ago, the researchers discovered that the jet accelerates as it moves farther from the black hole.



“With the fine spatial structures and jet motion, Hubble bridged a gap between the small-scale radio interferometry and large-scale optical imaging observations, and thus we can take an observational step towards a more complete understanding of quasar host morphology,” Ren explained.&nbsp;



“In the future, looking further at 3C 273 in infrared light with the James Webb Space Telescope might give us more clues.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-for-astronomical-research">Tools for astronomical research </h2>



Quasar 3C 273 is just one of over one million quasars that are distributed throughout the vast expanse of the universe. These remarkable objects serve as invaluable tools for astronomical research.



Quasars peaked in abundance roughly three billion years after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-of-matter-discovered-by-recreating-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, during a time when galactic collisions were far more frequent. These collisions provided the necessary conditions for their formation.



Hubble's cutting-edge observations of 3C 273 not only deepen our understanding of quasars but also set the stage for future studies. 



As researchers continue to unlock the secrets of these cosmic lighthouses, they shed light on the intricate processes driving the evolution of galaxies across the cosmos.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, Bin Ren (Université Côte d’Azur/CNRS)



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Hubble took the closest-ever image of a quasar, and captured some 'weird things'

Astronomers have utilized NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to delve deeper...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...