The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

Yellowstone National Park could be in danger, says new report.

A massive eruption isn’t the only potential danger posed by the supervolcano under Yellowstone <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Park</a>.

The magma deep under the Earth’s surface also heats the extensive underground water network connected to each of the park’s geysers, hot springs and other hydrothermal attractions. But the water network that supplies Old Faithful has also been the cause of a number of major geothermal explosions at Yellowstone. Normally, boiling water underground is under pressure, but when that pressure drops, steam forms rapidly and explodes.

One – or maybe several – such explosions nearly 14,000 years ago led to a crater at the bottom of Yellowstone Lake. 

However, such large hydrothermal explosions are very rare, and there hasn’t been one in at least a few thousand years; small explosions occur every few years, and are rarely dangerous, according to the <a href="http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_sub_page_69.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>. 

Now scientists led by Carol Finn of the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">USGS</a> are working to map the extent and the temperature of Yellowstone’s underground water system. Using a helicopter and an electromagnetic system, the team will fly over the park as the electromagnetic device measures the water’s flow and temperature underground.

This research may offer insights into the park’s past hydrothermal explosions, as well as uncover potential dangers posed by the Yellowstone supervolcano. Similar studies at other sites in the U.S. have uncovered potential threats, the scientists said. 

A map of the water under Yellowstone could also help park staff better keep tourists away from any potentially dangerous areas. 

The electromagnetic system, developed in Denmark, can detect water to a depth of about 1,500 feet below the Earth’s surface. 

Yellowstone is an active supervolcano, <a href="http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/faqs_misconceptions.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">USGS scientists</a> who have been monitoring the park’s volcanic and hydrothermal activity since the 1970s said. A major eruption of the magma under the park does not seem to be imminent.

Yellowstone National Park could be in danger, says new report

Yellowstone National Park could be in danger, says new report....

The concept of Hollywood smiles was created by our reptilian ancestors, says a new report published in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Plos One</a>.

Scientists have come to believe the attractiveness of a nice smile may go back to a time before mammals – along with other features of mammal dentition. For example, types of teeth: mammals have incisors, canines and molars. That goes all the way back to mammals’ reptilian ancestors, the therapsids or “mammal-like reptiles” living more than 205 million years ago.

Paleontologists thought the therapsids’ long canines could be for hunting or fighting, but even herbivores had canine teeth. They could be for defense, scientists speculated – or they could be to attract a mate.

The researchers from <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a> (Evolutionary Studies Institute and <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/anatomicalsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">School of Anatomical Sciences</a>) in South Africa and the <a href="http://www.esrf.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European Synchrotron Radiation Facility</a> in France point to modern tusked mammals who mainly use their canines as a “display apparatus” to attract mates, such as walruses and muntjac. In those species, sexual selection is an important part of how and why they continue to have large canine teeth despite a diet that makes them unnecessary. 

The scientists used X-ray and CT scanning on fossils of Choerosaurus dejageri, a therapsid that lived 259 million years ago. The species has two “cranial bosses,” or horn-like growths on its upper and lower jaws. The researchers hoped to determine if the bosses were used in combat or if they had been developed to attract mates.

When compared to cranial bosses of another therapsid species known to have engaged in combat, they found key differences: the scans showed that the cranial bosses and C. dejageri’s skull were not strong enough for combat, and the collection of facial nerves would make fighting too painful to be practical. 

The scientists concluded that C. dejageri’s cranial bosses had likely been selected for by generations of mating. The conclusion? Sexual selection for physical traits that have no practical purpose existed before mammals, and could play a larger role in how mammals evolved, and continue to evolve, than scientists previously thought.

Reptilian ancestors may be behind our Hollywood smiles

The concept of Hollywood smiles was created by our reptilian...

Air pollution is more harmful the closer you are to the equator, a new report revealed today.

It turns out the location where air pollution is emitted can be more significant than the actual amount of pollution released. Air pollution has been on the rise since the 1980s, but at a much faster rate in areas closer to the equator. 

According to a study by a team of scientists from the <a href="http://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University Of North Carolina</a> at Chapel Hill led by Jason West, higher emissions in equatorial regions cause a increased production of ozone. The study appears in the Nov 7th issue of <a href="http://www.nature.com/ngeo/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.

"Emissions are growing in places where there is a much greater effect on the formation of ozone," said Dr. West. "A ton of emissions in a region close to the equator, where there is a lot of sunlight and intense heat, produces more ozone than a ton of emissions in a region farther from it."

Of course, ozone can be harmful or beneficial. Ozone present in the lower atmosphere can cause respiratory and/or heart problems – but ozone in the upper atmosphere protects us against ultraviolet (UV) rays.

Ozone is formed when UV rays come into contact with nitrogen oxides (a common air pollutant) in areas of intense sunlight and heat. Hotter, equatorial regions feature more vertical motion in the air, which sends pollutants further up into the atmosphere to create ozone.

West uses Asia as a prime example of this phenomenon: in the past thirty years, China’s air pollution emissions have been substantially larger than those of India and Southeast Asia. But because India and Southeast Asia are closer to the equator, their emissions have contributed more than China’s to the total ozone increase on the planet. 

"The findings were surprising," said West. "We thought that location was going to be important, but we didn't suspect it would be the most important factor contributing to total ozone levels worldwide. Our findings suggest that where the world emits is more important than how much it emits."

But as Dr. Owen Cooper from the University of Colorado points out, even if we are able to reduce global air pollution emissions on the whole, ozone levels still may not decrease if emissions simply shift to the equator.

Air pollution does more harm the closer you are to the equator

Air pollution is more harmful the closer you are to...

Fossil evolution study evidence suggests that organisms may have populated land much earlier than we thought.

When did living organisms first leave the water for land? Just 20 years ago, scientists believed microscopic life first emerged onto land 1.2 billion years ago. However, fossil evidence has been steadily pushing that estimate earlier over the past two decades, with a recent theory showing the earliest evidence of life on land 2.9 billion years ago.

Now, it’s taking another leap backwards. 

A team of scientists led by Sami Nabhan of the <a href="http://www.fu-berlin.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Freie Universität Berlin</a> has discovered signs that microbes lived on land as early as 3.2 billion years ago. The team has been studying ancient rock formations in the Barberton greenstone belt of South Africa.

Though the formations they were studying range to 3.5 billion years old, the layer that showed signs of microbial life was dated to 3.22 billion years ago. 

Elements in the layer, including grains of iron pyrite, showed evidence of microbe activity. Instrumentation showed that a number of crystals had signs of “biogenic fractionation” – when microbes process sulfur from the exterior of the grains. 

The fossil evolution study was conducted by Michael Wiedenbeck at the <a href="http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences</a>’ secondary ion mass spectrometry lab.

The rock formations where the fossil evidence was found appear once to have been the floodplain of an ancient river. Scientists believe the microbes may have been carried onto land in sediment carried by the river, then adapted to living out of water due to the cycling between flooding and dry conditions.

In 1999, NASA scientist Dr. Hiroshi Ohmoto discovered evidence of rock formations – “laterites” that indicate microbe activity – dated to 2.3 billion years old. In 2002, <a href="http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/the-oldest-life-on-land/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an international team of scientists</a> discovered fossilized microbial mats that were approximately 2.6 billion years old. A <a href="https://ecologicalprocesses.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2192-1709-2-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2013 paper by Hugo Beraldi-Campesi</a> pointed to the abundance of microbial life in water 3.5 billion years ago and suggested that the microbes could have adapted to terrestrial life in coastal areas between 3.4 and 3.5 billion years ago.

Determining when and why microbes first adapted to dryland conditions may help scientists better understand why species evolve and adapt to previously hostile conditions, as well as the impact these adaptations have on other species and environments.

Fossil evolution study sheds new light on life's transition from water to land

Fossil evolution study evidence suggests that organisms may have populated...

The Paris Agreement is now in effect, but what does it mean for the world?

On November 4th, 2016, the long-awaited Paris Agreement came into effect. Many hope this legally binding international agreement will set the world in motion towards a greener future.

The agreement was the result of extended and complex negotiations, but the hot question is: what exactly does this legal ruling on climate change mean for us? 

The key messages as laid out in the “<a href="http://climateaction2020.unfccc.int/">UN Climate Action Now Summary for Policymakers</a>” give us an idea of the agreement’s aims. What is unclear is how these policies will be put into practice. The world will be watching the UN’s next meeting in Marrakech, which starts tomorrow, for signs of how we will reach the agreement’s goals by the year 2020.
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The 2015 Paris Agreement is a historic crossroads for worldwide governments. The level of cooperation to achieve the ultimate goal of limiting warming to well below 2° C or 1.5° C is unprecedented and is meant to help future generations in their climate change planning.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Prevention is better than cure; any actions conducted to reduce climate change should be paired with sustainable development practices. In the long term, these initiatives will have the highest levels of success if we can adopt more sustainable practices for food, water and energy production.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Each country will be introducing national policies and guidelines relating to keeping emissions low and encouraging sustainable development.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Financial and technological development support is planned to be available to developing countries to assure they can reach their goals.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Stakeholder groups and institutions may need bolstering so they are adequately able to plan and implement their climate change activities.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change process will assist countries to work collaboratively and their platform will provide resources to assist every step of the way.</li>
</ol>
Government-funded scientists believe that our nations have a very short time – around 15 years – to drastically reduce our greenhouse gas emissions before dangerous climate effects result. The guidelines set by the UN suggest that we will not be doing this alone, describing the success of the agreement as based on creating relationships of synergy with our neighbours, and of course leaning on the UN’s guidelines for support.

With The World Meteorological Organization recently confirming that the atmospheric average global concentration of carbon dioxide hit an all time high in 2016, we can safely assume that, as a planet, we are not nearly on track meet these targets.

Only time will reveal the success of this landmark agreement, but for the time being governments of the world say that we are committed to putting our best foot forward towards a sustainable future.

The Paris Agreement is now in effect – but results unknown

The Paris Agreement is now in effect, but what does...

Arctic sea ice is being decimated by our activities, according to a new study that calculated the exact damage we have caused.

In a new study published in the journal Science, experts have now theorized an exact link between carbon pollution and the volume of Arctic sea ice melting.

The researchers claim that for every ton of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere, 29 square feet less sea ice is present during September; it is in September that the Arctic sea is at its least frozen levels.

A team of climate scientists led by Dirk Notz from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Germany have come up with a mathematical formula that illustrates how heat-trapping gases cause the melting of sea ice. 

“It’s very simple. Those emissions from our tailpipes and our coal-fired power plants are all going into the atmosphere,” said co-author Julienne Stroeve from the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Colorado. “It just increases the warming at the surface. So the ice is going to respond to that. The only way it can do that is to move further north.”

Rutgers University marine scientists Jennifer Francis added, “we know beyond a shadow of a doubt that Arctic sea ice is disappearing because of increased carbon dioxide.”

The study suggests that each year, the average American is responsible for carbon emissions that melt approximately 538 square feet of September sea ice. Each year in September, there is roughly 33,670 square miles less of Arctic sea than existed the previous year.

According to the team, it would only take 1,000 billion more metric tons of carbon dioxide to completely melt all Arctic Sea ice during September. If current conditions continue, the Arctic will be be ice-free in September in about 30 years.

Study calculates exact human impact on Arctic sea ice

Arctic sea ice is being decimated by our activities, according...

A new Caribbean coral reef study reveals the symbiotic relationship between coral and microscopic algae.

An endangered species of Caribbean coral and microscopic symbiotic algae may go together like peanut butter and jelly, but not because of typical host-symbiont genetics, said researchers from the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Exeter</a>.

The researchers found that the reef-building coral Orbicella annularis and the single-celled algae Symbiodinium get along so well because of geographical and environmental factors, according to their research published in the <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

The algae colonize tropical corals – not just in the Caribbean but around the world – and produces nutrients for hosts through photosynthesis, the typical biological process that converts light to chemical energy. Orbicella annularis and other corals rely on those nutrients to survive. The symbiotic relationship is necessary for the coral to survive, the scientists discovered.

The research also uncovered one reason why rising ocean temperatures are so devastating for coral reefs: long-lasting increases in temperature can lead to coral bleaching, which separates the microscopic algae from its hosts. This can lead to coral death. 

Coral is vital for a number of reasons. Coral reefs contain some of the <a href="http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/microsites/biodiscovery/05human-impact/importance-of-coral-reefs.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">most diverse ecosystems on Earth</a>. They also protect shorelines from the brunt of damage from waves and tropical storms, support the fishing industry by providing habitat in which fish breed and live, and provide and help to recycle nutrients for marine life.

While the two organisms need each other, they aren’t drawn together by any genetic factors, the scientists said. Instead, it’s a mutually beneficial relationship based on geography and environment, they found. Symbiodinium is found on several types of coral, and coral species can host a variety of different algae types.

If scientists can determine how and why the symbiotic relationship between Caribbean coral reef and algae formed, they might be able to better protect and restore threatened coral reefs, said Exeter’s <a href="http://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/index.php?web_id=jamie_stevens" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Dr. Jamie Stevens</a>, who oversaw the research.

For the report, the research team collected coral and algae by hand from 33 sites across the Caribbean and in the Bahamas.

Caribbean coral reef study reveals symbiotic relationship

A new Caribbean coral reef study reveals the symbiotic relationship...

Herbivorous mammals have tubbier tummies, new research claims today.

Herbivorous mammals outdo their carnivorous cousins in at least one way: they have bigger guts. So say researchers in a new study published in the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-7580">Journal of Anatomy</a>.

It’s also a trait that may be unique to mammals, they found.

The team of researchers, working with the <a href="http://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> and the <a href="http://www.tu-berlin.de/">Technical University Berlin</a>, studied skeletal remains of 126 different species of land-based tetrapods – four-legged vertebrates, which can include anything from mice to horses to frogs – to measure the size of their body cavity. They included prehistoric species such as dinosaurs and mammoths as well.

Some of the species studied were herbivores, some carnivores, and some ate both meat and plant-based foods.

The scientists used 3D computer modeling and <a href="http://www.photogrammetry.com/">photogrammetry</a> to create a database of each species, then used this database to determine what the volume of each species’ body cavity would be based on its skeletal structure.

They found that among mammals, vegetarian tetrapods have body cavities that are about twice the size of carnivores’ – indicating they may need the room for larger digestive systems. This was what the researchers expected, but they were surprised by the next set of findings: tetrapods from non-mammal species didn’t show any difference in the size of their body cavities compared to their meat-eating cousins, the scientists said.

The study authors suggested the change among mammals might be due to differences in respiratory systems. Mammals are the only vertebrates to have a thoracic diaphragm, a muscular structure in the abdomen that contracts to draw air into the lungs and expands to push it back out. 

The study shows that when it comes to morphology, or the form and structure of biological organisms, mammals show some fundamental differences compared to other species of vertebrates. 

So if you are worrying about your growing gut, perhaps it’s time to think about adopting a zero-carb diet.

Herbivorous mammals have tubbier tummies, new research claims

Herbivorous mammals have tubbier tummies, new research claims today. Herbivorous mammals...

The world is unprepared for the Paris Agreement, a new report suggests.

In December 2015, nearly 200 countries around the world gathered in Paris to decide the best way to deal with climate change. 

The end result was an agreement to keep global temperatures no more than 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit (2.0 degrees Celsius) higher than they were in pre-industrial times; limit greenhouse gases produced by human activity to what plants, soil and sea can absorb from the atmosphere; and create partnerships to help developing nations adopt greener technology.

Of the 197 countries that participated in the Paris Agreement, 94 ratified the <a href="http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pact</a>, which will enter into force on Nov. 4, 2016.

The world is not even close to being on track to uphold the agreement, according to the <a href="http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/environment/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">United Nations Environment Program</a>.

Since the industrial revolution, temperatures have already risen about 1.8º F worldwide, halfway to the cutoff goal. Unless greenhouse gas emissions are cut by about 12 to 14 billion metric tons by 2030, the world has no hope of limiting the rise of temperatures globally to less than 3.6 degrees, the U.N. claimed.

The 3.6-degree target would prevent the worst effects of climate change predicted by scientists. Meeting that target would require major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from the world's worst polluters, especially China and the United States, which hold the first and second place slots respectively.

With the Paris Agreement coming into effect tomorrow and the upcoming <a href="http://unfccc.int/meetings/marrakech_nov_2016/meeting/9567.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener">U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> in Marrakesh, Morocco next week, now is the time for governments to begin stepping up their efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions, the U.N. stipulated.

Global warming, which is thought to be linked to greenhouse gas emissions, has already had <a href="http://climate.nasa.gov/effects/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">massive consequences worldwide</a>. Scientists have linked climate change to global sea levels rising more than 6 inches in the past century, droughts (and potentially <a href="http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=4270" target="_blank" rel="noopener">megadroughts</a>) in the western United States, stronger hurricanes, and the unpredictable Polar Vortex bringing colder winters to parts of the Northern Hemisphere. 

Last year's average global temperatures were the highest on record, and 2016 looks to be even warmer, researchers said.

UN Report: World unprepared for Paris Agreement

The world is unprepared for the Paris Agreement, a new...

Your carbon footprint might be melting the Arctic. New data predicts how your next road trip could affect the environment.

Climate change researchers from the <a href="http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/en/mpimet-homepage/">Max Planck Institute for Meteorology</a> and the <a href="http://nsidc.org/">National Snow &amp; Ice Data Center</a> used their observations, data and around 30 different computer models to create a formula that translates driving time and distance to the amount of Arctic sea ice that will melt as a result, in a new study published in Science on Nov. 3.

According to the scientists, there's a direct connection between fossil fuel emissions and melting sea ice in the Arctic.

A drive of about 90 miles – for example, from New York City to Philadelphia – melts about a square foot of ice in the month of September. September is an important month for Arctic ice studies because it is often when sea ice at the North Pole is at its lowest.

For every ton of carbon dioxide produced by coal plants, cars and other use of fossil fuels, 29 square feet of ice melt. The average American leaves a carbon footprint that is responsible for the loss of about 538 square feet of sea ice each year. 

Although sea ice builds up again each winter, scientists found that it was at a record low in the month of October, and September's amount of sea ice was the second lowest ever recorded.

If the Arctic continues to see ice melt at the current rate, ice could be gone from that region entirely in the month of September by 2045, researchers calculated. 

As sea ice in the Arctic melts, it's also likely to have long-ranging consequences far beyond the extreme loss of habitat for animals such as polar bears. Studies have linked melting sea ice and rising water temperatures to weather changes such as the southward spread of the Polar Vortex, which caused millions of dollars in damage in 2014.

The warming of the North Atlantic could also lead to <a href="http://research.noaa.gov/News/NewsArchive/LatestNews/TabId/684/ArtMID/1768/ArticleID/11764/QA-What-do-Arctic-ice-and-Atlantic-hurricanes-have-in-common.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more hurricanes farther north</a>.

Carbon personal footprint might be melting the Arctic, eggheads theorize

Your carbon footprint might be melting the Arctic. New data...

What female fish want was revealed in a new study from scientists at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Leicester</a>.

What do female fish want in a mate? Sticklebacks look for males who can design and build the nests that fit the environment they live in, researchers wrote in a new study.

The scientists studied how varying oxygen levels in water affect how male three-spined stickleback fish build their nests, finding it can also affect how females of the species choose their mates.

They found that when oxygen levels in their environment change, the male sticklebacks – which do all of the parenting for the species' eggs and young fish – build nests that are looser or tighter. Females prefer to spawn in tighter nests when oxygen levels are high, or looser ones when the water has low levels of oxygen.

Since the males fan water through the nests with their fins, this means eggs in looser nests get more oxygen when water levels are low, the study authors said. This lets the eggs develop normally when oxygen is low, but could also expose them to more predators, they said. 

The study is an interesting look into how low oxygen in the water – which can be caused by modern environmental issues like rising water temperatures due to climate change and massive algae blooms – affects fish, and how fish are adapting to their changing environment. 

The most interesting finding, according to the scientists, was that changes in water oxygen levels didn't just affect how male sticklebacks built their nests, but which males the female sticklebacks preferred.

Stickleback fish have been an excellent population for studying evolution. They were originally ocean fish – but because they are found in, and have evolved to succeed in, a wide range of saltwater and freshwater environments, scientists can study their adaptability to environmental changes as well as breed different varieties together to see which genes carry certain environmental adaptations. 

Sticklebacks’ adaptability may be what makes the fish better survivors when their conditions change, the authors concluded.

What female fish want revealed in stickleback study

What female fish want was revealed in a new study...

Soil causes climate change, states a shocking report.

There is a developing potential that soil causes climate change, which could become a major source of carbon dioxide if humans continue to utilize and change the land at the same rate they currently do. 

Until now, soil has had the opposite effect, absorbing carbon dioxide and thereby countering the effects of climate change. But scientists in France have found that about 25% of the carbon found in soil could be released into the atmosphere over the course of the next century.

A report was published in the journal Scientific Reports in which scientists from the University of Exeter write that changing climate conditions and warming temperatures over the next century will make the soil less capable of storing carbon. Meanwhile, humans continue using the land, causing the soil to lose its stored carbon.

Soil that loses its carbon not only releases carbon dioxide into the air, it becomes less capable of producing food and storing water, which in turn could result in increased risk of erosion and flood damage.

Experts used France as a case study, combining soil carbon and land-use models with climate change predictions. The study found that most land will be subject to significant losses of soil carbon in the next 100 years. Only land converted into grass or forest results in additional stored carbon.

Dr. Dominique Arrouays of the French National Institute for Agricultural Research put it simply: “Purposive, targeted land use and agricultural practice changes would be needed if climate change mitigation is to be maximized. Therefore, the efforts to enhance carbon sequestration in soils, as proposed by France during the COP21, should be promoted immediately.”

Soil causes climate change, shocking report attests

Soil causes climate change, states a shocking report. There is...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...