The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

Scientists have discovered a potential way to control appetite in mice which could lead to a new obesity drugs for humans.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> found a potential way to target specific thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) in mice, located only in the hypothalamus, the area of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/part-brain-decides-food/">brain</a> that regulates appetite. 

TRs are spread widely throughout the body and interact with circulating thyroid hormones to regulate functions such as appetite, the nervous system, body temperature, and cholesterol levels. 

Any drug targeting thyroid hormones and their receptors needs to be specific to avoid affecting other body systems, the new study said. However, they are difficult to target individually due to their high numbers and so there are currently no anti-obesity drugs able to do so, the authors said

In early stage research, the authors divided 21 mice, who weighed roughly 20 grams each, into two groups. They injected mice in the first group with viruses that inactivated the brain TRs, but did not inject the second group. They then let both groups eat as much as they chose. 

They found that the group of mice with the inactive TRs ate much more food and doubled in weight on average, from the baseline of 20 grams to 40 grams over six weeks. The mice with active TRs maintained a stable body weight at 20 grams. There were no side effects from the injected viruses.

A human drug might decrease a person's appetite by activating TRs in the hypothalamus, without causing effects in other parts of the body, said James Gardiner, lead author of the research.

"If our findings can be applied to humans, then we may have a new target for obesity medication," he said.

Humans with lowered thyroid receptor activity in their brains have previously been found to be on average more obese than others, the study said. 

If this research continues into testing drugs on human subjects, there would be no simple test to measure levels of receptor activity and adjust medication accordingly. Rather, treatment would be based on a system of trial and error with regard to whether the drug worked for specific individuals, the authors said.

They warn that the research is at an early stage and the results should be taken with caution.

"Due to the justifiably long and complex process of drug discovery, any potential treatment that could result from this will be far off in the future,” said Gardiner. “However, the strength of our results, and the doubling in body size of these mice, shows there's that the role of thyroid hormones and their receptors are definitely worth exploring further in the fight against obesity."

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>

New appetite regulator could pave the way for human obesity drug

Scientists have discovered a potential way to control appetite in...

Scientists have discovered a new way to count fish by listening to their mating calls.

The research team from <a href="https://utmsi.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas Marine Science Institute</a> and <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> used underwater microphones to estimate how many fish are in a spawning aggregation, based on their mating calls.

Each spring, the entire adult population of Gulf corvina, totally more than 2 million fish, migrates to a small area at the northern tip of the Gulf of California, the study said. Male mating calls reach 192 decibels, enough to damage human eardrums if it were on land.

"It's louder than a rock concert," said Brad Erisman, assistant professor at UTMSI and co-author of the study. "It's louder than standing less than a meter from a chain saw."

The noise leads fishers to the corvina spawning aggregations. Over about 20 nights each spring, they can harvest more than a million fish with minimal effort. Because the entire species spawns in one place, they are extremely vulnerable.

Accurate data on when and where fish spawn, as well as how many there are, would help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-bloomer-dolphins-risk/">fisheries</a> design effective management practices and monitor the ongoing health of a fishery, the authors said.

"Our work opens an acoustic window into these exciting spawning events," Erisman said.

The researchers developed the method specifically for the Gulf corvina but it can be adapted to any fish that make courtship sounds. This includes cod, groupers, croakers, and the endangered totoaba, a species that is also endemic to the Gulf of California, the study said.

The new acoustic method for monitoring spawning populations could help ensure that corvina fishing is sustainable in the long run, the authors said.

"The fishers are by no means the enemy here," said Erisman. "They're actually the ones who have provided us with all the information and access to the resource, and they're the ones most interested in sustainability."

Nearly a third of the world's fish stocks are being harvested faster than they can reproduce, the study said.

Species that spawn seasonally in large groups are especially vulnerable because they are easier for fishers to locate and are plucked from the water often before they've seeded the next generation, according to the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-03383-8">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>

How listening to fish mating calls could help protect them

Scientists have discovered a new way to count fish by...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> conducted an eleven-year study on the subject of loneliness. The scientists discovered that isolation leads to heightened self-centeredness as a survival mechanism.

Studies have proven that loneliness leads to an increased risk of physical and mental health issues. Solitary people also have higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-gaps-life-expectancy/">death rates</a> than those with strong social relationships.

The findings of the study revealed that loneliness perpetuates self-centeredness which, in turn, elevates loneliness. This continuous loop has the potential to make people become more and more socially isolated. 

"Targeting self-centeredness as part of an intervention to lessen loneliness may help break a positive feedback loop that maintains or worsens loneliness over time,” explained the researchers.

Psychology Professor John Cacioppo teamed up with colleagues between 2002 to 2013 as part of the Chicago Health, Aging and Social Relations Study. The analysis focused on Hispanics, African-Americans and Caucasians. 229 individuals who varied in age, gender, and socioeconomic status were randomly selected. 

Previous work by the team indicated that loneliness made people more egotistical, but the researchers were surprised to find that self-centeredness impacted loneliness as well.

In 2006, the team had proposed an evolutionary theory based on the neuroscience of loneliness. The scientists pointed out that evolution of the brain influences how humans think, feel, and behave. 

"A variety of biological mechanisms have evolved that capitalize on aversive signals to motivate us to act in ways that are essential for our reproduction or survival," explained the researchers.

The psychological equivalent of physical pain is loneliness. From an evolutionary-biological perspective, people become more self-centered when they feel lonesome as a means of self-preservation. However, society has changed tremendously since this modification in the brain. 

"This evolutionarily adaptive response may have helped people survive in ancient times, but in contemporary society may well make it harder for people to get out of feelings of loneliness," John Cacioppo said.

The study, published in today's Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, suggests that any short-term benefits of being self-centered are heavily outweighed by the damage that results from loneliness over time.

“When humans are at their best, they provide mutual aid and protection,” said co-author Stephanie Cacioppo. "It isn't that one individual is sacrificial to the other. It's that together they do more than the sum of the parts. Loneliness undercuts that focus and really makes you focus on only your interests at the expense of others."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>

Loneliness makes us self-centered as a survival mechanism

Researchers at the University of Chicago conducted an eleven-year study...

Tropical peatlands, which help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, are threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-india-deadly-heat/">climate change</a> that alters rainfall patterns. This effect could potentially destroy even forested peatlands that remain undrained, a new study found.

These former carbon “sinks,” which have taken greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere, are now net carbon sources that are actually accelerating global warming, the <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> study said.

"There is a tremendous amount of peatland in Southeast Asia, but almost all of it has been deforested," said MIT Professor Charles Harvey, one of the study authors.

Once deforested and drained, the peatland dries out, and the organic (carbon-containing) soil oxidizes and returns to the atmosphere. Sometimes the exposed peat can actually catch fire and burn for extended periods, causing massive clouds of air pollution.

Tropical peatlands may contain as much carbon as the amount consumed in nearly a decade of global fossil fuel use. Raging peat fires in Indonesia alone have been estimated in some years to contribute 10 to 40 percent as much greenhouse gas to the atmosphere as all the world's fossil fuel burning, the researchers said. 

Tropical peatlands, unlike those in temperate zones that are dominated by sphagnum moss, are forested with trees that can tower to 150 feet. Peat fires can sometimes ignite forest fires that consume these as well. Peat that gets buried and compressed underground is the material that ultimately turns to coal.

Harvey and his team found one of the last undisturbed tropical peat forests, in the nation of Brunei on the island of Borneo. 

"We found this site that still has peat growing," Harvey said. That is partly because that petroleum-rich nation has been able to resist the economic draw of the palm-oil market.

"It is remarkable how much the peat forests are just gone everywhere else," Harvey added.

By studying this undisturbed tract, researchers were able to see how peatlands function under normal conditions, which provides a baseline for better understanding as the lands change.

 "If we could understand how these peat forests actually accumulate peat, maybe we could preserve some of them or regenerate peat forest on damaged land," Harvey said.

When peatland forests are cut down and drained, the water table in the area drops. But most of these peatlands are pretty close to sea level, Harvey said.

By midcentury, that land may be lost due to sea-level rise. Encroachment of saltwater into peatland that had formerly been saturated with freshwater could kill off trees and other vegetation. 

Changes in rainfall patterns that may occur as a result of climate change -- with rainfall more concentrated in rainy and dry seasons rather than evenly distributed -- could kill off many of the trees that dominate these lands, the study said.

The research is published the journal <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>

Dwindling peatlands face further threat from climate change

Tropical peatlands, which help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,...

Genes determine the music of songbirds. Genetics explains why songbirds learn the tunes of their own species rather than those of other birds, according to a new study.

Researchers at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden swapped eggs from two species of flycatchers so that they were raised completely by <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/parents-addicted-smartphones-kids/">parents</a> from the other <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=species&amp;cvid=ad7d11c04be44789aed27070cf07ca68&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">species. </a>

The young birds discriminated in favor of their own species' songs, even though they had no experience with their own species. This demonstrated that song choice is not a result of early learning, the study found.

The researchers also found that hybrid birds, with parents from each species, discriminated in favor of the songs of only one of the species, the pied flycatcher. Genes determine the music of songbirds

“A genetic basis for song discrimination in early life may help explain how song differences are maintained in a noisy, diverse world,” said David Wheatcroft, researcher at the Department of Ecology and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/genetics-will-show-which-corals-can-resist-bleaching/">Genetics</a> at Uppsala University and co-author of the study.

The song learning process in birds and the language learning process in humans “share remarkable behavioral and neural parallels,” the authors said. “One of the longest standing problems has been to determine how the brain encodes the vocal memories that underlie learning.“

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/">Uppsala University</a>

Genes determine the music of songbirds

Genes determine the music of songbirds. Genetics explains why songbirds...

One way to encourage people to eat more vegetables is to add more sizzle to the labeling, a new study found.

Using phrases such as "twisted citrus-glazed carrots" or "sweet sizzilin' green beans and crispy shallots" resulted in 25 percent more people selecting the vegetable compared with basic labeling, according to the <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> study.

The increase was even greater, 41 percent, over healthy restrictive labeling such as "lighter-choice beets with no added sugar,” the study found.

"Further research should assess how well the effects generalize to other settings and explore the potential of indulgent labeling to help alleviate the pervasive cultural mindset that healthy foods are not tasty," according to the research, published by <a href="http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.

Researchers conducted the study in a large university cafeteria, collecting data each weekday.

Each day, one vegetable was labeled in 1 of 4 ways: basic (“beets,” “green beans,” or “carrots”), healthy restrictive ("lighter-choice beets with no added sugar," "light 'n' low-carb green beans and shallots" or "carrots with sugar-free citrus dressing"), healthy positive ("high-antioxidant beets," "healthy energy-boosting green beans and shallots," or "smart-choice vitamin C citrus carrots"), or indulgent ( "dynamite chili and tangy lime-seasoned beets," "sweet sizzilin' green beans and crispy shallots," or "twisted citrus-glazed carrots").

The labeling changed, but there were no changes in how the vegetables were prepared or served.

Research assistants discretely recorded the number of diners who selected the vegetable and weighed the mass of vegetable taken from the serving bowl. 

The authors were unable to measure how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/part-brain-decides-food/">food</a> was eaten individually by cafeteria patrons, although people generally eat 92 percent of self-served food, the study said.

"Further research should assess how well the effects generalize to other settings and explore the potential of indulgent labeling to help alleviate the pervasive cultural mindset that healthy foods are not tasty," according to the research.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://jamanetwork.com/">The JAMA Network Journals</a>

Study: Labeling can make vegetables more appealing

One way to encourage people to eat more vegetables is...

Scientists studying bacteria and other microbes at the <a href="http://jgi.doe.gov/">U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute</a> will release 1,003 microbial genomes today – the largest such release yet.

"Bacteria and archaea comprise the largest amount of biodiversity of free-living organisms on Earth," Dr. Nikos Kyrpides, senior author of the paper and head of the DOE’s Prokaryotic Super Program, said in a press release. "They have already conquered every environment on the planet, so they have found ways to survive under the harshest of conditions with different enzymes and with different biochemistry."

By mapping the microbial genomes, the researchers hope that they and other scientists can begin working out what makes bacteria and other microbes such strong survivors. 

The Department of Energy also hopes to uncover how these microbes fit into their roles in Earth’s biogeochemical cycles. To that end, it has launched the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project, which seeks to sequence microbial genomes and study how they fit into Earth’s life cycles.

The release of the genomes could lead to new research and advances in bioenergy, medicine and agriculture, among other fields, the researchers said.

"In addition to identifying over half a million new protein families, this effort has more than doubled the coverage of phylogenetic diversity of all type strains with genome sequences," said Dr. Supratim Mukherjee, a computational biologist with the DOE and co-author of the paper.

The new set of genomic sequences broke new ground by focusing on diverse, poorly understood microbes, the researchers said. In the past, most of the microbes that have been sequenced have been human pathogens or those seen as useful for other research. This is one of the first attempts to sequence a wide sampling of microbes.

The release of 1,003 microbial genomes represents about a decade of work. The sequences are available through the <a href="https://img.jgi.doe.gov/">Integrated Microbial Genomes with Microbiomes</a> system, with associated metadata available through the <a href="https://gold.jgi.doe.gov/">Genomes OnLine Database</a>.

The researchers will publish their paper in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nbt/">Nature Biotechnology</a>. Funding came from the <a href="https://science.energy.gov/">DOE Office of Science</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Scientists release more than 1,000 microbial genomes

Scientists studying bacteria and other microbes at the U.S. Department...

A recent study performed by an international team of researchers has presented the first global analysis of established alien species – that is, species that have become established outside of their natural habitat (not actual aliens).

The research was led by <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a> and is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>. It incorporated analysis of data from eight different groups, which included amphibians, ants, birds, freshwater fish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-nosed-moles/">mammals</a>, reptiles, spiders, and vascular plants found in 186 island and 423 mainland regions. 

Through their analysis, the researchers determined that hotspots of these alien species occur mostly in island and coastal regions. "Our research shows that, islands and mainland coastal regions contain higher numbers of established alien plants and animals, and this may be because these areas have major points of entry like ports,” says lead author Wayne Dawson of Durham University's Department of Biosciences.

The top three hot spots for alien plants and animals were the Hawaiian Islands, New Zealand’s North Island, and the Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesia. In fact, about half of New Zealand’s plant life is made up of established alien plants.

Interestingly, the UK – and England especially – has more established alien plants and animals than many other global regions. The U.S. state of Florida was also a top hotspot, as it has become home to many non-native snake and ant species. 

The study found that a region’s wealth, population density, and climate are major factors in the number of established alien species. “In general, regions that are wealthier, and where human populations are denser also have more alien species, but these effects are stronger for islands,” explains Dawson.

This research can help scientists understand how to lessen the impact that some alien species have on their non-native habitats, and possibly prevent further introduction of other alien plants and animals. While many species don’t have negative effects on their new environments, this type of data analysis will help scientists know what areas to focus on in the future.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>

Photo Credit: Pablo García-Diaz

Non-native plant and animal species target global hotspots

A recent study performed by an international team of researchers...

The process of human decision-making is a complex behavior that is constantly being examined by scientists in order to help improve the quality of lives. Neuroscientists from the <a href="http://www.gla.ac.uk/">University of Glasgow</a> conducted a study that gives insight into how we make food decisions based on personal preference.

Participants in the study wore EEG caps so they could be scanned with an MRI machine. The researchers observed their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-overrides-sleep-awake/">brain</a> activity while the individuals chose between two snacks. 

The study revealed that the brain activity was centralized in the posterior medial frontal cortex. The activity built up gradually and continued until the individual made a food choice.

The posterior medial frontal cortex has,been previously associated with long-term memory retrieval and decision making. This study established that this region of the brain is also linked to decision-making based on preferences. 

Mr Andrea Pisauro is the first author of the study. 

“This is similar to when we make perceptual decisions, like choosing the larger of two slices of cake,” explained Pisauro. “The brain accumulates information supporting one of the decision alternatives until an internal criterion is reached and a decision is made.”

The unprecedented findings of this study open the door for further investigation of preference-based choices in humans. The researchers believe this discovery may be key in improving our eating behaviors and following through with diet plans.

Dr Marios Philastides led the study. He added, “Our findings have important implications for a broad range of socioeconomic problems ranging from public policy analysis, like informing health behaviours, to brain-informed advertisement strategies and product design.”

“In addition, the work can improve our understanding of mental and neurodegenerative disorders known to compromise one's decision-making faculties, like depression, schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease by offering a direct window into the brain systems involved in goal-directed choices,” concluded Dr. Philastides.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.gla.ac.uk/">University of Glasgow</a>

Scientists discover part of the brain that makes food decisions

The process of human decision-making is a complex behavior that...

Scientists have invented a form of ultra strong, lightweight carbon that is also elastic and electrically conductive. It could serve a wide variety of applications from aerospace engineering to military armor.

"Light materials with high strength and robust elasticity like this are very desirable for applications where weight savings are of the utmost importance, even more than material cost," said Zhisheng Zhao a former Carnegie fellow who is now a <a href="http://english.ysu.edu.cn/">Yanshan University</a> professor. "What's more, we believe that this synthesis method could be honed to create other extraordinary forms of carbon and entirely different classes of materials."

In a collaboration between Yanshan University and the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>, researchers pressurized and heated a structurally disordered form of carbon called glassy carbon. The glassy carbon starting material was brought to about 250,000 times normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/high-pressure-cloud-patterns-eastern-u-s/">atmospheric pressure</a> and heated to approximately 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit to create the new strong and elastic carbon.

Carbon is an “element of seemingly infinite possibilities,” the researchers said. “The configuration of its electrons allows for numerous self-bonding combinations that give rise to a range of materials with varying properties. For example, transparent, super hard diamonds, and opaque graphite, which is used for both pencils and industrial lubricant, are comprised solely of carbon.”

Scientists had previously tried subjecting glassy carbon to high pressures at both room temperature and extremely high temperatures. But the so-called cold-synthesized material could not maintain its structure when brought back to ambient pressure, and under the extremely hot conditions, nanocrystalline diamonds were formed.

The newly created carbon is comprised of both graphite-like and diamond-like bonding motifs, creating the unique combination of properties. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>

Photo Credit: Timothy Strobel

New carbon form is light, super strong, elastic

Scientists have invented a form of ultra strong, lightweight carbon...

Soft shelled turtles, considered a delicacy in China, are likely spreading cholera, a new study said.

The research was motivated by discovery that consumption of cholera-carrying soft shelled turtles had caused outbreaks of the disease in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japan-china-fossil-fuel-sea-floor/">China</a>, said corresponding author Biao Kan. 

"Cholera is a life-threatening diarrheal disease," said Kan, professor of Pathogenic Biology and Infectious Disease control, at the <a href="http://www.chinacdc.cn/en/">Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a> in Beijing.

Researchers inserted genes producing bioluminescent proteins into Vibrio cholerae enabling them to directly observe the pathogens colonizing the turtles. Investigators dipped the the turtles into a phosphate-buffered saline solution containing the now bioluminescent bacteria, serogroup 0139.

Over the next four days, the researchers checked the turtles at 24-hour intervals. They first detected light signals at 24 hours. At 96 hours, the entire dorsal side of the turtles' shells was emitting bioluminescence. 

During the last decade, China has seen less than 200 cases of cholera annually, according to Kan. But he said that of the 39 diseases surveilled under China's Law of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, cholera is in the most dangerous category, along with plague.

He also noted that the O139 serogroup, the major strain spread by the turtles, is an emerging disease in China.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://aem.asm.org/">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.asm.org/">American Society for Microbiology</a>

Soft shelled turtles likely spreading cholera in China

Soft shelled turtles, considered a delicacy in China, are likely...

16 of the 17 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2016-rising-temperatures/">hottest</a> years on record have happened during this century. According to <a href="http://www.climatecentral.org/news/heat-is-on-for-2017-21011">Climate Central</a>, this number of record-setting hot years is due to “heat that has accumulated from human-caused warming.” Regions are heating up across the globe, and a new report shows that India is particularly feeling the heat, and all of the risks that come along with it. 

Climatologist Omid Mazdiyasni of the <a href="https://uci.edu/">University of California Irvine</a> led a team of experts in assessing the heat-related vulnerability of India.

"It's getting hotter, and of course more heat waves are going to kill more people," said Mazdiyasni. “We knew there was going to be an impact, but we didn't expect it to be this big.”

The researchers examined decades of records from the Indian Meteorological Department to project the likelihood of extreme heat events and heat-related mortality. 

The study revealed that India's temperature increased by 0.9 degrees Fahrenheit between 1960 and 2009. Using a new probabilistic model, the researchers showed this spike in summer temperatures increases the probability of India experiencing “heat-related mortality events of more than 100 people” by 146 percent. 

The study, published in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>, established that the number and duration of heat wave days have increased by 25 percent across most of the country. Southern and Western India have faced 50 percent more heat waves in 1985-2009 than they saw in the previous 25 years.

The researchers say heat-related deaths will increase with future global warming, especially in low-latitude countries that are underdeveloped.

“Although India is particularly susceptible to heat waves given its geography and current state of human development, there are many countries that are similarly vulnerable to the extreme heat events in the ever-warming world. Our results suggest that even moderate and practically unavoidable increases in mean temperatures, such as 0.5°C, may lead to large increases in heat-related mortality, unless measures are taken to substantially improve the resilience of vulnerable populations,” explained the authors of the study. 


The heat waves will have a negative effect on air quality, hurt crops, intensify droughts, and increase energy consumption, according to the authors. Poor populations exposed to the extreme heat will have higher mortality rates. Health problems will develop and existing health issues will become more severe, particularly for those who lack resources such as clean water, shelter, and health care. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>, <a href="http://hosted.ap.org/">Associated Press</a>

Climate change brings deadly heat to India

16 of the 17 hottest years on record have happened...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...