The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

Meditation, yoga, and Tai Chi can reverse the molecular reactions in our DNA which cause ill-health and depression, a new study said.

When a person is exposed to a stressful event, their sympathetic nervous system which is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response, is triggered. This, in turn, increases production of a molecule called nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB), which regulates how our genes are expressed, the study said.

NF-kB activates genes to produce proteins called cytokines that cause inflammation at the cellular level. This is a reaction that is useful as a short-lived fight-or-flight reaction, but if persistent, leads to a higher risk of cancer, accelerated aging, and psychiatric disorders like depression, according to a study by <a href="http://www.coventry.ac.uk/">Coventry University</a> and <a href="http://www.ru.nl/english/">Radboud University</a>.

However, people who practice mind-body interventions (MBIs) such as yoga and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-meditation-works-wonders/">meditation</a> exhibit the opposite effect. They experience a decrease in production of NF-kB and cytokines, leading to a reversal of the pro-inflammatory gene expression pattern and a reduction in the risk of inflammation-related diseases and conditions, the study said.

The research, published in the journal <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/immunology">Frontiers in Immunology</a>, reviews more than a decade of studies analysing how the behavior of genes is affected by different MBIs.

When examined together, the 18 studies -- featuring 846 participants over 11 years -- reveal a pattern in the molecular changes which happen to the body as a result of MBIs, and how those changes benefit our mental and physical health.

The researchers focus on the way genes activate to produce proteins which influence the biological makeup of the body, the brain, and the immune system.

"Millions of people around the world already enjoy the health benefits of mind-body interventions like yoga or meditation, but what they perhaps don't realize is that these benefits begin at a molecular level and can change the way our genetic code goes about its business,” said lead investigator Ivana Buric of Coventry University.

Activities such as yoga leave a “molecular signature” in our cells, which reverses the effect that stress or anxiety would have on the body by changing how our genes are expressed, Buric said.

”Put simply, MBIs cause the brain to steer our DNA processes along a path which improves our wellbeing,“ she said.

More research is needed to better understand the effects, Buric said.

"But this is an important foundation to build on to help future researchers explore the benefits of increasingly popular mind-body activities,” she said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source : <a href="http://www.coventry.ac.uk/">Coventry University</a>

How yoga and meditation actually reverse ill health, depression

Meditation, yoga, and Tai Chi can reverse the molecular reactions...

China will attempt to grow potatoes, silkworms on moon. China plans to grow potatoes and hatch silkworms on the moon, the <a href="https://www.cqcb.com/hot/2017-06-12/351314_pc.html">Chongqing Morning Post</a> reported.

It will be part of the the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration">China National Space Administration</a>'s program to build a small ecosystem on Earth's natural satellite, the story said.

Scientists at <a href="http://study.cqu.edu.cn/IndexOfEnglish/Index">Chongqing University</a> in central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/america-leads-science-china-gaining/">China</a> have developed a 7 inch, 6.6 lb container holding a mini-ecosystem to be ferried to the moon by the Chang'e 4 rocket next year.

“The container will send potatoes, Arabidopsis (cress) seeds and silkworm eggs to the surface of the moon,” chief designer Dr. Zhang Yuanxun said.

“The eggs will hatch into silkworms (moth larvae), which can produce carbon dioxide, while the potatoes and seeds emit oxygen through photosynthesis,” he said. “Together, they can establish a simple ecosystem on the moon.”

Scientists will then be able to observe the effect of the moon's low gravity (one sixth of Earth's) on the various organisms.

Officials say they will release results of the experiment to the public.

“We will livestream the development of plants and insects on lunar surface to the whole world,” Gengxin said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source : <a href="https://www.cqcb.com/hot/2017-06-12/351314_pc.html">Chongqing Morning Post</a>

China will attempt to grow potatoes, silkworms on moon

China will attempt to grow potatoes, silkworms on moon. China...

Animals evolved earlier than previously believed and prior to the global Ice Age that hit the Earth about 700 million years ago, according to a new study.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/125-million-dinosaur-fossil-found-spain/">Fossil</a> records show that almost all of the animal phyla known today had come into existence by the beginning of the Cambrian Period some 540 million years ago, according to the study by <a href="https://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/">Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München</a>.

The earliest known animal fossils exhibit complex morphologies, which implies that they must have originated long before the onset of the Cambrian, the study said.

The researchers used a dating method called the molecular clock to investigate the chronology of early animal evolution and produce a new estimate for the ages of the oldest animal groups. 

The molecular clock approach is based on the principle that mutations accumulate in the genomes of all organisms over the course of time. The extent of the genetic difference between two lineages should therefore depend on the time elapsed since they diverged from their last common ancestor.

“Our study is based on a combination of genetic data from contemporary animals and information derived from well dated fossils, which we analyzed with the help of complex computer algorithms," said Martin Dohrmann of Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitae.

Researchers used an unusually large dataset made up of the sequences of 128 proteins from 55 species, including representatives of all the major animal groups, focusing in particular on those that diverged very early.

The analysis confirms the conclusion reached in an earlier study, which dated the origin of animals to the Neoproterozoic Era, which lasted from 1000 to 540 million years ago. 

However, researchers were surprised that the results suggest that the earliest phyla, and the ancestors of all bilateral animal species, originated within the - geologically speaking - short time-span of 50 million years. 

"In addition, this early phase of evolutionary divergence appears to have preceded the extreme climate changes that led to Snowball Earth, a period marked by severe long-term global glaciation that lasted from about 720 to 635 million years ago," Dohrmann said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/">Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München</a>

Study: Animals evolved earlier than previously believed

Animals evolved earlier than previously believed and prior to the...

Researchers may have been rediscovered the 8th Wonder of the World, 131 years after it was buried by a volcanic eruption in New Zealand, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/">Guardian</a> reported.

In the mid-1800s, the pink and white terraces of Lake Rotomahana in the North Island attracted tourists from around the globe, the story said. When Mount Arawera erupted in 1886, the dramatic cascading pools descending into the lake’s temperate waters were lost.

Two researchers think they have pinpointed the location where the terraces may lie, preserved 10 to 15 meters below the surface under layers of mud and ash. A full archaeological survey is needed to excavate the site, the researchers said.

“They [the terraces] became the greatest tourist attraction in the southern hemisphere and the British empire, and shiploads of tourists made the dangerous visit down from the UK, Europe and America to see them,” said researcher Rex Bunn. “But they were never surveyed by the government of the time, so there was no record of their latitude or longitude.”

Bunn and Dr Sascha Nolden believe the terraces were not destroyed or pushed to the bottom of the lake, as earlier research suggested. Instead, the 8th Wonder of the World was likely buried on the foreshore of the lake.

To determine the location, the researchers used the field diaries of geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter, which contain a detailed description of the terraces prior to the 1886 eruption.

“Our research relied on the only survey ever made of that part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geothermal-motherlode-new-zealand/">New Zealand</a> and therefore we are confident the cartography is sound,” Bunn said. “Hochstetter was a very competent cartographer.”

Since the pair’s research paper was published this month in the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tnzr20/current">Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand</a>, Bunn said he had received daily offers of help to conduct a survey and was in the process of assembling a “team of the willing” to begin exploring the site.

“We want to undertake this work in the public interest. And I have been closely liaising with the ancestral owners of the land, the Tuhourangi Tribal Authority, and they are supportive and delighted with the work,” he said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/">Guardian</a>

Image Credit: Pink and White Terraces (1886) by Charles Blomfield

Photograph: Alamy

Has the 8th Wonder of the World been rediscovered?

Researchers may have been rediscovered the 8th Wonder of the...

The meticulous nature of research in modern science produces massive quantities of biological information. This data helps scientists to develop theories about biological systems. Now, math is being used to test these theories in a breakthrough field of science known as mathematical biology.

In the past, biological systems were considered too complex to be understood using math. However, scientists needed written models to represent their hypotheses on biological systems that could be tested for accuracy. Mathematics provided scientists with a method of creating these written models.

Math can easily be applied to biological systems with the capabilities of today's computers. The evolution of computers has given scientists access to tools by which to test complicated biological models written in the language of mathematics.

There is great potential for the application of mathematical biology. Researchers at the <a href="http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/">Centre for Mathematical Biology</a> are using a mathematical approach to everything from locust infestation to the development of the embryo.

Math has given scientists unprecedented insight into biological systems, and is becoming a key component in addressing some of the most challenging and urgent medical issues of our time. 

For example, mathematical biologists used computer models of the human heart to predict how it will interact with drugs which were developed to improve its function. This eliminates the need for expensive and risky clinical trials.

Math is also being used to unravel the mysteries of disease. Math models have helped researchers identify potential ways to help the body fight off viruses. Methods of controlling deadly epidemics like eBola have also been identified by mathematical biologists.

Alan Turing, the genius behind a code-breaking machine that saved thousands of lives during World War II, was the first to suggest math can help scientists gain insight into biological occurrences. Decades later, scientists are following his lead. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/">Centre for Mathematical Biology</a>

How math equations help scientists fight diseases

The meticulous nature of research in modern science produces massive...

Scientists have discovered the fossil of a 125-million year old dinosaur in Spain, <a href="http://www.reuters.com/">Reuters </a>reported.

The fossil was from a medium-sized dinosaur scientists named Morelladon, a four-legged herbivore that measured 20 feet long.

A series of bony spines protruded from its back that formed the sail-like structure that stood about 2 feet tall.

"The sail could help in heat exchange - thermoregulation - focused on releasing excess body heat into the environment, like the ears of the modern-day elephants, or as a storage place for fat to be used during periods of low food supply," said paleontologist Fernando Escaso of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Distance_Education">National University of Distance Education</a>'s Evolutionary Biology Group in Spain.

The structure also could have helped attract mates, Escaso added.

Sail-like structures appeared periodically in the evolutionary history of vertebrates, often in animal groups not closely related to one another, he added.

Another plant-eating dinosaur called Ouranosaurus with similarities to Morelladon lived about the same time in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-springs-early-humans-migrate/">Africa</a>. The biggest sail-backed creature was Spinosaurus, which lived a semi-aquatic lifestyle 95 million years ago. At 50 feet long and weighing 7 tons, it was the biggest dinosaur predator on record, larger even than Tyrannosaurus rex.

Millions of years before the rise of the dinosaurs, there were other sail-backed creatures, including the carnivorous reptile Arizonasaurus, the amphibian Platyhystrix, and the distant mammal relatives Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus.

Morelladon is known from a partial skeleton including the spines, other vertebrae, pelvic bones, a thigh bone and teeth.

Northeastern Spain during Morelladon's time alternated between wet and dry periods, with strong temperature variations ranging from 40 degrees Fahrenheit to about 104 degrees Fahrenheit.

Escaso said the main predator in the area was Baryonyx, a relative of Spinosaurus, and there were other plant-eating dinosaurs around as well as crocodilians and the flying reptiles called pterosaurs.

The research was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.reuters.com/">Reuters</a>

Image Credit: Carlos de Miguel Chaves

125 million year-old dinosaur fossil found in Spain

Scientists have discovered the fossil of a 125-million year old...

In areas that are in close proximity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/sulfur-dioxide-emissions-volcanoes/">volcanoes</a>, you’d imagine that there is a premium on any information that may be indicative of impending eruptions. Unfortunately, scientists don’t have a great understanding of what events to look out for that lead up to volcanic eruptions. One significant limitation in this area has been the lack of knowledge around the temperature history of magma.

A new study has analyzed the crystals of the mineral zircon (zirconium silicate) in the magma of an eruption that occurred in New Zealand roughly 700 years ago, in order to determine the magma’s history. This analysis indicated that the magma experienced a “cool” period for thousands of years before it heated up. Once the magma temperature hit 750 degrees Celsius, it likely took no more than a few decades before the volcano erupted.

The researchers believe this analysis is applicable to many of the volcanoes currently active today, including those in the Cascade Range in the United States, which contains the famous Mt. Hood. In a previous study, the researchers found that Mt. Hood also existed in a colder state for a long period of time before rapidly shifting into its eruptive phase. Understanding the pattern of long-term crystal storage in near-solid magma could help scientists recognize when other volcanoes on our planet are about to erupt as well.

“Mobility in magma is a function of temperature and most of the time when it’s sitting there in the Earth’s crust under the volcano it’s cool," says Adam Kent, a geologist at <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> and co-author on the study. “Of course, cool is a relative description since it’s still some 650 degrees (Celsius). I wouldn’t put my finger on it.” Kent explains that in order to result in an eruption, the Earth’s surface magma must heat up so it can be liquid enough to squeeze through the cracks in the Earth and reach the surface. When magma is at lower temperatures, it’s too thick and rich in crystals to be this mobile.

The researchers believe that by using zircon crystals, they can analyze what is going on below the surface of a volcano before it potentially erupts. These crystals appear in the magma of many volcanoes along the “ring of fire” in the Pacific Ocean, as well as in other places on the planet. 

Besides the crystal analysis, their findings also indicate that if a lot of volcanoes store their magma in this colder state, finding a volcano that contains warm and mobile magma might help scientists be wary of a potential eruption. 

Overall, this study is helping to improve our understanding of these eruption events, paving the way to making volcanic locations safer. More information can be found on this paper in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>

Crystals in magma may help scientists forecast volcanic eruptions

In areas that are in close proximity to volcanoes, you’d...

An area on the seafloor of the Japanese coast where two tectonic plates meet is the subject of study for an international team of researchers interested in the mechanics of earthquakes and tsunamis. This is the location of a subduction zone, where the Pacific Plate slides underneath the Eurasian Plate, and is part of the “ring of fire” that goes around the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typhoon-songda-moves-in-the-open-pacific-ocean/">Pacific Ocean</a>. 

Researchers are attempting to understand slow-slip earthquakes in these subduction zones, recording data from instruments placed on the seafloor and in boreholes at this location. “This area is the shallowest part of the plate boundary system,” explains Demian Saffer, professor of geosciences at <a href="http://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a>. “If this region near the ocean trench slips in an earthquake, it has the potential to generate a large tsunami.”

The focus of the study was slow earthquakes, which occur from slip events that happen over days or weeks. Previous research has found that slow earthquakes play an important part in earthquake occurrence at tectonic plate boundaries, and may be able to show where some of the energy that gets built up in a fault or subduction zone goes.

“These valuable results are important for understanding the risk of a tsunami,” says James Allan, program director in the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=OCE">National Science Foundation's Division of Ocean Sciences</a> “Such tidal waves can affect the lives of hundreds of thousands of people and result in billions of dollars in damages, as happened in Southeast Asia in 2004.”

The data that was gathered for this study showed that roughly 50 percent of the energy in the shallow subduction zone was released during a slow earthquake. The other 50 percent may be stuck in the permanent shortening of the upper plate, or may be stored for a century or more until another earthquake occurs. The research team believes that a slow slip could reduce the risk of tsunamis through periodically relieving this built up energy – but it is probably more complicated than that.

A series of slow slip events around this plate interface was also shown to occur about every 12 to 18 months, and could be days or weeks long. “The area where these slow earthquakes take place is uncompacted, which is why it has been thought that these shallow areas near the trench act like a shock absorber, stopping deeper earthquakes from reaching the surface,” says Saffer. “Instead we have discovered slow earthquakes of magnitude 5 or 6 in the region that last from days to weeks.”

Because earthquakes that occur away from the subduction zone can sometimes trigger these slow earthquakes, the researchers now know this area is more sensitive than previously thought. 

Much is left to be discovered about the mechanics of these earthquakes and how they may trigger future earthquakes or tsunamis. The data being gathered from the seafloor is imperative if we want to one day figure out how to reduce the damage that these events cause.

[caption id="attachment_454825" align="aligncenter" width="255"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/143040.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-454825" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/143040-255x300.jpg" alt="" width="255" height="300" /></a> Credit: Demian Saffer, Penn State[/caption]

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>

Image Credit: Demian Saffer, Penn State

Slow earthquakes near Japan provide insight into tsunami generation

An area on the seafloor of the Japanese coast where...

Earthquakes are a constant problem in the U.S. state of California, causing significant damage and posing a threat to the wellbeing of the state’s residents. Efforts by scientists to understand the multitude of factors that cause these quakes are ongoing, and have the potential to save lives as well as preserve infrastructure. 

Recently, a new study from the <a href="http://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> revealed that the winter rain and snow in California actually has a physical effect on the geology responsible for earthquakes. During the winter, rain and snow push down the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gobi-desert-dust-sierra-nevadas/">Sierra Nevada</a> and Coast Ranges. In the summer, these mountains “rebound” by about a centimeter, which affects the stress on earthquake faults and results in a seasonal increase in minor earthquakes.

Furthermore, the weight of ground and stream water depresses the Sierra Nevada mountains by about half a centimeter, causing the same effect. The rising and falling of this land causes the earth’s crust to flex, creating a pushing and pulling action on the natural fault lines.

Researchers were able to measure these tiny rises and falls using the regional global positioning system, and could calculate the stress on the earth due to these water loads. They analyzed 3,600 earthquakes from 2006-2015, correlating each earthquake’s occurrence with the calculated peak stress on the fault from which it occurred. Their data revealed that California’s faults experienced more small earthquakes when these seasonal changes were most significant.

The state’s largest fault – the San Andreas fault – experienced an increase in small earthquakes (those less than magnitude 2) in late summer and early fall, when the water load has diminished the most on the mountains. However, it’s unlikely residents would have noticed, as most people can’t feel quakes below a magnitude 2.5.

“It’s not that all earthquakes happen in September. There is no earthquake season,” clarifies Roland Bürgmann, senior author of the paper and <a href="http://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a> professor of earth and planetary science. “It all depends on details of the loading, the location of the fault and the geometry of the fault.”

The researchers stress that the impact of these water-related factors are tiny –increasing the chance of earthquakes by no more than a few percentage points. Previous studies have shown that massive earthquakes – known as megaquakes – can trigger other large quakes from thousands of miles away due to seismic waves. The data presented in this study indicates a similar amount of stress is caused by the seasonal water loading in California. 

“We don’t see an increase in large-magnitude earthquakes from these low-amplitude stresses caused by seasonal water storage,” says Johnson. “What these results are showing, however, is that we do see a correlation with small earthquakes from low-amplitude stresses.”

Overall, this study can provide seismologists with much needed information on how faults rupture and what factors lead to an earthquake occurring. These findings won’t be used as indicators for times when large earthquakes should be expected; rather, they will better serve scientists’ understanding of the mechanics of earthquakes. 

More information on this paper can be found in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California – Berkeley</a>

Some California earthquakes caused by seasonal rain and snowfall

Earthquakes are a constant problem in the U.S. state of...

Most neurons in the brain's auditory cortex detect where a sound is coming from relative to the head, but some are tuned to a sound source's actual physical location, a new study found.

"Our brains can represent sound location in either an egocentric manner - for example, when I can tell that a phone is ringing to my left - or in an allocentric manner - hearing that the phone is on the table,” said the study's first author, Stephen Town of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.

When a person moves their head, neurons with an egocentric focus will respond differently, as the phone's position relative to the ears has changed. But the allocentric neurons will not change their response, Town said.

Researchers monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-footed-ferrets-make-home-colorado/">ferrets</a> while they moved around a small arena surrounded by speakers that emitted clicking sounds. Electrodes monitored the firing rates of neurons in the ferrets' auditory cortex, while LEDs were used to track the animals' movement.

Among the neurons under investigation that picked up sound location, the study showed that most displayed egocentric orientations by tracking where a sound source was relative to the animal's head. Butt approximately 20 percent of the spatially tuned neurons instead tracked a sound source's actual location in the world, independent of the ferret's head movements.

The researchers also found that neurons were more sensitive to sound location when the ferret's head was moving quickly.

"Most previous research into how we determine where a sound is coming from used participants with fixed head positions, which failed to differentiate between egocentric and allocentric tuning. Here we found that both types coexist in the auditory cortex," said the study's senior author, Jennifer Bizley of University College London.

The findings could help in the design of technologies involving augmented or virtual reality, the researchers said.

"We often hear sounds presented through earphones as being inside our heads, but our findings suggest sound sources could be created to appear externally, in the world, if designers incorporate information about body and head movements," Town said.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

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By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>

Study clarifies how our brains track where sound comes from

Most neurons in the brain's auditory cortex detect where a...

Warm winds from an especially strong El Nino have caused an area of west Antarctica more than twice the size of California to partially melt, according to a new study.

The warm spell persisted for more than two weeks in January 2016, according to the study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>. 

Satellite data revealed a mix of melted snow and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/thinning-ice-sheets-greenland/">ice</a> over most of the Ross Ice Shelf, a thick platform of floating ice that channels about a third of the ice flowing from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the ocean, the study said.

Researchers have been gathering evidence for years that warm ocean water is melting west Antarctic ice shelves from beneath, but this is one of the first times they've been able to document how warm air could also cause widespread melting from above.

A few weeks before the warm spell, researchers had installed the necessary instruments to investigate these processes in West Antarctica as part of a study to better understand how clouds affect the amount of energy that reaches the snow surface and influence its temperature.

"We were extraordinarily fortunate to be able to deploy state-of-the art equipment to West Antarctica just before this large melt event occurred," said study coauthor Dan Lubin, principal investigator of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility">Atmospheric Radiation Measurement </a>(ARM) <a href="https://www.arm.gov/publications/programdocs/doe-sc-arm-15-040.pdf">West Antarctic Radiation Experiment</a> (AWARE). Lubin is a research physicist at the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. 

When Julien Nicolas, lead author of the paper, got a January 2016 alert from the AWARE expedition that the weather at their campsite atop of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet had turned unseasonably warm, he checked to see in the satellite data what was happening to the rest of west Antarctica.

The presence of water in the snow is often hard to detect from visible satellite imagery, especially if clouds block the view. Instead, Nicolas analyzed satellite measurements of the microwave radiation emitted by the snowpack, since dry and wet snows have very different microwave signatures.

What he saw during the melting event was an area of roughly 300,000 square miles, including most of the Ross Ice Shelf, that likely contained a mix of snow and water.

"What probably happened is that the surface snowpack was able to contain the meltwater, acting as a buffer and preventing the formation of melt ponds and streams that can be common on some Antarctic ice shelves," said Nicolas, research associate at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a>’s <a href="https://bpcrc.osu.edu/">Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center</a>. "But we cannot rule out the presence of standing water in many locations."

The melting was particularly interesting to scientists because it took place during one of the strongest El Nino events on record.

"This conjunction of events was no coincidence," Nicholas said.  "It's a pattern that is emerging. And because we expect stronger, more frequent El Ninos in the future with a warming climate, we can expect more major surface melt events in West Antarctica."

More frequent melting would accelerate the general deterioration of the ice sheet, he said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a>

El Nino winds cause widespread ice melt in west Antarctica

Warm winds from an especially strong El Nino have caused...

The U.S. leads the world in biomedical research and development, and Americans publish more science discoveries than any other country in the world. However, a new study reveals that America's strength in this field is weakening as China is steadily becoming a force to be reckoned with. 


Researchers from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> established that China has been investing more in science over the last two decades, and is projected to spend more on research and development than the U.S. by 2022. Chinese research teams are now ranked fourth worldwide for the number of new discoveries published in six top biomedical journals.

As funding for new research and development is diminishing in major countries such as the United States, England, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/record-rainfall-queensland-australia/">Australia</a>, “team science” is becoming more commonplace. In fact, the study shows an unprecedented amount of international collaboration. By 2015, 50 percent of reports in top publications were authored by researchers from two or more countries. 


The analysis, based on a detailed assessment of reports published in six top-tier and four mid-tier journals from 2000 to 2015, expands upon previous research that showed America's command of science and medical research is slipping.


"It's time for U.S. policy-makers to reflect and decide whether the year-to-year uncertainty in National Institutes of Health budget and the proposed cuts are in our societal and national best interest," said Bishr Omary, senior author of the study.  

South Korea has climbed the ranks into the top ten countries for science-related publications. The study noted there is more support for research and development in South Korea and Singapore since 2000. Singapore has been able to recruit experts from other regions of the world due to a spike in funding.

The report also addresses the future of this field for young, aspiring scientists.

"If we continue on the path we're on, it will be harder to maintain our lead and, even more importantly, we could be disenchanting the next generation of bright and passionate biomedical scientists who see a limited future in pursuing a scientist or physician-investigator career,” said Omar.

The authors note that their study is based on data up until 2015. Currently,  funding for National Institutes of Health has increased. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>

America still leads in science, but China gaining steam

The U.S. leads the world in biomedical research and development,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...