The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

The chemical hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has been used in bleach and as a wound disinfectant for years, but scientists have recently discovered that it also plays an important role in plants.

Hydrogen peroxide occurs naturally as a by-product of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/use-photosynthesis-create-hydrogen-fuel/">photosynthesis</a> in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Researchers have now observed that H2O2 is actually used to control how these cells react to different levels of light.

The study was done by the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the <a href="http://www.essex.ac.uk/">University of Essex</a>, where researchers used a fluorescent protein that detects H2O2 in order to see how it moves from chloroplasts to cell nuclei. Since plants’ genes are located in the nuclei, this method allowed the researchers to observe how plants activate the genes they need for their leaves to adapt to potentially harmful levels of sunlight. This allows the chloroplasts and nucleus to communicate in order to control photosynthesis and properly adjust to certain light conditions.

“It’s important for plants to be able to detect how much light there is, so they can make the most of it for photosynthesis,” says Nick Smirnoff, at professor at the University of Exeter. “They also have to adjust to protect themselves, as high levels of light can damage leaves - similar in some ways to how we humans get sunburn on our skin.”

The researchers also discovered that some of the chloroplasts that produce this hydrogen peroxide signal are actually attached to the nucleus, which allows them to pass the chemical more effectively. In fact, this was the first time signals have been observed being exchanged from the chloroplast to the nucleus.

New research such as this helps us to understand the fascinating physiology of plants, a very necessary endeavor if we’re going to continue to benefit from their presence on our planet.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>

How hydrogen peroxide protects plants against sun damage

The chemical hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has been used in bleach...

A report published today in <a href="http://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a> reveals that children with higher IQs are likely to live longer. According to the study, intelligence is linked to a lower risk of leading causes of death including stroke, heart disease, smoking-related cancers, respiratory disease, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-overrides-sleep-awake/">dementia</a>.

The study is an unprecedented analysis of cause of death in men and women that spans throughout the entire course of their lives. Previous research which determined people with higher IQs live longer was very limited. The evaluations focused only on males and did not follow up past the middle of life. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> based their study on data from over 65,000 men and women born in Scotland in 1936. Each of the individuals had taken a validated intelligence test at age 11 and had died by December 2015 from a known effect.

Causes of death included coronary heart disease, stroke, cancers, respiratory disease, digestive disease, dementia, and external causes such as injury and suicide.

The researchers determined that higher intelligence in childhood resulted in an overall lower risk of death through age 79. They took into consideration several factors that could have influenced the results like age, sex, and socioeconomic status.

The study indicated that those with higher IQ test scores were 28 percent less likely to die from respiratory disease by age 79. The risk of dying from stroke was reduced by 24 percent, and the risk of death from coronary heart disease was decreased by 25 percent.

In addition, there was significant evidence to suggest that individuals with higher IQs were less likely to fall victim to deaths from injury, smoking related cancers, digestive disease, and dementia. 

No association was established between childhood intelligence and death from cancers that are not smoking-related. This suggests that lifestyle choices - particularly tobacco smoking - are contributing factors to the effect that intelligence has on longevity. 

While the authors acknowledge certain study limitations that may have affected the results of the evaluation, there is compelling evidence to support their findings, including the assessment's whole population sample and 68-year time span.


"Importantly, it shows that childhood IQ is strongly associated with causes of death that are, to a great extent, dependent on already known risk factors," explained the authors. "It remains to be seen if this is the full story or if IQ signals something deeper, and possibly genetic, in its relation to longevity.” 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>

Study: Children with higher IQs live longer

A report published today in The BMJ reveals that children...

Long-term exposure to air pollution and ozone increases the risk of premature death for senior citizens, even when it is below national air quality standards, according to a new study by <a href="http://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>.

Twelve thousand lives could be saved each year by lowering levels of just one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/local-air-pollution-map-oakland/">pollutants</a>, PM2.5, according to the research.

Men and those with low-incomes had higher risks of PM2.5 exposure compared with the national average. 

"This is a study of unprecedented statistical power because of the massive size of the study population,” said Francesca Dominici, principal investigator of this study and a Harvard  professor of Biostatistics. 

The researchers examined Medicare claims records of 60 million Americans 65 and older for  a seven-year period. They also estimated air pollution levels at each 1 kilometer grid for the entire U.S. upon which the claims data could be overlaid and interpreted.

The study used an exposure prediction model developed by doctoral student Qian Di and Joel Schwartz, Harvard professor of Environmental Epidemiology and the study's senior author. The exposure prediction model leverages satellite-based measurements and a computer simulation of air pollution.

The team was able to include subjects who live in unmonitored and less-populated areas so that the effects of air pollution on all 60 million people could be analyzed regardless of whether they lived in urban, suburban, or rural areas.

"This study shows that although we think air quality in the United States is good enough to protect our citizens, in fact we need to lower pollution levels even further," said Schwartz.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.nejm.org/">New England Journal of Medicine</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>

Air pollution increases premature death in the elderly

Long-term exposure to air pollution and ozone increases the risk of...

Summer is officially here and the temperatures outside aren’t the only thing that’s heating up. Climate change continues to be an increasingly heated political topic, especially after the Trump administration has made it clear that the planet is not on their priorities list. If you’ve missed any of the headlines, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> has your back. Here is our 2017 mid-year environmental rundown.

The biggest headline of the year so far is of course President Trump’s decision to withdraw the United States from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-decision-paris-climate-agreement/">Paris Climate Agreement</a>. Over the course of his presidential campaign, Trump promised again and again to exit the agreement within the first 100 days of his presidency. 

Although he didn’t quite hit his own deadline, he did manage to make major changes to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The new EPA Administrator, Scott Pruitt, caused an uproar after saying that he does not believe that carbon dioxide is a major cause of global warming. 

“I would not agree that [CO2] is a primary contributor to the global warming that we see,” Scott Pruitt told CNBC’s Joe Kernen.

While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/republican-party-denial-climate-change/">Republicans</a> in Congress insist on questioning the validity of the global scientific community’s<a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/"> consensus</a> on the dire effects of climate change, the fact that Americans are experiencing record-breaking heat is indisputable. In California’s central valley and pockets of the southwest, rising temperatures have even proven <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/extreme-heat-southwestern-us/">deadly</a>. 

With July 4th around the corner, America’s independence is set to be celebrated across the country with barbecues, trips to the beach or the park for family picnics, and of course, with a night sky exploding with fireworks. It’s the most American of holidays, so it might be worth taking a look at how our various traditions commemorating our freedom are expected to impact the issue of climate change worldwide.

Last July 4th, Bobby Magill writing for<a href="http://www.climatecentral.org/news/what-holiday-road-trip-means-for-climate-20489"> climatecentral.org</a> estimated that a record breaking 36 million Americans were expected to take road trips for the July 4th holiday weekend, helping carbon dioxide emissions from automobiles in the U.S. surpass carbon pollution from electric power plants for the first time since 1979. Magill said that lower gas prices were in part responsible for all the driving Americans are doing these days. 

“Cheap gasoline has made it easier for people to ditch electric vehicles and fuel-efficient cars and buy larger, less efficient vehicles instead.”

John DeCicco, a research professor at the University of Michigan Energy Institute, <a href="http://www.climatecentral.org/news/what-holiday-road-trip-means-for-climate-20489">added</a>, “The trend toward higher transportation emissions shows that to address climate change, the government needs to both boost fuel efficiency standards and think beyond them by developing new fuels and technology that would reduce carbon emissions from vehicle tailpipes.” 

That is looking very unlikely, given that this week has been deemed “Energy Week” by Trump. Timothy Cama of <a href="http://thehill.com/">The Hill</a> writes, “The Energy Week events are likely to focus on Trump’s policies since taking office, which have centered on removing barriers to the use and production of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal. That has mostly been through repealing regulations from the Obama administration limiting carbon dioxide emissions, regulating mountaintop removal mining, extending the reach of federal water regulations and more.” So there’s that.

And what about the fireworks? According to<a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2016/07/04/how-do-4th-of-july-fireworks-impact-the-environment/%2325e8c4bd4e3f"> Forbes Magazine</a>, “The July 4th fireworks probably contribute to less than 0.01% of global anthropogenic atmospheric pollution on that one day. But they do release a lot of junk in local areas.” In the scheme of things, that actually seems far less detrimental than one would have expected. 

There’s some other good news from this year as well. After years of severe drought, an unusually wet winter brought some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/catastrophic-drought-california/">relief</a> to California and much of the southwest. Northern California and Nevada are now even considered drought-free.

As we round the mid-year point, there's no telling what the rest of 2017 has in store for the planet. What we can tell you, though, is to keep it locked to <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> for all the latest news about the environment and the planet. We’ll keep you informed as the rest of the year unfolds.

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Darryl Joseph</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Earth.com presents: A 2017 mid-year environmental rundown

Summer is officially here and the temperatures outside aren’t the...

A study published last October in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html">Nature</a> found that the upper limit of human age is peaking at about 115 years. However, recent research – in the same journal – shows that this may be selling our capacity for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-gaps-life-expectancy/">living</a> a little short.

Bryan Hughes and Siegfried Hekimi, both biologists at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, analyzed the lifespan of the longest-living individuals from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Japan for each year since 1968. This analysis included individuals such as Morano and Jeanne Calment of France, who each lived to be 122 years old. 

The researchers concluded that there actually might not be a limit to how long humans can live. The researchers believe that if this limit does exist, it has yet to be reached or identified.

“We just don’t know what the age limit might be,” says Hekimi. “In fact, by extending trend lines, we can show that maximum and average lifespans could continue to increase far into the foreseeable future.”

Back in 1920, the average life span in Canada was 60 years. Today, that life expectancy is now significantly longer – a solid 82 years. Maximum lifespan has been following this same trend.

Hekimi believes that it’s impossible to predict what future lifespans for humans could be. Advancements in technology, medical treatments, and improvements in living conditions all contributed to the extension of human lifespans throughout history. Who knows what the future holds for just how long we could live.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>

There may be no limit to how long humans can live

A study published last October in the journal Nature found...

The roots of dentistry run deep, as far back as 130,000 years ago, according to a new study.

Multiple toothpick grooves on teeth and signs of other manipulations by a Neanderthal are evidence of a kind of prehistoric dentistry, the <a href="https://www.ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a> study said.

"As a package, this fits together as a dental problem that the Neanderthal was having and was trying to presumably treat itself, with the toothpick grooves, the breaks and also with the scratches on the premolar," said David Frayer, Professor emeritus of Anthropology. "It was an interesting connection or collection of phenomena that fit together in a way that we would expect a modern human to do. Everybody has had dental pain, and they know what it's like to have a problem with an impacted tooth."

The researchers analyzed four isolated but associated mandibular teeth on the left side of the Neanderthal's mouth. 

The teeth were found at Krapina site in Croatia more than 100 years ago.

Frayer and Davorka Radovčić, curator at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum">Croatian Natural History Museum</a>, have in recent years reexamined many items collected from the site, including teeth with a light microscope to document occlusal wear, toothpick groove formation, dentin scratches, and enamel fractures.

Even though the teeth were isolated, previous researchers were able to reconstruct their order and location in the male or female Neanderthal's mouth. 

Researchers have not recovered the mandible to look for evidence of periodontal disease, but the scratches and grooves on the teeth indicate they were likely causing irritation and discomfort for some time for this individual, Frayer said.

The features of the premolar and third molar are associated with several kinds of dental manipulations, he said. Mostly because the chips of the teeth were on the tongue side of the teeth and at different angles, the researchers ruled out that something happened to the teeth after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raven-bone-neanderthals-cognitive/">Neanderthal</a> died.

Past research in the fossil record has identified toothpick grooves going back almost 2 million years, Frayer said. They did not identify what the Neanderthal would have used to produce the toothpick grooves, but it possibly could have been a bone or stem of grass.

"It's maybe not surprising that a Neanderthal did this, but as far as I know, there's no specimen that combines all of this together into a pattern that would indicate he or she was trying to presumably self-treat this eruption problem," he said.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://hrcak.srce.hr/paleodontology?lang=en">Bulletin of the International Association for Paleodontology</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a>

Image Credit: David Frayer, University of Kansas

Neanderthal teeth fossils shed light on prehistoric dentistry

The roots of dentistry run deep, as far back as...

Despite their use in hundreds of products for decades, PCBs were banned by the U.S. Congress in 1979 after being deemed a persistent organic pollutant that is extremely toxic to the environment. Researchers have determined that many children are exposed to these harmful chemicals inside schools.

Commercial production of polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, started in 1929 and continued for around 50 years. The man-made chemicals were resistant to acids, bases, and heat, and were ideal for use in plant and building materials. 

PCBs made their way into rivers and streams in the form of industrial waste during the time they were widely used. This led to one of the most expensive environmental clean-ups in U.S. history. Even though PCBs are no longer produced in the United States, they continue to appear in new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-paint-hydrogen-water-vapor/">paint</a> and other materials as a byproduct, or in old buildings that contain materials made with the compounds. 

PCBs also remain in soil and water and are consumed by animals. This means that humans consume PCBs in certain foods. Exposure to PCBs can also occur through inhalation and skin contact. Regardless of the method of exposure, PCBs can lead to developmental issues and serious health problems such as cancer. 

The greatest risk is for children who are still in physical and mental stages of development. Because of this, researchers from the <a href="https://uiowa.edu/">University of Iowa</a> set out to determine the amount of PCBs children are exposed to in schools. 

The team tested the air inside and outside of six schools. Four of these schools had outdoor air quality influenced by a waterway that is a known source of airborne PCBs. Despite that fact, the analysis found the PCB levels were significantly higher inside the schools than outside. The findings of the study also indicated that both old and new sources of PCBs were present in the schools. 

The amount of PCBs found inside the schools were up to 194 nanograms per cubic meter, which is below the amount considered to be an action level by the Environmental Protection Agency. Nonetheless, the researchers say the potential for cumulative damage is still alarming, particularly for children who are also exposed to PCBs in their diets.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://uiowa.edu/">University of Iowa</a>

Children may be exposed to these harmful chemicals in schools

Despite their use in hundreds of products for decades, PCBs...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> have developed an artificial brain synapse capable of simulating a fundamental function of the human nervous system: the release of inhibitory and stimulatory signals from the same "pre-synaptic" terminal.

The synaptic device can reconfigure itself based on voltages applied at the input terminal of the device. A junction made of black phosphorus and tin selenide enables switching between the excitatory and inhibitory signals, the study said. 

It is flexible and versatile, which is highly desirable in artificial neural networks. In addition, the artificial synapses may simplify the design and functions of nervous system simulations, according to the study published in the journal <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/journal/ancac3">ACS Nano</a>.

One of the greatest challenges facing artificial intelligence development is understanding the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/training-change-brain-pays-attention/">brain</a> and figuring out how to mimic it. 

The human nervous system is made up of over 100 trillion synapses, structures that allow neurons to pass electrical and chemical signals to one another. In mammals, synapses can initiate and inhibit biological messages. Many synapses just relay one type of signal, while others can convey both types simultaneously or can switch between the two. 

In order to develop artificial intelligence systems that better mimic human learning, cognition and image recognition, researchers are imitating synapses in the lab with electronic components. Most current artificial synapses, however, are only capable of delivering one type of signal. 

USC’s Han Wang, Jing Guo and colleagues sought to create an artificial synapse that can send stimulatory and inhibitory signals.

The researchers developed a synaptic device that can reconfigure itself based on voltages applied at the input terminal of the device. A junction made of black phosphorus and tin selenide enables switching between the excitatory and inhibitory signals. 

This new device is flexible and versatile, which is highly desirable in artificial neural networks. In addition, the artificial synapses may simplify the design and functions of nervous system simulations, the authors said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>

Scientists create flexible artificial brain synapse for AI

Researchers at the University of Southern California have developed an...

Satellite measurements and mathematical methods are helping scientists predict volcanic eruptions, according to a new study.

Modern satellite technologies, similar to GPS, can now track shifting magma and flows beneath the earth's surface. Geoscientists are beginning to decipher what this reveals about what's happening underground, as well as what is likely to happen in the future, the study said.

"We're the first to have developed a strategy using data assimilation to successfully forecast the evolution of magma overpressures beneath a volcano using combined ground deformation datasets measured by Global Navigation Satellite System (more commonly known as GPS) and satellite radar data," saids Mary Grace Bato, lead author of the study and a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ucad.sn/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=1936:2016-07-27-15-26-38&amp;catid=136:communiques&amp;Itemid=315">Institut des Sciences de la Terre</a> in France.

Bato and her collaborators are among the first to test whether data assimilation, a method used to incorporate new measurements with a dynamical model, can also be applied in volcano studies to make sense of the satellite data.

Meteorologists have long used a similar technique to integrate atmospheric and oceanic measurements with dynamical models, allowing them to forecast the weather. Climate researchers have also used the same method to estimate the long-term evolution of the climate due to carbon emissions. But volcanologists are just beginning to explore whether the technique can also be used to forecast volcanic eruptions.

"The amount of satellite and ground-based geodetic data (i.e. GPS data) has tremendously increased recently," said Bato. "The challenge is how to use these data efficiently and how to integrate them with models in order to have a deeper understanding of what occurs beneath the volcano and what drives the eruption so that we can determine near-real-time and accurate predictions of volcanic unrest."

Geoscientists still need to improve current volcanic models before they can be widely applied to real-life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-aerosols-cool-climate/">volcanoes</a>, Bato said.

"We foresee a future where daily or even hourly volcanic forecasts will be possible--just like any other weather bulletin," added Bato.

The study is published in <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/feart.2017.00048/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/feart.2017.00048/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>

How satellites can help predict volcanic eruptions

Satellite measurements and mathematical methods are helping scientists predict volcanic...

This may come as no surprise, but people who make careers of designing or interpreting the world we live in actually have different thinking patterns than the rest of us. A new study published in <a href="http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/">Cognitive Science</a> reveals that architects, painters, and sculptors see spaces in different ways – not only compared to other people, but compared to each other as well.

The study, done by senior author Hugo Spiers of the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College of London</a>, incorporated 16 people from each of the three professions. All participants had at least eight years of experience. They were compared against a control group of 16 individuals with no relevant background.

The subjects were asked to observe a Google Street View image, a painting of St. Peter’s Basilica, and a compute-generated surreal scene. They gave their descriptions of each environment, and explained how they would explore the space or change parts of the image. 

When presented with images of places, architects were more likely to focus on paths and the boundaries of the space, while painters were more likely to describe the space as a two-dimensional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-imagery-control-mind/">image</a>.

“We found that painters, sculptors and architects consistently showed signs of their profession when talking about the spaces we showed them, and all three groups had more elaborate, detailed descriptions than people in unrelated professions,” says Spiers.

The painters also sometimes shifted between describing the scene as a 2D image or a 3D space. Architects tended to describe the barriers and boundaries of the space, while using more dynamic terms. The sculptors’ descriptions generally fell between the two.

Not surprisingly, the control group gave less detailed responses, which the authors say was not simply due to their lack of applicable expert terminology. 

“Our study has provided evidence that your career may well change the way you think,” says Spiers. “There’s already extensive research into how culture changes cognition, but here we’ve found that even within the same culture, people of different professions differ in how they appreciate the world.”

The researchers believe that people who are inherently set to see the world as a 2D image, or focus on the borders of a space, might be more likely to become painters or architects. They hope their research will result in future studies observing the spatial cognition of other professionals. Such knowledge of how we are programmed to see our world may be able to help us improve our communication and understanding of each other.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>

How artists and architects see things differently than others

This may come as no surprise, but people who make...

Remote sensing technologies could make huge improvements in the sustainable management of palm oil plantations. The new monitoring methods may be able to transform the oil palm industry into a more environmentally-friendly practice while optimizing the production of palm oil. 

Unfortunately, progress on the development of these geoinformation technologies is moving slowly. Environmental experts are expressing the need for a sense of urgency in the creation and implementation of remote oil palm plantation monitoring methods.

The oil palm industry is responsible for the destruction of large areas of tropical forest and ecosystems with high conservation value. The global demand for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-oil-done-right/">palm oil</a> has also resulted in habitat degradation, climate change, and indigenous land rights abuse.

At the same time, global demand for oil palm production is rapidly increasing as palm oil has grown to become the most consumed oil in the world. Oil palms produce vegetable oil more cheaply than any other oil crop. More plantations are being developed, while existing plantations are being expanded.

Palm oil plantations are currently monitored using time-consuming, expensive land assessments. The high-resolution satellite imagery used for remote sensing will provide the same information more quickly and accurately. 

The computerized geographic information will also meet the monitoring standards of palm oil industry certification agencies such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, or <a href="http://www.rspo.org/about">RSPO</a>.

Use of remote sensing technologies will tackle the challenge of increasing oil palm production while reducing the negative impact on tropical forests and climate change. Illegal deforestation could be detected and disease and pest control problems could be identified sooner. 

The authors of a report published in the journal <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgsi20">Geo-spatial Information Science</a> say the potential benefits are extensive. They say use of remote sensing imagery will improve the accuracy of yield prediction, and identify suitable land for plantation expansion while protecting forests with high carbon stocks or high conservation value.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgsi20">Geo-spatial Information Science</a>

Remote sensing could revolutionize the oil palm industry

Remote sensing technologies could make huge improvements in the sustainable...

People who suffer from insomnia – a common sleep disorder that one-third of adults in the UK experience – have likely been told for years that their problem is mostly psychological. However, new research has found that the main factors behind sleep problems are biological. A Dutch study found seven genes that were frequently in people who had an increased tendency of developing sleeplessness.

The research was performed at <a href="https://www.vu.nl/en/">Vrije University</a> in Amsterdam, where scientists carefully mapped the DNA of more than 113,000 people from Britain and the Netherlands.

The team also found that there are different genetic mutations linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-patterns-vary-widely/">sleep</a> for men and women, as females are more likely to encounter sleep problems. Furthermore, they found a strong correlation between insomnia and other issues such as anxiety disorders, depression, neuroticism, and low well-being.

“We now know this is partly due to the shared genetic basis,” says Danielle Posthuma, a professor at <a href="https://www.vu.nl/en/">Vrije University</a>. “Part of the genetic variants turned out to be different. This suggests that, for some part, different biological mechanisms may lead to insomnia in men and women.”

The switch in our understanding of insomnia as more heavily biological could help pave the way for targeted treatments that scientists may developed in the future. “Insomnia is all too often dismissed as being ‘all in your head,’” says sleep specialist Professor Eus Van Someren.

Currently, ten million prescriptions for sleeping tablets are issued each year. Searching for a better remedy to sleep problems and erasing the stigma of psychological issues may be the key to getting insomniacs the help and treatment they need.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.vu.nl/en/">Vrije University</a>, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-4638036/Insomnia-genes-not-head.html">The Daily Mail</a>

Insomnia may be more biological than psychological

People who suffer from insomnia – a common sleep disorder...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...