The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers.



Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France.



The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged childhood. 



This could mean that the large brain of modern humans resulted from an extended childhood along with cultural transmission across generations instead of vice versa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-childhood-big-brains">Long childhood, big brains</h2>



A team of researchers - including specialists from Switzerland's <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Georgia's National Museum - have challenged the theory that modern humans' extended childhood is directly linked to their large brains.



The team analyzed dental development in an early Homo that was almost an adult. The results suggest that though these early humans reached adulthood at a similar age as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buronius-manfredschmidi-tiny-great-ape-species-lived-11-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, their tooth development followed a longer timeline similar to modern humans.



This proposes the distinct possibility of a longer dependency on adults and an elongated childhood for these early humans.



Remarkably, the brain size of these early Homo specimens was only marginally larger than that of a chimpanzee. This made the researchers question the link between the prolonged development and cultural transmission across generations.



An extended childhood within a three-generation context might have allowed the immature members of the group to effectively assimilate growing amounts of knowledge. 



Eventually, this led to the development of larger brains and longer life spans, traits characteristic of modern humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-development-in-early-homo">Dental development in early Homo</h2>



An enduring assumption has been that humans' extended growth period is a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased brain volume</a> since a larger organ requires more energy resources to grow. But analysis of the fossil's dental growth has caused researchers to question this hypothesis.



The research team used synchrotron imaging to study the dental development of a near-adult fossil of early Homo from the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated to around 1.77 million years ago. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CWxiqQg039-4024544-12187" type="single"]</div>



“Childhood and cognition do not fossilize, so we have to rely on indirect information. Teeth are ideal because they fossilize well and produce daily rings, in the same way that trees produce annual rings, which record their development,” noted study first author Christoph Zollikofer from the University of Zurich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-findings-and-a-new-perspective">Unexpected findings and a new perspective</h2>



“Dental development is strongly correlated with the development of the rest of the body, including brain development," explained study co-author Paul Tafforeau, scientist at the ESRF.



"Access to the details of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=fossil%20hominid&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> hominid's dental growth therefore provides a great deal of information about its general growth."



After almost two decades of research beginning in 2005, the initial results startled researchers. 



“We expected to find either dental development typical of early hominids, close to that of the great apes, or dental development close to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>," said Tafforeau.



"When we obtained the first results, we couldn’t believe what we saw, because it was something different that implied faster molar crown growth than in any other fossil hominin or living great ape."



In the following years, the team conducted five series of experiments and completed four full analyses, employing various methods as dental synchrotron imaging technology advanced.



As the consistent results suggested significant implications for the "big brain - long childhood" hypothesis, the scientists needed to think creatively to interpret this fossil's findings.



“It's been a slow maturation, both technically and intellectually, to finally arrive at the hypothesis we are publishing today,” said Tafforeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-childhood-evolution-s-early-experiment">Longer childhood: Evolution's early experiment?</h2>



The dental development of the studied fossil suggested that milk teeth were used longer than in great apes, implying that early Homo children were dependent on adult care for a longer duration.



This could be the first experiment evolution took towards a prolonged childhood. Despite having brains only slightly larger than australopithecines or great apes, early Homo are believed to have lived longer.



The survival of a very old individual with no teeth for several years indicates that the group sufficiently cared for him. This alludes to a three-generation structure, a key aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural transmission in humans</a>.



The new hypothesis begins with children's growth slowing down as cultural transmission increased. 



The accumulation of information from older to younger individuals had an advantageous effect on resource utilization and the development of complex behaviors, thus favoring a longer childhood. 



Once this mechanism was established, natural selection acted on cultural transmission, not just biological traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-brains-and-delayed-adulthood">Big brains and delayed adulthood</h2>



As the volume of transferrable information grew, evolution supported a larger brain and delayed adulthood, enabling a longer learning period in childhood and time to grow a bigger brain despite limited food resources.



The large brain of modern humans could be attributed to an extended childhood and a three-generation structure encouraging bio-cultural evolution. These mechanisms may have led to increased brain size, delayed adulthood, and longer lifespan. 



The study of this exceptional fossil could motivate researchers to rethink the evolutionary mechanisms that led to Homo sapiens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08205-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image &amp; Video Credit: ESRF/Paul Tafforeau, Vincent Beyrand



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How did humans get big brains? Fossil teeth reveal new clues

The development of a big brain in humans and its connection to social bonding has been a hot topic of debate, and secrets found in fossil teeth may hold the answers. Researchers have been studying the fossilized teeth of an early Homo from Georgia, dating back approximately 1.77 million years. The research was made possible by the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. The findings suggest that despite having a small brain and reaching adulthood at a similar pace to great apes, these early humans had a prolonged...

A new study reveals how strike-slip faults form in the Earth’s crust, as two tectonic plates slide past one another, generating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-earthquakes-tsunami-generation/">earthquakes</a>.

In addition to a video description, <a href="http://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts at Amherst </a> researchers re-enacted the events in wet clay in the lab.

"When I give talks to other geologists I put up a picture of a fault and ask, wouldn't you love to be able to see exactly how that formed?,” said structural geologist Michele Cooke. “Well, in my lab that's what we do. We set up the conditions for faulting on a small scale and watch them unfold.”

The researchers have developed methods that allow them to see faults grow in very, very fine detail, at a finer resolution than anyone has documented before," Cooke said.

In two-hour experiments, the researchers load a tray with kaolin, also known as china clay, prepared so its viscosity and length scale to that of the earth's crust. One scenario begins with a pre-existing fault, another with localized displacement beneath the clay, and a third that is characterized by a displacement across a wider zone of shear beneath the clay.

The scientists record strain localization and fault evolution that represents millions of years at the scale of tens of kilometers during the maturation of strike-slip faults. "We have captured very different conditions for fault formation in our experiments that represent a range of conditions that might drive faulting in the crust,” Cooke said.

One surprising finding was that faults “shut off along the way,” Cooke said. This is the first experiment to document this.

“Another especially surprising finding is that fault irregularities, which are inefficient, persist rather than the system forming a straight, efficient fault," she said.

The study identifies four stages in fault evolution: pre-faulting, localization, linkage and slip. The process starts simply, advances to a complex peak, and simplifies again before lengthening into a "through-going" or continuous single, surface crack, the research found.

“What you're left with at the end is a long fault with abandoned segments on either side, which is something we see in the field all the time,” Cooke said.”It's a nice confirmation that our lab experiments replicate what is going on within the Earth."

The study was published in the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01918141">Journal of Structural Geology</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts at Amherst</a>

How strike-slip faults form and lead to earthquakes

A new study reveals how strike-slip faults form in the...

Scientists have discovered a geomagnetic “fingerprint” that will allow them to study the Earth’s magnetic field and its past with finer resolution.

"This is something of a Holy Grail discovery," said Maureen Walczak, a post-doctoral researcher at <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> and lead author on the study. "It is an important first step in better understanding the magnetic field, and synchronizing sediment core data at a finer scale."

Researchers made the discovery while studying two high-resolution sediment cores from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-year-old-fish-trap-alaska/">Gulf of Alaska</a>. They compared those records with sediment cores from other sites in the Pacific Ocean to capture a magnetic fingerprint, which is based on the orientation of the magnetite in the sediment, which acts as a magnetic recorder of the past.

The magnetic signal found in the cores now covers an area spanning from Alaska to Oregon, and over to Hawaii, researchers said.

"Magnetic alignment of distant environmental reconstructions using reversals in the paleomagnetic record provides insights into the past on a scale of hundreds of thousands of years," Walczak said

It will allow scientists to compare events between ocean basins, and “really get down to the nitty-gritty of how climate anomalies are propagated around the planet on a scale relevant to human society,” said Walczak.

The Earth’s magnetic field changes, which shields the planet from solar winds and cosmic radiation, changes over over time, researchers said. About 800,000 years ago, the field was reversed, meaning that a compass would have pointed south. Magnetic field reversals occur every several hundred thousand years, the authors said.

The magnetic field is generated by a fluid outer core of iron, nickel and other metals that creates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic fields. It is well known that the field changes but the new research can help explain the reasons why, the study authors said.

The research was published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0012821X">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University </a>

Earth’s magnetic field is simpler than scientists thought

Scientists have discovered a geomagnetic “fingerprint” that will allow them...

Greenland sharks, rare vertebrates found deep in the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, have incredibly long life spans of up to 400 years. The biology and genetic makeup of these fascinating creatures is relatively unknown. Scientists now believe that these sharks may hold the secret to longer life in humans.

Researchers from the <a href="https://en.uit.no/om/art?p_document_id=343547&amp;dim=179040">Arctic University of Norway</a> have set out to determine what is in the genetic makeup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-wave-glacier-greenland/">Greenland</a> shark that allows them to live a longer life. They are mapping the DNA of the sharks to discover “unique genes” that will disclose the mystery behind the sharks’ resilience and longevity.

The researchers collected DNA from the fins of the Greenland sharks, some of which were alive in the Georgian era. They were able to sequence the full genome of almost 100 sharks. The team is examining the DNA in an effort to find out what dictates the life expectancy of animals and humans. 

Professor Kim Praebel is leading the study. She spoke about the research at a conference in Exeter.  

'This is the longest living vertebrate on the planet,” said Professor Praebel. “Together with colleagues in Denmark, Greenland, USA, and China, we are currently sequencing its whole nuclear genome which will help us discover why the Greenland shark not only lives longer than other shark species but other vertebrates.”

Genetic data from the sharks may be able to shed light on the impact of climate change and show what effect it has had on the sharks over centuries. The study may also reveal when contaminants from human activities began changing the ocean’s dynamics and to what extent commercial fishing has impacted Greenland sharks.  

While the researchers continue on their quest to find the “long-life” genes, they are getting some insight into the behavior of Greenland sharks.

“Since the Greenland shark lives for hundreds of years, they also have enough time to migrate over long distances and our genetic results showed exactly that,” said Professor Praebel. “Most of the individuals in our study were genetically similar to individuals caught thousands of kilometers away.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://en.uit.no/om/art?p_document_id=343547&amp;dim=179040">Arctic University of Norway</a>

Image Credit: Julius Nielsen

400 year-old sharks may hold the secret to longer life for humans

Greenland sharks, rare vertebrates found deep in the waters of...

Researchers have made an alarming discovery of an anaerobic bacteria in sandboxes in the city of Madrid. Clostridium difficile was found to be widely distributed in sandboxes for children and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/test-predicts-best-guide-dogs/">dogs</a>. 

The researchers also detected the presence of genetically diverse strains of Clostridium difficile, which may be more toxic and resistant to treatment. This poses a major health risk for animals and children who are exposed to the bacteria.

Symptoms of infection include diarrhea, fever, nausea, and abdominal pain. Clostridium difficile can lead to sepsis or inflammation of the colon, both of which are life-threatening conditions.

Professor Jose Blanco co-authored the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1863-2378">Zoonoses and Public Health</a> study. He expressed an urgent need for further testing. "Our results are just a call to action. A ‘One Health’ approach is required in future environmental surveys for this emerging pathogen," said Professor Blanco.

Clostridium difficile infection is spread by bacterial spores in feces. This anaerobic bacteria is commonly present in soil. The bacteria is easily spread by contact with contaminated surfaces. 

Inflammation of the colon caused by C.difficile is a common diagnosis with over 200,000 cases in the United States every year. This infection is treatable but some cases are deadly. It most commonly affects older adults in hospitals and retirement homes.

According to the <a href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/">Mayo Clinic</a>, however, “studies show increasing rates of C. difficile infection among people traditionally not considered high risk, such as younger and healthy individuals without a history of antibiotic use or exposure to health care facilities.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1863-2378">Zoonoses and Public Health</a>

Playground sandboxes found to contain infectious bacteria

Researchers have made an alarming discovery of an anaerobic bacteria...

A new study by the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> uncovers some of the mystery behind sex chromosomes in butterflies.

Female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/promiscuous-female-butterflies-control-fertilization/">butterflies</a> determine the sex of offspring by passing along Z (male) or W (female) chromosomes, according to the study. Males are ZZ, females are ZW.  Birds and some fish also have ZW pairs. The Z chromosome is larger and has many genes, while the W consists mainly of repetitive DNA.

W-chromosomes often degenerate and lose genes, the researchers said. 

Female butterflies somehow compensate for the loss of genetic information in a biological phenomenon called dosage compensation.

Previous studies have provided an incomplete picture, with some species having complete compensation of the Z while others seemingly less so.

"Dosage compensation is common and well understood in XY species, but there has been speculation for decades that ZW species may not have it," said study leader Beatriz Vicoso. "The inconsistent patterns in butterflies and moths had further muddled the picture."

The researchers tried to clear up the confusion with an examination in butterflies and moths.

They examined the gene expression patterns in two butterfly and two moth species to better understand dosage compensation.

Contrary to previously inconsistent findings, dosage compensation appears to be common in somatic tissues throughout the clade. The expression of Z-linked genes is consistently equalized between the sexes in all species studied, the study found.

However, testing of tissue in the testis and ovaries revealed that Z-chromosome expression was not balanced between the sexes. This is probably due to a masculinization of the Z chromosome.

Removing those strongly sex-biased genes restored balance between male and female gene expression of the Z chromosome. 

The bias is found in the accumulation of genes with testis-specific function, the authors speculated.

"Our study shows that these inconsistencies were due to differences in experimental setup, and that dosage compensation is not just possible but widespread in this ZW group," said Vicoso.

There is still much to be learned, but the study results “take us one step closer to understanding what drives some species to balance the expression of their sex chromosome, while other do not," Vicoso said.

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>. 

---

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>

Unraveling the mystery of butterfly sex chromosomes

A new study by the Institute of Science and Technology...

New research reveals that listening to music while learning a physical activity can boost brain power. The regions of the brain that process sounds and control movement showed “increased structural connectivity” when people practiced movements while listening to music. 

The Scottish study led by Dr Katie Overy established that regions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-menstruation-no-effect-brain/">brain</a> advance significantly while people are learning physical tasks with music playing. The transformation of the brain described by the authors took place on the right side.

“The study suggests that music makes a key difference, explained Dr. Overy. “We have long known that music encourages people to move.”

The researchers took right-handed participants and divided them into two groups. The individuals were challenged to learn sequences of movements with their left hands. One group attempted the new tasks with musical cues, while the other group did not have music. 

The researchers evaluated the performance of the teams after four weeks and determined they had mastered the sequences equally well. MRI scans revealed that the music group displayed a noticeable increase in structural connectivity on the right side of the brain. The non-music group showed no change in structural connectivity. 

The study, published in the medical journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/brain-and-cognition/">Brain and Cognition</a> by <a href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/">Edinburgh University</a>, established that brain wiring enables cells to communicate with each other.

The scientists are hopeful that further research will show that music can improve the success various kinds of motor rehabilitation programs. This discovery could possibly benefit stroke victims and other patients who have lost control of certain movements.

“This study provides the first experimental evidence that adding musical cues to learning new motor task can lead to changes in white matter structure in the brain,” said Dr. Overy.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/brain-and-cognition/">Brain and Cognition
</a>

Listening to music during a physical task changes brain structure

New research reveals that listening to music while learning a...

With North Korea claiming to have missiles that can reach <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-missiles-idUSKBN19P02W">Alaska</a>, disaster movie scenarios have crept into the minds of many Americans. This isn’t the first time Alaska has been the locale for potential disaster. In 2008, the 49th State on the northwest extremity of North America saw two of the state’s 40 plus active volcanoes erupt in the southwestern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-aleutian-islands/">Aleutian Islands</a>. Neither Kasatochi Volcano or Mount Okmok’s eruptions were disastrous, but they did get us thinking… Might some natural disaster take us out before a foreign missile? When was the last time a volcano did some real damage in the United States?

In 1980, Mount St. Helens in Washington state erupted and caused 57 casualties, making it the deadliest and most costly volcano in US history. In 1989, Mount Redoubt in… you guessed it, Alaska, sent volcanic ash 45, 000 feet into the sky, causing all four engines on a Boeing 747 to fail and send the airplane plummeting toward the earth, until the pilots managed to get the engines restarted. Then in 2009, the same volcano went off from March to July. Fortunately, no planes fell from the sky that time and volcanoes on the North American continent have been relatively quiet since.

Mauna Loa in Hawaii, considered to be the largest volcano on earth having emerged above sea level some 400, ooo years ago, experienced its last eruption from March to April of 1984. Benjamin Edwards, Associate Professor of Geology at<a href="http://www.dickinson.edu/"> Dickinson College</a> in Pennsylvania<a href="https://www.maxim.com/maxim-man/which-5-volcanoes-are-most-likely-erupt-next"> predicted</a> in 2014 that Mauna Loa was one of the volcanoes most likely to erupt next. “It can produce pretty big lava flows that travel quickly, so there’s certainly some danger to the people on the Big Island of Hawaii. It’s such a famous volcano that there would be people from all around the world trying to go see it because it’s so well known for having such a large outpouring of lava when it erupts.”

In addition to Alaska and Hawaii, Russell McLendon <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/translating-uncle-sam/stories/which-us-volcanoes-are-likely-to-erupt-next">lists</a> the Cascade Range of mountains sprawling from Southern British Columbia to Northern California on the list of US volcanoes likely to erupt soon. “They aren't as active as Alaska's volcanoes, but they've caused the most powerful eruptions on U.S. soil, and they're dangerously close to large population centers in California and the Pacific Northwest.”

There are also many theories about volcanoes outside the US that should be closely observed. Included on that list is Campi Flegrei (Italian for burning fields) in Italy, a volcano that <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101006094057.htm">one study</a> suggests wiped out the Neanderthals 40, 000 years ago. Also along the Campanian Arc lies <a href="https://www.livescience.com/27871-mount-vesuvius-pompeii.html">Mount Vesuvius</a>, the only active volcano on the European mainland. Vesuvius is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because of its proximity to the neighboring city of Naples, but hasn’t had a major eruption since 1944. 

Iceland is also lousy with volcanoes. In 2010, a volcano went off sending plumes of ash into the sky, grounding 100, 000 European flights and resulting in losses estimated at 4 billion euros. Edwards said of Hekla, a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland, “The bigger volcanoes often give you a few weeks of warning or more–you start to get earthquake swarms, you start to get different gases. If it’s an ice-covered volcano, sometimes you see melting early on as magma starts to move. But with Hekla, it’s not unheard of for there to be only a few hours between the first signs of unrest and an eruption.” Hekla is historically more likely to produce flowing lava than do something more explosive, which is fortunate given its popularity as a hiking destination.

Of course, with something like 1,300 potentially active volcanoes worldwide, it’s impossible to predict when and where the next volcano will erupt. But just to be safe, we’ll keep an eye on Alaska.

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Darryl Joseph</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Which volcanoes are most likely to erupt next?

With North Korea claiming to have missiles that can reach Alaska,...

A Canadian uranium mining company won’t be fined for twice spilling low-level radioactive sludge outside a Utah waste disposal facility, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission said.

Cameco, based in Saskatoon, Canada, won't be fined in part because the company plans in the future to store the barium sulfate sludge in bags within the trucks.

"However, significant violations in the future could result in a civil penalty," NRC Deputy Regional Administrator Scott Morris wrote the company June 29, the <a href="http://network.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_RADIOACTIVE_SLUDGE_SPILL?SITE=AP&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&amp;CTIME=2017-07-05-17-45-13">Associated Press</a> reported.

Cameco spokesman Gord Struthers said Wednesday that the company is pleased to have resolved the problem to the NRC’s satisfaction. 

After the NRC has signed off on Cameco's corrective measures, shipments of barium sulfate sludge from the Smith Ranch in-situ uranium mine and processing facility in northeast Wyoming will resume, Struthers said.

Cameco officials asked the NRC not to fine the company, saying the radioactive spills didn't endanger anyone.

Low-level radioactive waste leaked from trucks from a Wyoming uranium processing facility in 2015 and 2016.

The first time, sludge spilled over the back of the truck when the driver braked hard to avoid hitting a deer. The second time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-fukushima-radiation-no-threat/">sludge</a> leaked from a faulty door in the truck container.

Workers noticed the leaks after the trucks arrived outside Energy Fuels Resources' White Mesa Mill waste disposal facility near Blanding, Utah. Testing found no elevated radiation along the roughly 600-mile shipment route through Wyoming, Colorado and Utah.

Cameco committed nine rule violations, all on the low end of the agency's severity scale but five were serious enough to warrant fines, the NRC said.

The sludge that spilled is a normal byproduct of in-situ uranium mining, in which water mixed with oxygen and baking soda dissolves uranium out of underground sandstone deposits. The solution is then processed into yellowcake and nuclear fuel.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://network.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_RADIOACTIVE_SLUDGE_SPILL?SITE=AP&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&amp;CTIME=2017-07-05-17-45-13">AP</a>

U.S. won’t fine Canadian company over radioactive spill

A Canadian uranium mining company won’t be fined for twice...

Policies that encourage carpooling do in fact drastically reduce traffic, a new study concluded.

In Jakarta, Indonesia, travel delays increased 46 percent during the morning rush hour and 87 percent during the evening rush hour, after a policy requiring three or more passengers in a car was discontinued on important city-center roads, the <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> study found.

"Eliminating high-occupancy vehicle restrictions led to substantially worse traffic," said Ben Olken, a professor of economics at MIT and co-author of the study. "That's not shocking, but the magnitudes are just enormous."

Traffic on surrounding roads was also significantly worse on surrounding roads as well after the HOV policy was cancelled.

"HOV policies on central roads were making traffic everywhere better, both during the middle of the day and on these other roads during rush hour," Olken said. "That I think is a really striking result."

Jakarta imposed its HOV regulations in 1992, requiring three passengers in each vehicle on some major roads, between 7 a.m. and 10 a.m. and between 4:30 p.m. and 7 p.m. It suddenly scrapped the policy in 2016, first for a week, then for a month, and then permanently.

The system was criticized in part because of  "jockeys" on the roads -- people charging a small fee to drivers who would let them ride in their cars, bringing vehicles up to the three-person requirement. Commuters would typically pick up jockeys at the edges of the HOV area. Critics questioned whether the HOV policy was reducing the number of vehicles effectively, since it seemed to limit the amount of ride-sharing by actual commuters.

The MIT researchers studied Google Maps data starting in late March, before the policy went into effect, and then continued monitoring its impact into June 2016.

After the HOV policy was abandoned, the average speed of Jakarta's rush hour <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-birds-stop-singing/">traffic</a> declined from about 17 miles an hour to 12 miles an hour in the mornings, and from about 13 to 7 miles per hour in the evenings, the study said. A person can usually walk at around 3 miles per hour.

"The point of this paper is to show that in a real-world natural experiment, this is what happens," Olken said.

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:  <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>

Why axing carpool lane policies causes severe traffic headaches

Policies that encourage carpooling do in fact drastically reduce traffic,...

Researchers have pinpointed a gene that plays a key role in depression in humans and animals.

The gene, known as Slc6a15, can amplify or reduce stress, depending on its level of activity, according to the study by the <a href="http://www.medschool.umaryland.edu/">University of Maryland School of Medicine</a>.

"This study really shines a light on how levels of this gene in these neurons affects mood," said the senior author of the study, Mary Kay Lobo. "It suggests that people with altered levels of this gene in certain brain regions may have a much higher risk for depression and other emotional disorders related to stress."

Lobo and her colleagues discovered in 2006 that the Slc6a15 gene was more common among specific neurons in the brain.

Since the gene was recently associated with depression by other researchers, her lab decided to investigate its role in these specific neurons. They focused on a part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-menstruation-no-effect-brain/">brain</a> called the nucleus accumben, which plays a central role in the brain's "reward circuit."

Neurons in the nucleus accumbens are activated when people eat a delicious meal, have sex, drink alcohol, or have any other kind of enjoyable experience. In depression, any kind of enjoyment can be difficult or impossible, a condition known as anhedonia.

In the new study, researchers studied mice susceptible to depression. When faced with larger, more aggressive mice, they exhibit behavior similar to depression such as withdrawal and lack of interest in food. Levels of the Slc6a15 gene in the D2 neurons of the nucleus accumbens were markedly reduced when the mice were under social stress, the study found.

When the researchers enhanced Slc6a15 levels in D2 neurons, the mice were resilient to social stress.

The study also examined the brains of humans with a history of depression who had committed suicide. Researchers found that the Slc6a15 gene was reduced in the nucleus accumbens of these brains. This indicates that the link between gene and behavior extends from mice to humans, the study said.

It is not yet clear exactly how Slc6a15 works in the brain, but the research could lead to therapies focused on Slc6a15 as a new treatment for depression, Lobo said.

The study was published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.medschool.umaryland.edu/">University of Maryland School of Medicine</a>

Study pinpoints gene that controls depression

Researchers have pinpointed a gene that plays a key role...

Recent climate models have shown California will get hotter and drier over the next several decades. However, new research finds evidence to the contrary, and predicts that the golden state will receive an average of 12 percent more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relentless-rain-california-nevada-west/">precipitation</a> through the end of the century.

The study projects areas of California which are north of Santa Rosa will have an increase in precipitation by 14.1 percent. The central part of the state, which is defined in the study as beginning just south of San Luis Obispo, will go up in precipitation by 15.2 percent. The southern region, on the other hand, will see less precipitation by 3.3 percent.

The study indicates that the majority of the increase in the golden state's precipitation will take place in the months of December, January, and February. These months will bring nearly 40 percent more precipitation to central regions of California and over 30 percent more precipitation to northern California.

SoCal will also see an increase in precipitation in these winter months by 10.6 percent, according to the study. These percentages have been established in comparison to data from the Global Precipitation Climatology Project between 1979 and 1999.

"Most previous research emphasized uncertainty with regards to future precipitation levels in California, but the overall thought was California would become drier with continued climate change," said Robert Allen from <a href="http://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a>. "We found the opposite, which is quite surprising."

Allen teamed up with graduate student Rainer Luptowitz for the study. The team investigated 38 climate models from across the globe for their analysis. 

The main reason for the proposed increase in the California's precipitation is rising ocean temperatures. Warming surface temperatures in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean will cause a shift in the jet stream to the southeast which will bring more mid-latitude cyclones to the golden state.

"Essentially, this mechanism is similar to what we in California expect during an El Nino year," Allen said. "Ultimately, what I am arguing is El Nino-like years are going to become more the norm in California."

Allen pointed out that the prediction of an El Nino-like year does not mean for certain there will be a wet winter in California. Allen said there are many other climatic factors that still must be considered. The study is published today in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

[caption id="attachment_717969" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/144704.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-717969" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/144704-300x297.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="297" /></a> Image Credit: UC Riverside Strategic Communications[/caption]

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.ucr.edu/">UC, Riverside</a>

Image Credit: UC Riverside Strategic Communications

Why California will become wetter over the course of this century

Recent climate models have shown California will get hotter and...

Even light oil on birds from spills can make it difficult for them to fly, a new study found.

Researchers at <a href="http://www.uwo.ca/">Western University in Canada</a> applied oil from the 2010 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-damage-deepwater-horizon-oil-spill/">Deepwater Horizon oil</a> spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 to the backs and bellies of western sandpipers and tested their flight in a wind tunnel. The birds were forced to expend 45 percent more energy than normal.

“They found it hard to keep up with the wind speed,” said Ivan Maggini, one of the researchers. Scientists had to stop half of the flight trials early because the birds kept attempting to land, he said.

Even with only light oil on their wingtips and tails, birds used 20 percent more energy to fly, the study said.

“It's like trying to fly with clipped wings or carrying a ball and chain,” said Maggini.

With no oil on them, the birds flew comfortably for two hours, the researchers found.

“'Birds are often used as the poster children for the deadly effects of oil,” said Maggini.  “However, the effects of oiling go far beyond the unfortunate individuals that become heavily oiled.”

Maggini believes oil reduces the amount of lift that the birds can generate while also increasing the drag that they experience. This could have significant repercussions for the amount of time that the animals take to recover after a high endurance flight.

“We think that our results set a precedent for future oil spill damage assessments by showing how significant small amounts of oil can be for bird flight,” he said. “Every movement they make in the air becomes more costly and this can have cumulative effects on migration, survival and reproduction.”

The study was published in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>

How even light oil severely affects a bird’s ability to fly

Even light oil on birds from spills can make it...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...