Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown.



Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-origins-of-the-wheel">Redefining the origins of the wheel</h2>



A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and compelling insights into this fascinating puzzle.



This discovery represents an exciting development that shatters the conventional timeline, moving it far beyond the previously accepted era of 4000 BC in ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesopotamia</a>.



It was during that period when the wheel was first recognized as an essential tool, initially used in pottery-making and preceding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a> innovation of wheeled vehicles by centuries.



This newfound understanding prompts a reevaluation of how early humans harnessed rotational technology and its transformative impact on the trajectory of human civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-rotational-tools">Development of rotational tools</h2>



The spotlight is now shining on an archaeological discovery in Israel that has potentially rewritten this humble invention’s history and shifted our understanding of early human ingenuity.



Over a hundred perforated pebbles - primarily composed of limestone and bearing a circular shape with a central hole - were unearthed at the Nahal-Ein Gev II site, a location that has already provided valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life.



This extraordinary find represents a key milestone in the development of rotational tools, including our beloved wheel, and emphasizes the sophisticated craftsmanship and resourcefulness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early societies</a>.



It reveals not only the ingenuity behind these tools but also hints at the broader implications for the evolution of technology and innovation in human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invention-of-a-wheel-shaped-tool">Invention of a wheel-shaped tool</h2>



What's astonishing is that these ancient stones date back to approximately 12,000 years, far surpassing any previously known examples. 



Scholars from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> suggest that these stones served as spindle whorls - round weighted objects attached to a spindle stick.



This tool was instrumental in gathering fibers such as wool and spinning them into yarn, demonstrating the human use of rotation with a wheel-shaped tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-wheels-in-form-and-function">The first wheels in form and function </h2>



Professor Leore Grosman emphasized the importance of these artifacts, describing them as early examples of wheel-shaped tools connected to a rotating axle.



"These perforated stones are actually the first wheels in form and function - a round object with a hole in the center connected to a rotating axle, used long before the appearance of the wheel for transportation purposes," said Professor Grosman.



This early use eventually paved the way for more advanced wheel-based rotational inventions, including the renowned potter's wheel and, later, the significantly useful cart wheel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-prehistoric-innovation">Fingerprints of prehistoric innovation</h2>



"The most important aspect of the study is how modern technology allows us to delve deep into touching the fingerprints of the prehistoric craftsman, then learn something new about them and their innovativeness, and at the same time, about our modern technology and how we're linked," noted the researchers.



Their study embodies the "wheel and axle" concept, a revolutionary mechanism that triggered technology's transformation from linear to rotary motion.



The paper concludes that the ancient origins tied to the carts' prominence during the Bronze Age now focus on a much-earlier wheel-shaped tool.



So, the next time you marvel at the complexity of modern machinery, remember its connection to these humble stones from 12,000 years ago, and appreciate the role of human innovation throughout the ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ingenuity-and-innovation">Human ingenuity and innovation</h2>



This discovery not only enriches our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> but also illustrates the seamless progression from simple tools to complex mechanisms.



The spindle whorls unearthed at Nahal-Ein Gev II showcase the fundamental principles of rotational technology, a concept that would eventually lead to the wheel's application in pottery, transportation, and machinery.



By examining these early developments, researchers draw parallels between ancient creativity and modern technology, highlighting the continuous thread of human ingenuity through the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0312007&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plos One</a>.



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Who invented the wheel? It all started with stones

Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown. Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools. Redefining the origins of the wheel A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a> and <a href="https://www.suny.edu/">State University of New York</a> have developed a UV skin protection coating that is made out of DNA. The effectiveness of the formula actually improves as it is exposed to sunlight.

Guy German is an assistant professor of Biomedical Engineering at Binghamton University.

"Ultraviolet (UV) light can actually damage DNA, and that's not good for the skin," said German. "We thought, let's flip it. What happens instead if we actually used DNA as a sacrificial layer? So instead of damaging DNA within the skin, we damage a layer on top of the skin."

German teamed up with other experts to formulate thin and optically transparent crystallized DNA films. They exposed the film to UV light and discovered that the more the DNA film was illuminated, the better the film got at absorbing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-solar-cells-absorb-sunlight/">light</a>. 

"If you translate that, it means to me that if you use this as a topical cream or sunscreen, the longer that you stay out on the beach, the better it gets at being a sunscreen," said German.

The DNA coatings are also extra moisturizing due to the fact that skin covered with the DNA films can more effectively store and hold water. When applied to skin, they slow water evaporation and prolong hydration.

Next, German will test the DNA coating to see if it may be used as an improved method of covering wounds. The material would allow the wound to be visible while it is healing, protected from the sun, and may promote faster healing.

"Not only do we think this might have applications for sunscreen and moisturizers directly, but if it's optically transparent and prevents tissue damage from the sun and it's good at keeping the skin hydrated, we think this might be potentially exploitable as a wound covering for extreme environments," said German.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New DNA sunscreen works better the more you wear it

Researchers at Binghamton University and State University of New York...

We can’t help but be fascinated by an animal’s ability to change color. The chameleon, squid, and octopus can all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/panda-bears-fur-communication-camouflage/">camouflage</a> into their surroundings, communicate, and even maintain their temperature via changes in their skin color.

Science has long tried to replicate this ability. While there have been successful attempts, color changing material was only visible to our eye via a lot of effort and mechanical work. Previously a 100-500 percent strain to create visible color changing was needed.

But now, a new study from the <a href="http://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/publish/newthu/index.html">Tsinghua University in Beijing</a> is changing the game for color changing material. 

The study, published in the journal 2D Materials, used graphene to create a flexible electronic skin that was much more resistant to strain to create the shifting color effect.

"To obtain good performance with a simple process and reduced cost, we designed a modulus-gradient structure to use graphene as both the highly sensitive strain-sensing element and the insensitive stretchable electrode of the ECD layer,” said Dr. Tingting Yang of Tsinghua University, lead author of the study, 

The strain the research team needed to produce a visible change was between zero and ten percent, which marked a huge difference from 100-500 percent.

The reduced effort and cheaper cost of production mean that this material could have an impact in prosthetics, wearable technology, and robotics.

The exciting implications in these fields were confirmed Dr. Yang who also mentioned that this study’s findings have almost no match in the scientific world. 

“The capability we found for interactive color changes with such a small strain range has been rarely reported before,” said Dr. Yang.

The fact that science has found a way to mirror some animal’s ability to camouflage and change color is no small feat. And this study just found an easier, cost effective, way to create more vivid and visible color changes. This breakthrough opens up more possibilities in wearable devices, robots, and prosthetics.

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists create a wearable color-changing electronic skin

We can’t help but be fascinated by an animal’s ability...

A report published today in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd">Human Reproduction Update</a> reveals a significant decline in sperm count and sperm concentration among men of Western countries. The sweeping study reveals a 59.3 percent decline in total sperm count of men from North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and a 52.4 percent decline in sperm concentration.

Researchers from the <a href="http://new.huji.ac.il/en">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> conducted the investigation. The comprehensive survey takes into account the results of 7500 previous studies, and includes a meta-analysis of 185 studies conducted between 1973 and 2011. 

According to the research, the overall drop in sperm count has progressed rapidly and is not showing signs of slowing down anytime soon. Declines in sperm count have been reported since 1992, but limitations in past studies left the results questionable. The current evaluation, however, is comprised of scrupulous meta-regression methods and has a much more extensive reach than previous studies.

"Given the importance of sperm counts for male fertility and human health, this study is an urgent wake-up call for researchers and health authorities around the world to investigate the causes of the sharp ongoing drop in sperm count, with the goal of prevention," said lead author Dr. Hagai Levine.

The risk of subfertility or infertility in Western men is increasing as sperm counts decline. However, evidence from recent studies which links reduced sperm count to increased morbidity and mortality suggests the findings of this research may have even more serious health implications for men.

Some of the environmental and lifestyle influences associated with a decrease in sperm count include chemical or pesticide exposure, stress, smoking, and obesity. The experts believe sperm count may reflect the impact of the environment on male health. 

Dr. Shanna H. Swan is a professor in the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York.

"Decreasing sperm count has been of great concern since it was first reported twenty-five years ago,” explained Dr. Swan. “This definitive study shows, for the first time, that this decline is strong and continuing. The fact that the decline is seen in Western countries strongly suggests that chemicals in commerce are playing a causal role in this trend.” 
--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is the sperm count of Western men significantly declining?

A report published today in Human Reproduction Update reveals a...

Zebrafish may be as small as your thumb but they are widely studied in the scientific world because of their restorative and healing abilities. Yes, a member of the minnow family is helping scientists unlock the keys to potentially healing cancer, muscular dystrophy, and now, with new research, even spinal cord injuries.

The study was published in the journal, Nature Communications, and conducted by scientists at the <a href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/centre-neuroregeneration">University of Edinburgh's Centre for Neuroregeneration</a>. The researchers were able to isolate important molecules in zebrafish that jump-start regeneration in damaged nerve fibers.

After an injury in zebrafish, cells known as fibroblasts would go to the affected area and begin to produce a molecule, collagen 12, that prompts regrowth and actually restores the damaged nerve fibers.

This could potentially open up new studies to find treatments for spinal cord injuries in humans. Spinal cord injuries, as of now, are permanent. But thanks to the zebrafish, scientists may be able to unlock ways to restore and repair nerve damage due to spinal cord injury. And like the zebrafish reconnect those nerve fibers.

Amazingly, scientists have found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-insight-human-hearing-loss/">zebrafish</a> are able to heal fully from a spinal cord injury in just four weeks or less. And now, with this study, the research team at Edinburgh have pinpointed the molecules responsible for this incredible speedy healing.

Dr. Thomas Becker from the Centre for Neuroregeneration said about the next phases of the study, "We next plan to check whether triggering these signals in other animals can help them to repair nerve connections damaged by spinal cord injuries."

The zebrafish may be a tiny tropical fish but its ability to restore damaged nerve fibers and biological makeup has been of interest to scientists for quite some time now. Potentially holding within its 2-4-centimeter striped body new ways to understand and treat spinal cord injuries and much more.

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Zebrafish may hold the cure for spinal cord injuries

Zebrafish may be as small as your thumb but they...

Dr. Tatia Lee and Dr. Robin Shao of <a href="http://www.hku.hk/">The University of Hong Kong</a> conducted an evaluation during which they trained individuals how to lie. The study revealed that people with high levels of psychopathic traits learn how to lie more effectively than individuals with low levels of psychopathic traits.

“High psychopathy is characterized by untruthfulness and manipulativeness but the evidence so far was not clear on whether high-psychopathic individuals in the general population tend to lie more or better than others,” explained Dr. Shao. “Our findings provide evidence that people with high psychopathic traits might just be better at learning how to lie."

The study focused on 23 students who displayed few psychopathic characteristics and 29 students who had many psychopathic traits. The participants were shown a sequence of images containing familiar and unfamiliar faces. They were given cues to respond either honestly or dishonestly when asked if they recognized a person featured in each photograph.

The response times of the students were noted  while their brain activity was monitored using functional magnetic resonance imaging methodology (fMRI). The students were then given a training session before repeating the task.

The individuals with high levels of psychopathic traits performed better on the tasks with notably shorter response times after the training exercises. Individuals with low psychopathic traits, however, showed no significant changes after training. 

“The stark contrast between individuals with high and low levels of psychopathic traits in lying performance following two training sessions is remarkable, given that there were no significant differences in lying performance between the two groups prior to training,” said Dr. Lee.

According to the researchers, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-sync-conversations/">brains</a> of the two groups have contradicting ways of processing lies which may explain the results of the experiment.

"During lying, the 'true' information needs to be suppressed and reversed. Thus, lying requires a series of processes in the brain including attention, working memory, inhibitory control and conflict resolution which we found to be reduced in individuals with high levels of psychopathic traits,” explained Dr. Lee. 

“By contrast, in individuals with low levels of psychopathic traits this lie-related brain activity increased. The additional 'effort' it took their brains to process untruthful responses may be one of the reasons why they didn't improve their lying speed."

The researchers say that further research is needed to examine individuals with high levels of psychopathic traits outside of the student population. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/tp/">Translational Psychiatry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.nature.com/tp/">Translational Psychiatry</a>

People with psychopathic tendencies are better at lying

Dr. Tatia Lee and Dr. Robin Shao of The University...

A new study suggests that management agencies are using an outdated method of calculating soil moisture for wildfire risk assessments. 

The Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) was developed in 1968 to estimate the likelihood of wildfire based on drought conditions such as the availability of soil water. Researchers in Oklahoma have determined KBDI is no longer the most reliable technique for determining soil moisture, as tools are now capable of producing detailed measurements. 

Using KBDI, soil moisture is approximated by precipitation and estimated evapotranspiration. Meters and sensors are available that can measure soil moisture more accurately as a fraction of available water capacity (FAW). Despite this fact, many agencies are still using KBDI to rate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-complicated-nature/">fire</a> danger levels. 

Using statewide data, researchers in Oklahoma compared the relationships of FAW and KBDI with wildfire incidents and found that FAW was consistently better than KBDI. 

For example, soil moisture conditions with a higher chance of producing large wildfires during growing seasons were more narrowly defined by FAW. Regression models based on FAW more frequently predicted days with large fires. FAW also delivered more time to prepare for wildfire, as alerts for the potential of extreme wildfire could be given earlier with FAW than with KBDI.

The findings of the study indicate that FAW is a much more reliable resource than KBDI for establishing soil water levels and assessing fire risk based on soil moisture. The authors express an urgent need for land management agencies in Oklahoma to stop relying on KBDI. 

The report is published in the <a href="https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/sssaj">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Measuring soil moisture can help predict wildfires

A new study suggests that management agencies are using an...

A new study out of <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> demonstrated the effect violence has on memory and cognitive functions. 

Showing that those exposed to bouts of violence and crime were more likely to perform poorly in schools, have their short-term memory and cognitive functions hindered, and open them up to a wide range of issues such as PTSD and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extra-virgin-olive-oil-protects-brain/">Alzheimer’s</a> later on in life.

The study looked at over 500 civilians in Colombia, which has been notorious for its high crime rate and violence. It also looked at two different groups, those in rural areas and those in urban. Pietro Ortoleva, who co-authored the study, studied both short term memory and cognitive functions because “they are important determinants for individual well-being and societal development".

Ortoleva would ask some members of test groups in both rural and urban areas to recall an event that caused emotional distress, violence being a very likely cause, and the remaining members were asked to recall a happy memory. Then each individual was set to perform a series of easy tests meant to highlight memory and cognitive functions. Unsurprisingly, those who were asked to remember a distressing or violent memory performed poorly on the tests. 

The study will hopefully help to further show the impact violence, especially long-term exposure, has on individuals and their ability to function in society. 

The cycle of violence is easily continued when there is a stark lack of resources for those who have experienced trauma in their lives, just leading the way to further “poverty and violence,” as Ortoleva noted. There are lots of possibilities with this study as it relates to not just Columbia, but any group that is exposed to violence, crime, and war. Looking at how to introduce the most effective therapy and techniques to help those who are affected better cope.

-- 

By: <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to violence blocks short-term memory

A new study out of Princeton University demonstrated the effect...

Cortisol is a steroid hormone which is released in response to stress. A new study has found that varying patterns of cortisol secretion can reveal the levels of stress that individuals are experiencing. This discovery could lead to improved diagnosis and treatment for people with more extreme cases of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-toxic-chemical-exposure/">stress</a>.

Known as the “stress hormone,” cortisol influences many of the changes that happen within the body as a result of stress. For example, cortisol provides the body with glucose under stressful conditions to help regulate blood sugar. This means that long-term elevated levels of cortisol can put individuals at risk of health issues such as type 2 diabetes.

Previous stress analysis was based on the classification of participants as responders or non-responders after the individuals were exposed to a short period of induced stress. The current study, published in <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>, identified three different types of cortisol response by taking a new approach to stress research.

Roee Admon, Diego Pizzagalli, and colleagues recruited 79 healthy women for the study. The team used modified lab procedures to induce stress in each of the women for over an hour. 

The results of the study showed that participants who released very high or very low amounts of cortisol were more stressed than those who released a moderate amount of cortisol. 

The research team also discovered that the high and low responders had smaller volume of the hippocampus. The hippocampus is a structure near the center of the brain that has a large amount of cortisol receptors. Previous studies have linked smaller hippocampal volume to individuals with stress-related disorders.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>

Cortisol levels indicate how stressed out a person feels

Cortisol is a steroid hormone which is released in response...

Indian monsoons have strengthened in the central and northern parts of the country over the past 15 years, according to a new study.

The new trend reverses a decades-long pattern of dry weather, scientists at <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">MIT</a> discovered. However, it also means a lot more water than the regions are equipped to handle: the heavier than normal monsoon activity has brought powerful flooding with it.

The MIT researchers set out to discover what caused the change in monsoon patterns. The changes appear to correspond with warming trends in both the Indian ocean and in atmospheric surface temperatures in the Indian subcontinent.

Since 2002 – the same year Indian monsoons began to pick up – the subcontinent has seen a strong warming trend of anywhere from 0.1 to 1 degree Celsius each year, the MIT researchers noted. During the same time, rising ocean temperatures in the Indian ocean slowed unexpectedly.

"Climatologically, India went through a sudden, drastic warming, while the Indian Ocean, which used to be warm, all of a sudden slowed its warming," Dr. Chien Wang of MIT said. "This may have been from a combination of natural variability and [human-caused] influences, and we're still trying to get to the bottom of the physical processes that caused this reversal."

Whatever the cause behind the reversal, the warmer air temperatures catching up to the ocean has created the “perfect storm” of variables to create strong and powerful Indian monsoons.

The study, which looked at weather data from India that has been recorded since the late 1800s, has put to rest worries that India is caught in an irreversible dry spell.

The worry – based on a 50-year dry spell that began to reverse only 15 years ago – was that deforestation and use of aerosols in India had caused a dry period that could not be mitigated.

But the MIT researchers were surprised, when they studied the rainfall data, to find that the dry period in northern and central India was rebounding. 

"The Indian monsoon is considered a textbook, clearly defined phenomenon, and we think we know a lot about it, but we don't," Wang says. "Here, we identify a phenomenon that was mostly overlooked."

Research is still needed to narrow down whether the drying and revival of the northern and central monsoons are a natural cycle or whether the changes were caused by human activity, the scientists said.

The study will be published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>. MIT’s research was supported, in part, by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, the <a href="https://www.nrf.gov.sg/">National Research Foundation of Singapore</a>, and the <a href="https://smart.mit.edu/">Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Daniel J. Rao / Shutterstock.com

Are Indian monsoons getting stronger?

Indian monsoons have strengthened in the central and northern parts...

Want to influence public views on climate change? Focus education efforts on solutions to climate problems and not scientific consensus, scholars say.

Education campaigns that make a point of correcting misconceptions about scientific consensus may actually be undermining policy efforts, according to a new expert commentary published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1333965">Environmental Communication</a>. 

Instead, environmental education efforts and policy should focus on finding solutions to individual climate problems, they said. Focusing the scientific consensus not only shifts attention away from the effects of climate change, it may undermine the development of useful policy.

This is especially true of campaigns that focus on the “97 percent” statistic, the experts said.

“There is a danger of overreach in that numbers like the 97 percent consensus are implicitly extended to all areas of climate science, and used to close down debate over complex topics like extreme weather events,” said Dr. Reiner Grundmann of the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a>, one of the commentary’s co-authors. 

By focusing on the scientific consensus, the experts said, environmental advocates are assuming it is needed to give legitimacy to strategies to mitigate damage caused by climate change.

“This (climate change) approach also makes the implausible assumption that publics will follow the correct policy path once given the relevant scientific information, and that acceptance of scientific consensus is needed to support specific solutions,” he said.

But in the late 1970s and 1980s, a campaign to shift Americans away from using aerosol cans that released ozone-depleting chemicals was successful, even though there was no scientific consensus at the time as to whether the hole in the ozone layer was man-made or not. Neither was there consensus over the ozone layer’s purpose. By the time the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987, the campaign was years old, Grundmann and his co-authors note.

Rather than getting the public to accept that a scientific consensus exists, education efforts are better served by focusing on addressing specific issues like extreme weather, they said.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Focus on climate change consensus may undermine education efforts

Want to influence public views on climate change? Focus education...

Have you ever had a conversation with someone and felt like you were on the same wavelength? You might have been; human brains synchronize their waves during conversations, according to a new study.

The brain wave coordination may actually help humans communicate with each other effectively, according to the team of researchers from the <a href="http://www.bcbl.eu/">Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language</a>, who conducted the study.

Verbal communication between two or more people is a complex exchange of information, the scientists noted.

“To be effective, communication requires the ability to deliver a verbal message and the capacity to comprehend the message. Speech perception is achieved by coupling between the ongoing rhythmic neural activity of the listener and the quasi-rhythms of the speech signal,” they wrote.

Using electroencephalographic hyperscanning, the BCBL scientists studied the brain activity between participants who were interacting with each other using speech. The participants could hear each other but not see each other, similar to a telephone conversation.

The researchers discovered that during conversation, the both subjects’ brain activity synchronizes. This was true even when the participants were strangers who had never spoken before.

The process seems to rely on multiple factors within human brains, according to the researchers. Both the shared sensory stimulus of verbal speech and the act of interacting socially appear to trigger the phenomenon, the scientists said.

The synchronization, which the researchers have dubbed brain-to-brain entrainment, may offer insights into how verbal communication developed into the complex languages used by human populations. They also underline that brains work differently in social settings than in isolation, the BCBL researchers said.

“These results add to a growing body of evidence emphasizing the need for more close-to-natural experimental designs and methodologies that would allow exploration of the complexity of the neural mechanisms underlying verbal communication and social interaction in general,” they wrote.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-04464-4">Scientific Reports</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Human brains sync up during conversations, study finds

Have you ever had a conversation with someone and felt...

With climate change on the horizon, scientists have begun piecing together what life on planet Earth might look and feel like by the end of this century. According to a new study, over 75% of plant and animal species in England will be significantly affected by climate change by the year 2100.

The research comes from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> and predicts that more than half of 3,000 species of plants and animals in England could significantly expand their populations into different areas of the country to avoid the ill effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japans-shoreline-climate-change/">climate change</a>.

"In England we're likely to see more winners than losers if we manage land in the right places to facilitate expanding populations,” said Colin Beale of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York.</a> “This research will also help us identify where we have the best chance to help species that are at most risk."

The team, which includes researchers at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, the <a href="https://www.bto.org/">British Trust for Ornithology</a>, and<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/natural-england"> Natural England</a>, also found that 27 percent of species may not find suitable climate in the areas they currently occupy.

Northern and upland species were found to be the most vulnerable, which includes birds like the dotterel and red grouse, flowering plants such as crowberry, and damp-loving mosses, the study said.

However, wasps, bees, ants and many southerly distributed species such as Dartford warbler and emperor dragonfly, are likely to thrive in warmer conditions and could expand to new areas of the country.

"This research provides valuable information for nature conservationists, who need to plan for changing species' distributions and an uncertain future,” said James Pearce-Higgins, Director of Science at the <a href="https://www.bto.org/">British Trust for Ornithology</a>, and lead author of the study.

The researchers compiled a study of 400 species and the factors known to make them more vulnerable to climate change.

With these factors included, the proportion of wildlife at risk from climate change increased to 35 percent, while 42 percent may be able to expand their populations.

The study emphasizes the need to protect and expand networks of habitats so that species can successfully colonize new areas.

"Climate change is a big challenge to conservationists; we need to ready to protect species where they have the best chance in the future, which will not always be the same places as in the past,” said Dr. Mike Morecroft, Principal Specialist in Climate Change at Natural England. “Good science is more important than ever to ensure good decision making."

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley, </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>

A preview of what a warmer climate will be like in the 2080s

With climate change on the horizon, scientists have begun piecing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...