Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown.



Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-origins-of-the-wheel">Redefining the origins of the wheel</h2>



A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and compelling insights into this fascinating puzzle.



This discovery represents an exciting development that shatters the conventional timeline, moving it far beyond the previously accepted era of 4000 BC in ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesopotamia</a>.



It was during that period when the wheel was first recognized as an essential tool, initially used in pottery-making and preceding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a> innovation of wheeled vehicles by centuries.



This newfound understanding prompts a reevaluation of how early humans harnessed rotational technology and its transformative impact on the trajectory of human civilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-rotational-tools">Development of rotational tools</h2>



The spotlight is now shining on an archaeological discovery in Israel that has potentially rewritten this humble invention’s history and shifted our understanding of early human ingenuity.



Over a hundred perforated pebbles - primarily composed of limestone and bearing a circular shape with a central hole - were unearthed at the Nahal-Ein Gev II site, a location that has already provided valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life.



This extraordinary find represents a key milestone in the development of rotational tools, including our beloved wheel, and emphasizes the sophisticated craftsmanship and resourcefulness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early societies</a>.



It reveals not only the ingenuity behind these tools but also hints at the broader implications for the evolution of technology and innovation in human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invention-of-a-wheel-shaped-tool">Invention of a wheel-shaped tool</h2>



What's astonishing is that these ancient stones date back to approximately 12,000 years, far surpassing any previously known examples. 



Scholars from the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> suggest that these stones served as spindle whorls - round weighted objects attached to a spindle stick.



This tool was instrumental in gathering fibers such as wool and spinning them into yarn, demonstrating the human use of rotation with a wheel-shaped tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-wheels-in-form-and-function">The first wheels in form and function </h2>



Professor Leore Grosman emphasized the importance of these artifacts, describing them as early examples of wheel-shaped tools connected to a rotating axle.



"These perforated stones are actually the first wheels in form and function - a round object with a hole in the center connected to a rotating axle, used long before the appearance of the wheel for transportation purposes," said Professor Grosman.



This early use eventually paved the way for more advanced wheel-based rotational inventions, including the renowned potter's wheel and, later, the significantly useful cart wheel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerprints-of-prehistoric-innovation">Fingerprints of prehistoric innovation</h2>



"The most important aspect of the study is how modern technology allows us to delve deep into touching the fingerprints of the prehistoric craftsman, then learn something new about them and their innovativeness, and at the same time, about our modern technology and how we're linked," noted the researchers.



Their study embodies the "wheel and axle" concept, a revolutionary mechanism that triggered technology's transformation from linear to rotary motion.



The paper concludes that the ancient origins tied to the carts' prominence during the Bronze Age now focus on a much-earlier wheel-shaped tool.



So, the next time you marvel at the complexity of modern machinery, remember its connection to these humble stones from 12,000 years ago, and appreciate the role of human innovation throughout the ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ingenuity-and-innovation">Human ingenuity and innovation</h2>



This discovery not only enriches our understanding of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> but also illustrates the seamless progression from simple tools to complex mechanisms.



The spindle whorls unearthed at Nahal-Ein Gev II showcase the fundamental principles of rotational technology, a concept that would eventually lead to the wheel's application in pottery, transportation, and machinery.



By examining these early developments, researchers draw parallels between ancient creativity and modern technology, highlighting the continuous thread of human ingenuity through the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0312007&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plos One</a>.



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Who invented the wheel? It all started with stones

Who invented the wheel? This question has been a topic of debate for centuries. But because it predates recorded history, the exact inventor of the wheel has remained unknown. Despite the wheel's undeniable importance in human history, its origins have been shrouded in mystery and speculation. What we do know is that the wheel likely evolved over time from simpler tools. Redefining the origins of the wheel A new study on the evolution of the wheel has pushed the clock back by 6,000 years, offering new and...

A team of geologists have unearthed new clues as to the cause of the Earth’s largest ever mass extinction event, at the end of the Permian close to 252 million years ago.

The researchers have found evidence that suggests the initial formation of the Siberian Traps, a large region of volcanic rock, may have triggered the extinction event – a theory supported by a large number of scientists who study the Permian and Triassic periods.

But the researchers’ new model shows that it likely wasn’t the eruption itself that led to the disappearance of 95 percent of Earth’s marine species and 70 percent of land species. 

“Our model is based on new, high-resolution age data that suggests surface lava flows erupted too early to drive mass extinction” Dr. James Muirhead of <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu/">Syracuse University</a> said in a <a href="http://asnews.syr.edu/newsevents_2017/releases/james_muirhead_geology.html">press release</a>. “Instead, there was a subinterval of magmatism — a shorter, particular part of the [large igneous province] — that triggered a cascade of events causing mass extinction.”

Or, in other words, the extreme heat generated by magma as it formed the SIberian Traps sills may have triggered events that soon became catastrophic to life on Earth.

The Siberian Traps span more than 500,000 square miles, and may have been caused by a plume of the Earth’s mantle rising close to the surface. The flat location was the site of numerous eruptions over the course of over a million years. 

The heat generated by the eruptions over such a broad swath of land appears to have spurred metamorphism of rocks and minerals in the area to form the sills – intrusions of igneous rock into existing limestone, coal and other rock formations, Muirhead and his colleagues said.

That would have released massive amounts of greenhouse gases, warming the Earth’s climate and leading to mass extinction.  

“By reexamining the timing and connection between magmatism [the movement of magma], climate change and extinction, we've created a model that explains what triggered the end-Permian mass extinction," said Dr. Seth Burgess, the study’s lead author and a geologist with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a>. 

The new model will be published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

New clues surface about Permian mass extinction

A team of geologists have unearthed new clues as to...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.kent.ac.uk/">University of Kent</a> have established that just because people believe they are intuitive does not mean they actually are. A recent study showed that whether people believed they were highly perceptive or not was no indication of how well they could execute tasks which required intuitive skills. 

For the study, psychologists Dr. Mario Weick and Stefan Leach distributed surveys to 400 people from the UK and the United States. The forms contained a series of questions to determine how intuitive the participants believed they were.

The volunteers were then asked to perform various tasks that involved learning unfamiliar and complicated associations between letters and images. There were patterns hidden in the associations, and the test was developed so that the underlying rules could be learned subconsciously by the participants.

The findings of the study revealed that people who considered themselves to be intuitive did not perform better on the test than people who did not think of themselves as intuitive. In addition, those who considered themselves to be highly perceptive did not grasp the rules any better than people who claimed to be less perceptive.

After the assessments, the researchers asked participants more specifically about their test performance and how confident they were that their intuitions were correct.

Once again, people with more confidence were no more accurate than those with less confidence in their abilities. 90 percent of those with high levels of confidence in his or her intuition did not perform any better than the other participants.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/home/spp">Social Psychological and Personality Science.</a>

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People who consider themselves intuitive may not be accurate

Researchers at the University of Kent have established that just...

Scientists at <a href="http://www.ohsu.edu/">Oregon Health and Science University</a> have conducted the first gene editing trial of human embryos in the United States. This highly controversial process may be capable of eliminating genetic diseases in embryos by altering DNA.

While the exact details of the analysis have not yet been released, sources familiar with the study led by Shoukhrat Mitalipov suggest the team successfully used a technique known as CRISPR to alter the DNA of  “many tens” of embryos. CRISPR is the most rigorous gene-altering method available, and allows precise sections of DNA to be changed or replaced.  

Previous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silence-genes-prevent-disorders/">gene</a> editing experiments have taken place in China, but Chinese research teams struggled with a major safety issue in editing embryos known as mosaicism. When gene editing does not take place until after the DNA of a fertilized egg has begun to divide, only some cells in the embryo are changed and disease prevention may be unsuccessful. 

The research team in Oregon reportedly discovered a safer gene editing method by using the CRISPR technique as the eggs were being fertilized. 

Congress has blocked any clinical trial that would create a genetically modified baby in the United States. According to <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/">MIT Technology Review</a>, the embryos created for the study were not intended to develop beyond a few days. 

The National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Medicine released a report earlier this year which said that altering the genes of embryos may be acceptable, but only if it is done under strict criteria aimed at preventing serious disease. Bioethicist R. Alta Charo is a co-leader of the National Academies panel.

"This is the kind of research that the report discussed," said Charo. "This was purely laboratory-based work that is incredibly valuable for helping us understand how one might make these germline changes in a way that is precise and safe. But it's only a first step.”

Charo suggested that the American public will have plenty of time to express their opinions before legislation is passed that would allow for genetically modified babies. 

Dr. Eric Topol is a revered genetics expert at Scripps Translational Science Institute. Dr. Topol referred to gene editing as an “unstoppable, inevitable science.”

Dr. Topol explained that eradicating diseases with gene-edited cells is just a matter of time, but yet it must be performed at the embryo stage. “If it isn't done in this country, it will be done elsewhere,” said Dr. Topol.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

U.S. scientists successfully edit genes of human embryos

Scientists at Oregon Health and Science University have conducted the...

As countless servers and bartenders will tell you, the invention of the screw cap on wine bottles is one of the slickest new things to happen in the industry. No more are waiters struggling with stubborn corks, accidentally breaking the cork in half with a small part still stuck in the bottle, or even worse, finding pieces of cork floating in a guest’s newly poured glass. The screw cap is an easy twist off alternative and more and more bottles are making the switch. 

The question is, especially for the hardened sommeliers and winos, does the screw cap affect taste or the quality of the wine? 

But now, science is stepping in to settle the debate. <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">Oxford University</a> scientists are conducting an experiment that will use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-control-aging/">brain</a> scans of individuals and record their reactions to different wines both with cork and screw cap seals. 

Research has shown that the screw cap isn’t just a convenient trend for simplifying the steps to the get the wine from bottle to glass. Wines with screw caps also appear to age just as well as their corked counterparts. 

Man people remain unconvinced though, thinking the cork should reign supreme in all things wine related. But now, the new study aims to determine once and for all if the cork is all it’s cracked up to be. 

One of the scientists conducting the study is Professor Charles Spence, head of experimental psychology at the <a href="https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/research/crossmodal-research-laboratory">Crossmodal Research Laboratory in Oxford</a>. The Crossmodal Research Lab is an innovative endeavour meant to better understand “integration of information across the various different sensory modalities.” 

Spence and his team aren’t just looking at taste receptors to the wine, but also the sound, the feel, the smell, and their interconnectivity in response to the brain’s pleasure centers. According to Spence, “Our brains have a powerful hold over our taste buds, and it will be interesting to see the effects the multi-sensory aspects of wine drinking have on our perception of taste.”

Time will tell if their findings point to the cork or screw cap being the better seal for wine. The convenience of the screw cap makes it a hard act to follow, but traditionalists are happy to have science weigh on this debate.

---

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cork vs. screw cap: which wine tastes better?

As countless servers and bartenders will tell you, the invention...

Science is continually on the hunt for alternative fuel sources that won’t also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gas emissions. Now, exciting results from a study out of <a href="http://www.lbl.gov/">Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> and <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">Nanyang Technological University</a> in Singapore marks a big step in finding alternate fuel sources that don’t add harmful byproducts to our atmosphere. 

A research team was comprised of scientists from Berkeley and Singapore, with one of the corresponding authors being Haimei Zheng, a staff scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division. The team found a way to convert carbon dioxide using a solar powered catalyst into carbon monoxide with no unnecessary byproducts or gasses.  

The study was published in the journal Science Advances and documents the researchers’ use of a “spongy”, nickel organic crystalline structure, that when exposed to solar energy, converted carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide. This process can in turn produce other liquids, solvents, and fuels and all with promising real world implications. 

In just one hour at room temperature, the catalyst (nickel) could create 400 milliliters of carbon monoxide. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/splitting-carbon-dioxide-cheaper/">Carbon dioxide</a> has to have catalysts to break up the bonds of molecule, and there has been increased interest in finding solar powered methods to convert CO2.

“Complete suppression of the competing hydrogen evolution during a photocatalytic CO2-to-CO conversion had not been achieved before our work,” said Haimei Zheng of the study’s phenomenal findings.

This exciting discovery brings us steps closer to finding renewable sources of energy and the race to help staunch the rising carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere.

---

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New catalyst converts carbon dioxide with no harmful byproducts

Science is continually on the hunt for alternative fuel sources...

Drosophila, commonly known as the fruit fly, is one of the most researched and understood organisms in the world of science. They are of particular interest because of their impact on the fields of genetics. 

Science has discovered a lot about of the fruit fly and its genetic makeup over the years, and a recent study from the journal Nature Communications has found interesting patterns in a fruit fly’s decision to mate or sleep. 

Obviously, one has to take precedence over the other, but how the fruit flies decide which is more important in the moment varies based on gender. 

The study found that sleep deprived males were less inclined to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sexual-intimidation-tactics-primate/">mate</a>. For females, however, their sleeping habits had no effect on their determination to mate. Researchers say this may be because of the females need to reproduce at any cost, with a rate of anywhere between 30 and 50 eggs a day. But sleepy males were not aroused compared to sleep deprived females. 

The research was compiled by a group effort between scientists at <a href="http://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a>, the <a href="http://www.seu.edu.cn/english/">Southeast University in China</a>, and the <a href="http://www.sandiego.edu/">University of San Diego</a>, with the corresponding author Michael Nitabach, a professor of cellular and molecular physiology and genetics at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>.

The study explains the lack of sex drive in sleep deprived males as an “adaptive behavior,” because falling asleep during sex could result in failure to pass on genes. 

The research team also found “a neuronal connection that regulates the interplay between courtship and sleep,” says Nitabach. These findings could be used to look at humans and their biological drives for sleep and sex, if and when the two are pitted against each other. 

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep vs. sex? How the fruit fly decides

Drosophila, commonly known as the fruit fly, is one of...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/winter-paints-andes-mountains-snow-ice/">Andes Mountains</a> in Peru are home to richly diverse flora and fauna. Now, ecologists from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have discovered three new frog species in the Pui Pui Protected Forest in central Peru. This brings the total number of new frogs discovered by the team to five. 

The Pui Pui Protected Forest has been a designated conservation site since 1985, but there have been very few studies done in the area. It covers 150,000 acres with streams, lakes, and rivers, and there are both Andean grasslands and cloud forests in the region. This new discovery shows how vital studying and protecting these habitats are. 

“These discoveries demonstrate the need for further scientific exploration of such Andean habitats,” said researcher Rudolf von May from the University of Michigan Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.

The frogs discovered all measure only an inch or less and belong to the most diverse genus of frogs in the tropical Andes, Pristimantis. They are part of a group of terrestrial or land-breeding frogs. Unlike other amphibians, who start as tadpoles, pristimantis lay embryos that hatch into froglets right away. 

The three new discoveries were given the name of the park, Pui Pui, and the findings were published in the journal Zootaxa online, with the primary author listed as Edgar Lehr of<a href="https://www.iwu.edu/"> Illinois Wesleyan University</a>. Ecologists from the University of Michigan, the Czech Republic, Peru and Illinois worked on the discoveries. 

The new species are called the Pui Pui Rubber Frog, The Hill Dweller Rubber Frog, and Humboldt’s Rubber Frog, named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt.

More information on the study’s findings and the names of the other discoveries will be published in papers by the research teams later on. These exciting discoveries prove the importance of conserving and studying these vast habitats as our understanding of them is still limited.

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New species of frog discovered in Peruvian Andes

The Andes Mountains in Peru are home to richly diverse...

Male mice have the tendency to be naturally territorial. Whether they are out in nature or in the confines of a lab, they are likely to exhibit aggression and attack other male mice, even if there is plenty of room, food, and females available.

A team of researchers from <a href="http://med.stanford.edu/">Stanford University School of Medicine</a> set out to determine whether this aggression was due to environmental factors or whether the mice were genetically predisposed to this behavior. In their study – published in the journal Neuron – they reveal that they have identified a cluster of nerve cells in the brains of male mice that trigger territorial rage when activated. When these same clusters were activated in female mice, they showed no effect.

"…Selectively activating just this tiny cluster – about 5,000 nerve cells in a brain with 80 million nerve cells – escalates the level and extent of male mice's aggressiveness dramatically," says Nirao Shah, a Stanford professor and the study's senior author. The cells were identified as PR+VMHvl nerve cells, which are part of the ventromedial hypothalamus in the brain and also contain receptors for sex hormones.

The researchers found that stimulating these cells in male lab mice that spent 7-10 days alone in a cage would result in significant displays of aggression, even under conditions where this behavior should rarely occur. The mouse would attack female mice and members of other species – behaviors that mice rarely display. They would even attack a mirror placed in the cage or an inflated surgical glove.

Circulating testosterone is generally a requirement for mice to display territorial aggression, but even neutered mice would attack other mice in their case when PR+VMHvl nerve cells were stimulated. In a prior study, Shah and his team had discovered that killing PR+VMHvl cells significantly reduced territorial aggression in male mice. Based on these findings, it appears that this cluster of cells is essential to territorial aggression in male mice.

Despite all this, the study still found that this genetically hard-wired aggression was influenced by complex social etiquette. For example, if a male mouse were alone, he wouldn’t exhibit displays of aggression no matter how much the cluster of nerve cells was stimulated. However, any sign of an unfamiliar object in the cage would cause aggressive behavior. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-capable-empathy/">mice</a> would also attack when placed in the territory of another aggressive, lone male.

When the researchers house male mice together before stimulation, this aggressive behavior was drastically reduced. Even when PR+VMHvl activity was induced, a socially housed male would not attack another aggressive, solitary male in its own territory. So it appeared that social housing of these mice significantly impacted their aggressiveness.

Shah believes this influence is directly related to the mice’s ability to detect pheromones released by other mice, which signal their social and reproductive status. When mice were rendered unable to detect another mouse’s pheromones, even a socially housed male would attack when it’s PR+VMHvl cells were activated.

These complex results show that the nature vs. nurture argument may not be as black and white as we previously thought.

“Nature versus nurture is a false dichotomy,” said Shah. “We’ve showed, on the one hand, that genetically programmed circuitry massively influences mammalian behavior. And we’ve seen that, under certain circumstances, nurture wins: Your social conditions can override your natural impulse to fight.”

Similar to mice, our human brains also have a ventromedial hypothalamus. Although the functions of this region haven’t been fully understood in our species, there’s enough research out there for Shah to think there is at least a little bit of similarity between mice and humans in that area. The findings of further studies may be of benefit to understanding the impacts of solitary confinement of aggressive male prisoners or adults with various psychiatric conditions.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nature vs. nature at odds in aggression of male mice

Male mice have the tendency to be naturally territorial. Whether...

One of the many pleasures in life is when you experience an Aha! moment, where you suddenly remember a long-lost piece of information, or figure out the answer to a difficult question. And researchers at <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> may have just discovered the biology behind this moment – suggesting that it could be linked to consciousness when information collected by the brain reaches a critical threshold.

The study also postulates that the piercing of the consciousness that occurs in this Aha! moment shares the same underlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-sync-conversations/">brain</a> mechanisms that are involved in making very simple decisions. It’s possible that this research may put us on the path to better understanding the biological foundations of consciousness.

“The vast majority of thoughts circling in our brains happen below the radar of conscious awareness, meaning that even though our brain is processing them, we are not aware,” explains Dr. Michael Shadlen, a principal investigator at <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia</a> and the paper's senior author. “How some of that information bubbles to the level of consciousness, however, remains an unsolved mystery. But now, we’ve found a way to observe that moment in real time, and then apply those findings to our understanding of consciousness itself.”

Dr. Shadlen has spent his career attempting to understand how the signals sent through the brain’s billions of cells result in the decisions we make. Even complex emotions and thoughts such as love, grief, and mortality can be essentially boiled down to a series of decisions made by the brain engaging with the outside world.

For their study, the researchers had five participants watch dots on a computer screen that moved like grains of sand blowing in the wind. The subjects were asked what direction the dots were blowing in, and a clock at the center of the screen kept the time. After the dots were finished moving, the participants decided on what direction the dots had been traveling and then asked to decide what time the clock had been at when they became aware of the answer.

The research team incorporated this data with a vast history of previous research on brain mechanisms in decision-making and combined this with a complex mathematical trick in order to validate that the participants’ subjective belief that their decision was made at this time was an accurate reflection of the brain’s decision-making process.

“Essentially, the act of becoming consciously aware of a decision conforms to the same process that the brain goes through to complete a decision, even a simple one – such as whether to turn left or right,” says Dr. Shadlen.

Although this study is just the beginning, it has piqued scientists’ curiosity about the possibility of our most complex thoughts and feelings being definable under biological standards.

“Some people think that the nitty gritty of neuroscience is far from the highfalutin stuff that a philosopher would consider,” says Dr. Shadlen. “But rest assured, explaining these concepts – whether it’s ethics, consciousness anything else – in terms of neuroscience isn’t explaining them away. Instead, I would argue that it is helping to bring the biological study of the brain closer to the philosophical study of the mind.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists explain why your brain’s Aha! moments occur

One of the many pleasures in life is when you...

Researchers from <a href="http://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> have developed filters that can remove toxic heavy metals from water. Carbon nanotubes immobilized in a tuft of quartz fiber absorbed 99 percent of cadmium, cobalt, copper, mercury, nickel, and lead from water samples.

The filter is so effective that only one gram of the material could treat 83,000 liters of contaminated water to meet World Health Organization standards, according to calculations made by the researchers. This amount of water could meet the daily needs of 11,000 people.


Lead author Perry Alagappan was still a high school student when he teamed up with Rice University chemist Andrew Barron for the project. Alagappan learned about the contamination of groundwater by electronic waste in India and set out to find a solution. 

Barron points out that the raw materials for the filters are inexpensive. The filters can be washed with a mild chemical like vinegar and reused, which simplifies the process of recycling them even in remote locations.

The powerful filters consist of carbon nanotubes grown in place on quartz fibers that are then chemically epoxidized. The quartz provides the framework and the carbon nanotube covering makes the filter tough, but the researchers determined the epoxidation appears to be most responsible for adsorbing the metal.

Scaled-up versions of the "supported-epoxidized carbon nanotube" (SENT) filters were able to treat 5 liters of water in less than one minute. The filters were restored in 90 seconds, and retained almost 100 percent of their capacity to purify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydraulic-fracturing-wastewater-radioactive/">water</a> for up to 70 liters per 100 grams of SENT. The metals absorbed in the materials can either be extracted for reuse or turned into a solid for safe disposal.

"This would make the biggest social impact on village-scale units that could treat water in remote, developing regions," Barron said. "However, there is also the potential to scale up metal extraction, in particular from mine wastewater."

An analysis of these lab results will be published in this month in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New super filters can remove heavy metals from water

Researchers from Rice University have developed filters that can remove...

While looking at saliva and specifically the protein MUC7, scientists found evidence that early humans interbred with Neanderthals and early nonhumans. 

The fact that interbreeding happened in early humans is nothing new. But this recent study proves that it was a frequent occurrence, the norm instead of the exception, according to Omer Gokcumen, lead author and assistant professor of biological sciences at the University of Buffalo.

The study covered more than 2,5000 modern human genomes and the results found differences in a group from Sub Saharan Africa that were more closely linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-population-larger/">Neanderthal</a> and Denisovan (another group of ancient subspecies of humans).

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cas.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo College of Arts and Sciences</a> were studying the function of the MUC7 protein in saliva when they came across this discovery.

The study was published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution on July 21st and was pioneered by Stefan Ruhl, a professor of Oral Biology from the University of Buffalo’s School of Dental Medicine and Omer Gokcumen. 

Gokcumen said of his findings and the difference in genomes, “When we looked at the history of the gene that codes for the protein (MUC7), we see the signature of archaic admixture in modern day Sub-Saharan African populations.”

“The most plausible explanation for this extreme variation is archaic introgression -- the introduction of genetic material from a 'ghost' species of ancient hominins,” he added.

The reason MUC7 is so important to the scientific community is that it very well could be responsible for preventing bacteria and disease and fighting off unwanted pathogens. While research teams at the University of Buffalo were looking at the evolution and functions of the protein, they discovered much more. 

Their research further confirms the knowledge that interbreeding between ancient humans and nonhumans was a regular occurrence. 

--

By Kay Vandette,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans had relations with non-human “ghost” species

While looking at saliva and specifically the protein MUC7, scientists...

A report published today in the online journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> reveals that scientists have identified brain cells that control aging. Stem cells have been located in the hypothalamus that control how fast the aging process occurs in mice. This revelation could be used to prevent age-related diseases and reverse many aspects of aging in humans. 

The hypothalamus is known to regulate key processes such as growth, development, and reproduction. In 2013, researchers from <a href="http://www.einstein.yu.edu/">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a> made a breakthrough discovery that the hypothalamus also regulates aging throughout the body. The scientists have now managed to narrowly define a tiny population of adult neural stem cells which are responsible for age regulation.

Dr. Dongsheng Cai is a professor of Molecular Pharmacology at Einstein and senior author of the study. 

"Our research shows that the number of hypothalamic neural stem cells naturally declines over the life of the animal, and this decline accelerates aging," said Dr. Cai. "But we also found that the effects of this loss are not irreversible. By replenishing these stem cells or the molecules they produce, it's possible to slow and even reverse various aspects of aging throughout the body."

The researchers conducted an evaluation to observe the hypothalamic stem cells in healthy mice as they began to age. The cells started to decline when the animals reached approximately 10 months old, which is a few months before signs of aging typically appear in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-capable-empathy/">mice</a>.

"By old age-about two years of age in mice- most of those cells were gone," said Dr. Cai.

The scientists then set out to determine whether the loss of stem cells was actually causing the mice to age or if the loss of cells was more simply associated with the process of aging. They disrupted hypothalamic stem cells in some middle-aged mice to make this distinction.

"This disruption greatly accelerated aging compared with control mice, and those animals with disrupted stem cells died earlier than normal," explained Dr. Cai.

For the next phase of the study, the research team injected normal mice and mice whose brain cells they had previously disrupted with hypothalamic stem cells to see if this would counteract aging. The treatment slowed or reversed signs of aging in both groups of mice. 

The researchers discovered that molecules released from the hypothalamic stem cells called microRNAs (miRNAs) were responsible for the anti-aging effects. These molecules, which play a key role in gene expression, were contained in tiny particles called exosomes and released by the hypothalamic stem cells into the cerebrospinal fluid of the mice.

The team removed MiRNA-containing exosomes and injected them into the cerebrospinal fluid of the same two test groups of mice. The researchers used tissue analysis and behavioral assessments that tested coordination, muscle endurance, and cognitive ability to see how the exosomes affected various aspects of aging. Both groups exhibited significantly slowed aging.

The researchers are now taking a closer look at microRNA populations in an effort to better understand their anti-aging properties so the effects may be used to curb complications of aging in humans. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify brain cells that control aging

A report published today in the online journal Nature reveals...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...