Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered.



This fossil find from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaurs-the-basics">Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics</h2>



These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. 



Unlike birds or bats, pterosaurs had a unique wing structure formed by a membrane of skin and muscle that stretched from an elongated fourth finger to their body. This created a lightweight and flexible flying apparatus that allowed them to soar and glide.



Different pterosaur species came in an astonishing range of sizes, from tiny creatures the size of sparrows to massive pterosaurs with wingspans around 33 feet wide. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny &quot;flaplings&quot; no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954862"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny "flaplings" no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Some had long, spear-like beaks perfect for fishing, while others sported elaborate head crests that might have been used for display, communication, or even temperature regulation. 



Their bones were incredibly lightweight and hollow, similar to modern bird bones, which helped them achieve flight with minimal energy expenditure.



Pterosaurs were incredibly successful and adaptable creatures that survived for an impressive 160 million years before finally going extinct along with the dinosaurs during the catastrophic asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period. 



Their fossils have been discovered on every continent, revealing that they occupied diverse environments from coastal regions to inland areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-pterosaur-discovery">First pterosaur discovery</h2>



Almost 250 years ago, a fossil unearthed in a Bavarian quarry introduced the world to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-new-species-named-abfab-had-wings-wide-as-car/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a>. 



This fossil, named&nbsp;Pterodactylus, offered the first glimpse into the Mesozoic skies, where these creatures soared above the dinosaurs.



Though the first specimen was modest in size - comparable to a turtle dove - it revolutionized our understanding of prehistoric life and showcased the extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flying reptiles</a>.



Over time, however,&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;faded from public attention, overshadowed by its larger and flashier relatives, such as&nbsp;Pteranodon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus. 



Yet, among scientists,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus genus remained a vital subject of study that played a central role in shaping our understanding of pterosaur anatomy, flight, diet, and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-pterodactylus-family">Finding Pterodactylus family</h2>



Despite its significance, confusion has long surrounded&nbsp;Pterodactylus. 



Fossils attributed to this genus were often mixed with other species, making it challenging to determine which truly belonged to&nbsp;Pterodactylus. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ambiguity</a> persisted for centuries - until now.



Using UV fluorescence, paleontologists Robert Smyth and Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> conducted a meticulous analysis of&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils housed in museums across Europe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954860"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



By shining powerful UV light on fossilized bones, they illuminated previously invisible features that distinguish the&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;family from other pterosaurs. Their work revealed dozens of misclassified fossils, including over 40 specimens that were reidentified as&nbsp;Pterodactylus.



“By examining lots of fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to reidentify more than forty specimens as&nbsp;Pterodactylus,” said lead author Robert Smyth. 



“UV stimulated fluorescence is astonishing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden were glowing in plain sight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-face-of-nbsp-pterodactylus">New face of&nbsp;Pterodactylus</h2>



This discovery has profoundly altered the scientific understanding of&nbsp;the genus Pterodactylus. Previously thought to be a rare find, nearly 50 specimens have now been confirmed.



This expanded collection allows researchers to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pivotal pterosaur</a>. 



Remarkably, soft tissues are preserved in over 20 of the specimens, which provides unprecedented insights into a range of features.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954857"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



“We can now construct a complete and highly detailed skeletal anatomy for this key pterosaur,” explained co-author Dr. Dave Unwin. “Soft tissues are fossilised in more than twenty examples so we can also reconstruct head crests, body shape, foot webs, and even the wings.”



The result is akin to a family portrait, showcasing Pterodactylus at every stage of its life. The smallest hatchlings, endearingly called “flaplings,” were robin-sized. 



These grew into “teenage” forms before reaching adulthood, where they boasted raven-sized bodies and wingspans of up to ten times their body length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-technique">A revolutionary technique</h2>



The study highlights the transformative potential of UV fluorescence in paleontology. 



While the technique is well-known, the combination of advanced light sources and a systematic approach has yielded groundbreaking results in this case.



“UV stimulated fluorescence is a well-known technique,” Dr. Unwin noted. 



“But the difference in this case is that we have been able to combine new, high-quality light sources with a systematic "catch-all" approach, and it's going to have a revolutionary impact on our understanding of pterosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterodactylus-family-and-future-study">Pterodactylus family and future study</h2>



This discovery not only redefines&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;but also highlights the value of revisiting and reexamining existing collections of fossils.



With nearly 50 examples now identified, researchers have an unprecedented opportunity to explore the life history of one of the most important pterosaurs. 



From its early days as a tiny flapling to its commanding presence in the skies,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils provide a vivid window into the Mesozoic era.



As families come together this festive season, paleontologists celebrate their own remarkable reunion - a long-lost family, brought back to light after 150 million years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



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Pterodactylus: New pterosaur family members discovered that lived 150 million years ago

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered. This fossil find from the University of Leicester allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood. Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic...

When young children misbehave, parents often face tough decisions on how to discipline them. 



A new national poll suggests many parents resort to threats - from skipping dessert to Santa bypassing their house - to control challenging behavior. But are these strategies effective?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threatening-kids-to-discipline-them">Threatening kids to discipline them</h2>



According to the University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s Health,&nbsp;parents of children aged three to five are the most likely to use threats. About 25% admitted threatening that Santa might not visit if misbehavior continued.



Many parents also reported threatening to leave an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-under-two-should-not-be-exposed-to-tv-or-screen-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> or place, taking away toys, or skipping dessert as a consequence.



Surprisingly, nearly half of parents have turned to bribes to address difficult behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-discipline-matters">Why discipline matters</h2>



“Discipline helps young children learn what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> are safe and appropriate and can play a crucial role in helping them learn the difference between right and wrong,” said Dr. Susan Woolford, Mott pediatrician and <a href="https://mottpoll.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mott Poll</a> co-director.



However,&nbsp;empty threats may undermine trust&nbsp;and prove ineffective long-term. “Positive reinforcement and consistent discipline are more likely to shape long-term behavior,” Woolford emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consistency-for-effective-discipline-in-children">Consistency for effective discipline in children</h2>



While&nbsp;half of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-resolutions-better-parenting-and-family-health-are-top-priorities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> rate themselves as “very consistent”&nbsp;in disciplining their children, many admit it’s a challenge. The report, based on responses from 725 parents with children aged one to five, found several common struggles:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Children are too young to understand</li>



<li>Strategies don’t always work</li>



<li>Preventing public tantrums becomes a priority</li>
</ul>



Nearly a quarter of parents also confessed to getting irritated or reacting impulsively when misbehavior occurs.&nbsp;Fatigue and feeling overwhelmed&nbsp;often hinder consistency.



“It can be difficult to have a consistent approach to discipline without consideration and planning,” Woolford said. 



“It’s important for parents to plan ahead and be on the same page with discipline strategies to provide a foundation for understanding expectations and prevent sending mixed signals about boundaries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-effective-are-current-strategies">How effective are current strategies?</h2>



Parents aren’t always confident their discipline strategies work. The poll revealed that two-fifths of parents believe their strategies are very effective, while three in five find them somewhat effective



Parents often seek advice from multiple sources, including the child’s other parent or family and friends. They also turn to parenting books, articles, and social media.



However,&nbsp;fewer than 20%&nbsp;of parents discussed discipline strategies with a healthcare provider. Alarmingly, one in eight parents admitted they haven’t thought much about their approaches.



Some also acknowledged using outdated or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-engage-physical-punishment-of-offspring-for-discipline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unadvised methods</a>. For example,&nbsp;two in five parents sometimes spank their children, despite evidence linking spanking to increased aggression and defiance in preschoolers.



“Parents should avoid the temptation to rely on tactics that might yield short-term compliance but have negative effects later on,” Woolford advised. "Discipline strategies should be appropriate for the child’s age and developmental level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-appropriate-discipline-in-children">Age-appropriate discipline in children</h2>



Woolford highlighted the importance of tailoring strategies to a child’s age and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-report-excess-burnout-due-to-unrealistic-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">development</a>:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-for-ages-1-2">For ages 1-2:</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Distraction and redirection work best.</li>



<li>Willful misbehavior is rare at this age, as children primarily explore their surroundings.</li>
</ul>



Parents of younger children in the poll were more likely to use redirection to address misbehavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-for-ages-3-5">For ages 3-5:</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Children begin testing boundaries and understanding how actions provoke reactions.</li>



<li>Warnings, firm communication, and timeouts are common strategies.</li>
</ul>



Woolford emphasized the importance of logical consequences for preschoolers. For example, if a child spills a drink in anger, an appropriate consequence would be cleaning up the mess.&nbsp;Unrelated punishments are less effective.



“Consequences should be immediate, so the child understands the connection with their misbehavior,” Woolford explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-strategies-as-children-grow">Adapting strategies as children grow</h2>



Parents need flexibility when implementing discipline strategies. “As children grow, their responses to discipline will also change, so parents should adapt their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> and stay open to new approaches,” Woolford said.



She also stressed balancing correction with&nbsp;positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards. This approach helps children&nbsp;build self-esteem&nbsp;while learning from mistakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-approaches-to-discipline-children">Rethinking approaches to discipline children</h2>



Threatening children may feel like an easy fix, but it often lacks long-term impact. Instead, parents should focus on consistent, age-appropriate strategies that emphasize logical consequences and positive reinforcement.



As Woolford highlighted,&nbsp;discipline isn’t about control - it’s about teaching. With planning, patience, and adaptability, parents can help children develop safe, appropriate behaviors that last a lifetime.



Information obtained from <a href="https://www.michiganmedicine.org/health-lab/naughty-or-nice-many-parents-rely-threats-manage-misbehavior">Michgan Medicine</a>.



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Many parents use threats to discipline children, but it's not effective in the long run

When young children misbehave, parents often face tough decisions on...

TRAPPIST-1 b, one of seven rocky planets that orbit the star TRAPPIST-1, continues to intrigue astronomers.



Located just 40 light-years away, this planetary system is unique. It offers a rare opportunity to study seven Earth-like planets, three of which reside in the habitable zone - where liquid water could exist on the surface.



Using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), researchers have now gathered deeper insights into TRAPPIST-1 b.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-trappist-1-b">Observing TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



A team led by Elsa Ducrot from the Commissariat aux Énergies Atomiques (CEA) in France analyzed thermal infrared measurements captured by <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>'s Mid-Infrared Imager (MIRI).



The researchers, including experts from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (<a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPIA</a>), published their findings in the journal Nature Astronomy. 



The results challenge earlier conclusions and raise questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trappist-1-has-seven-earth-like-planets-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s atmosphere</a> and surface activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-geologically-active-surface">A geologically active surface?</h2>



Last year’s research described TRAPPIST-1 b as a dark, rocky planet without an atmosphere. However, the latest measurements offer new clues. 



“The idea of a rocky planet with a heavily weathered surface without an atmosphere is inconsistent with the current measurement,” said Jeroen Bouwman, an astronomer at MPIA. “Therefore, we think the planet is covered with relatively unchanged material."



Surfaces on rocky planets usually weather due to stellar radiation and meteorite impacts. Yet, TRAPPIST-1 b’s surface appears remarkably young. Researchers estimate the rock on its surface could be only about 1,000 years old - far younger than the planet’s estimated age of several billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-geological-activity-on-trappist-1-b">Dramatic geological activity on TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



This discovery hints at dramatic geological activity. The planet’s crust could undergo constant changes driven by extreme volcanism or plate tectonics. 



Bouwman noted that TRAPPIST-1 b might retain internal heat, much like Earth.



Tidal forces from the host star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-provides-new-insights-into-a-distant-star-and-its-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neighboring planets</a> could deform its surface, generating internal friction and heat - a phenomenon seen on Jupiter’s volcanic moon Io. Additionally, heating from the star’s magnetic field may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-atmosphere">A hidden atmosphere?</h2>



Could TRAPPIST-1 b possess an atmosphere after all? 



Thomas Henning, emeritus director at MPIA and co-creator of the MIRI instrument, suggested another possibility.



“Contrary to previous ideas, there are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> under which the planet could have a thick atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide (CO2),” said Henning. A crucial factor could be haze - hydrocarbon smog - forming in the upper atmosphere.



The study involved two observational programs that measured the planet’s brightness at 12.8 and 15 micrometers. These wavelengths are sensitive to CO2 absorption.



Since no dimming occurred, researchers initially concluded that TRAPPIST-1 b lacked an atmosphere. However, new model calculations suggest that haze could alter the scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-effect-of-haze-in-planetary-atmospheres">The effect of haze in planetary atmospheres</h2>



Haze absorbs starlight and warms upper atmospheric layers, potentially altering the expected temperature structure.



Instead of a warmer ground-level layer, the upper atmosphere could heat up and emit infrared radiation - a greenhouse effect. Henning compares this to Saturn’s moon Titan, where UV radiation transforms carbon-rich gases into haze.



While plausible, researchers note key differences. Titan’s atmosphere is methane-rich, whereas TRAPPIST-1 b would require CO2. 



Moreover, red dwarf stars like TRAPPIST-1 emit intense radiation and stellar winds, which can strip away planetary atmospheres over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eclipses-and-occultations-tools-for-exploration">Eclipses and occultations: Tools for exploration</h2>



The study benefited from the favorable orientation of TRAPPIST-1. From Earth, its seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroids-found-in-the-main-belt-are-the-smallest-ever-detected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> periodically pass in front of the star, dimming its light - a phenomenon known as transit.



These events provide valuable data about planetary size, composition, and atmospheres through a method called transit spectroscopy.



However, transit spectroscopy has limitations for systems like TRAPPIST-1. Cool, red dwarf stars often exhibit starspots and flares that can interfere with measurements. 



To address this, researchers observed TRAPPIST-1 b’s thermal infrared radiation. By focusing on the planet’s bright dayside just before and after it vanishes behind the star, scientists gathered detailed information about its surface and atmosphere.



This method, known as secondary eclipse measurement, is time-consuming. The current observations lasted nearly 48 hours but remain insufficient to confirm the presence of an atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions-about-trappist-1-b">Lingering questions about TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



NASA recently approved the ambitious&nbsp;"Rocky Worlds"&nbsp;program - 500 hours of JWST observations to study rocky planets around nearby stars. Researchers hope this program will help resolve lingering questions about TRAPPIST-1 b.



One promising method involves monitoring the planet’s entire orbit to create a phase curve, which is a map of its temperature distribution.



This approach detects how heat moves across the planet’s surface. If heat distributes evenly between the dayside and nightside, an atmosphere likely exists. If temperatures shift abruptly, it indicates a lack of atmospheric insulation.



The research team has already begun this phase curve measurement for TRAPPIST-1 b. By analyzing temperature changes, they aim to confirm whether the planet harbors an atmosphere. 



“The presence or absence of an atmosphere will significantly impact our understanding of TRAPPIST-1 b and similar exoplanets,” noted Bouwman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



The study highlights the challenges of studying rocky planets, even with advanced tools like the JWST. Compared to gas giants, rocky planets have thinner atmospheres that produce faint signals. Despite the hurdles, TRAPPIST-1 b offers a valuable case study.



The findings also provide insight into exoplanets that orbit red dwarf stars - the most common stars in the galaxy. Understanding their atmospheres, geological activity, and potential habitability will shape future research and exploration.



The study is the result of international collaboration. Researchers from MPIA, CEA, and institutions across Europe contributed to this original work. The MIRI instrument itself is a product of efforts by ESA member states and organizations like the Max Planck Society.



TRAPPIST-1 b remains a puzzle. Is it a geologically active world with a young surface? Could it hide a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere cloaked in haze?



The answers will require further observations. With JWST’s capabilities and the ongoing&nbsp;Rocky Worlds&nbsp;program, astronomers are closer than ever to solving these mysteries.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02428-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: JPL-Caltech/NASA



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Rocky exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 b may have a hidden atmosphere

TRAPPIST-1 b, one of seven rocky planets that orbit the...

The Earth’s magnetic field is essential for life. It shields the planet from cosmic radiation and solar wind. While scientists understand the basic mechanisms, many details remain unresolved. 



To investigate, a new simulation method has been developed by researchers from the Center for Advanced Systems Understanding (CASUS) at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), Sandia National Laboratories, and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).



This simulation method offers fresh insights into the structure of Earth’s core and supports innovations in technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-simulations-of-earth-s-core">Computer simulations of Earth’s core</h2>



The Earth’s magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">field</a> is generated by the geodynamo effect. 



“We know that the Earth’s core is primarily composed of iron,” noted Attila Cangi, Head of the Machine Learning for Materials Design Department at <a href="https://www.casus.science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CASUS</a>.



As you move closer to the core, pressure and temperature increase. The outer core remains molten, while the inner core stays solid due to these conditions.



Electrically charged, liquid iron flows around the solid core. These flows are driven by Earth’s rotation, as well as by convection currents, which generate electric currents that produce the magnetic field.



However, scientists still face questions. What is the core’s exact structure? Do additional elements besides iron influence the geodynamo effect? Seismic wave experiments provide some clues. These waves travel through Earth and are measured using sensitive sensors.



“These experiments suggest that the core contains more than just iron,” said Svetoslav Nikolov from <a href="https://www.sandia.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sandia National Laboratories</a>. “The measurements do not agree with computer simulations that assume a pure iron core.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shock-waves-and-earth-s-magnetic-field">Shock waves and Earth's magnetic field</h2>



To address these questions, the research team developed a remarkable simulation method called&nbsp;"molecular-spin dynamics." This method integrates two previously separate approaches:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Molecular dynamics&nbsp;– models atomic motion.</li>



<li>Spin dynamics&nbsp;– accounts for magnetic properties.</li>
</ol>



“By combining these two methods, we were able to investigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence of magnetism</a> under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions on length and time scales that were previously unattainable,” stated <a href="https://www.cea.fr/english/Pages/Welcome.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEA</a> physicist Julien Tranchida.



The team simulated the behavior of two million iron atoms and their magnetic spins. They analyzed how mechanical and magnetic properties interact under extreme pressure and temperature conditions.



Artificial intelligence played a crucial role. The researchers used machine learning to determine precise force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doughnut-shaped-region-discovered-in-earths-liquid-core-impacts-our-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fields</a>, which define how atoms interact. High-performance computing resources enabled this level of accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-from-the-simulations">Results from the simulations</h2>



Once the models were ready, the team simulated Earth’s core <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. They propagated pressure waves through the iron atoms, mimicking the heating and compression deep inside Earth.



When the shock waves were slower, the iron remained solid and formed different crystal structures. Faster shock waves turned the iron mostly liquid. The findings revealed significant effects of magnetism on material <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a>.



“Our simulations agree well with the experimental data,” said Mitchell Wood, a materials scientist at Sandia National Laboratories. “They suggest that under certain temperature and pressure conditions, a particular phase of iron could stabilize and potentially affect the geodynamo.”



This phase, called the&nbsp;bcc phase, has not been experimentally observed in such conditions. It has only been hypothesized. If confirmed, this discovery could resolve key questions about how Earth’s magnetic field <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-efficient-ai-systems">Energy-efficient AI systems</h2>



The research extends beyond understanding Earth’s core. The new simulation method could advance materials science and technology. Cangi aims to use this technique to model neuromorphic computing devices.



Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the human brain’s functioning. It promises faster, energy-efficient AI processing. By simulating spin-based neuromorphic systems, the team’s method could drive innovative hardware development.



Additionally, the method may revolutionize data storage. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weak-magnetic-field-may-have-set-the-stage-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Magnetic domains</a> on tiny nanowires could serve as future storage media. These systems would be faster and more efficient than current technologies.



“There are currently no accurate simulation methods for either application,” said Cangi. "But I am confident that our new approach can model the required physical processes in such a realistic way, that we can significantly accelerate the technological development of these IT innovations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-simulations-of-earth-s-core">Future simulations of Earth's core</h2>



This breakthrough offers a powerful tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geophysics</a> and materials science. Understanding the Earth’s core remains vital for answering fundamental questions about our planet’s magnetic field.



At the same time, the method’s potential in neuromorphic computing and advanced storage systems could transform future technologies. As researchers refine these simulations, they move closer to solving the mysteries of Earth’s magnetic field and driving innovations in AI and IT.



The new molecular-spin dynamics method represents a step forward for both geoscience and technology. Whether solving Earth’s mysteries or building energy-efficient AI, its impact promises to be far-reaching.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2408897121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: B. Schröder/ HZDR/ NASA/ Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio



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Magnetism at Earth’s core: Simulations offer breakthrough insights

The Earth’s magnetic field is essential for life. It shields...

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has resolved a long-standing mystery, confirming a controversial discovery made over 20 years ago with the Hubble Space Telescope.&nbsp;



In 2003, Hubble found evidence of a massive planet orbiting a very old star - a star so ancient that it contained very few heavy elements, the building blocks of planets.&nbsp;



This finding puzzled scientists. How could a planet, especially one larger than Jupiter, form under such conditions in the early universe?



To solve this mystery, researchers turned to Webb, which studied stars in a nearby galaxy with a chemical makeup similar to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early universe</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planet-forming-disks-in-the-early-universe-nbsp">Planet-forming disks in the early universe&nbsp;</h2>



What they found changed the way scientists think about planet formation. Not only did some of these stars have planet-forming disks, but those disks also lasted far longer than what is typically seen in young stars in the Milky Way.



“With Webb, we have a really strong confirmation of what we saw with Hubble, and we must rethink how we model planet formation and early evolution in the young universe,” explained study leader Guido De Marchi, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESTEC/European_Space_Research_and_Technology_Centre_ESTEC2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Research and Technology Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-early-universe-a-hostile-place-for-planets">The early universe: A hostile place for planets?</h2>



In the early universe, stars formed mostly from hydrogen and helium, with very few heavier elements like carbon and iron. These heavier elements, which come from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>, appeared later in cosmic history. 



The current models of planet formation suggest that without a significant amount of these elements, disks of gas and dust around young stars would quickly dissipate - too quickly for planets to form.



“Current models predict that with so few heavier elements, the disks around stars have a short lifetime, so short in fact that planets cannot grow big,” said Elena Sabbi, co-investigator of the Webb study and chief scientist at the Gemini Observatory. “But Hubble did see those planets, so what if the models were not correct and disks could live longer?”



To explore this, the team focused Webb on the Small Magellanic Cloud, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happened-when-a-dwarf-galaxy-clashed-with-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf galaxy</a> close to the Milky Way. 



In particular, they studied NGC 346, a massive star-forming cluster within the galaxy. NGC 346 has a similarly low abundance of heavy elements, making it a perfect stand-in for the conditions of the early universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planet-forming-disks-that-defied-expectations">Planet-forming disks that defied expectations</h2>



Hubble’s observations of NGC 346 in the early 2000s showed something surprising: stars that were 20 to 30 million years old still appeared to have planet-forming disks.&nbsp;



This contradicted the established belief that such disks should dissipate within two to three million years. At the time, the findings were controversial and lacked spectral data to confirm whether the disks were truly present.



“This was intriguing, but without a way to obtain spectra of those stars, we could not really establish whether we were witnessing genuine accretion and the presence of disks, or just some artificial effects,” De Marchi said.



Now, Webb’s incredible sensitivity and resolution have provided the first-ever spectral data for Sun-like stars in NGC 346, along with their surrounding environments.&nbsp;



For the first time, scientists could see that these stars were indeed surrounded by planet-forming disks and were still actively accreting material, even at 20 to 30 million years old.



“We see that these stars are indeed surrounded by disks and are still in the process of gobbling material, even at the relatively old age of 20 or 30 million years,” De Marchi explained. “This also implies that planets have more time to form and grow around these stars than in nearby star-forming regions in our own galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-planet-formation-models">Rethinking planet formation models</h2>



The discovery challenges the theoretical prediction that stars with very few heavier elements would lose their planet-forming disks quickly.&nbsp;



If radiation pressure from a young star is responsible for dispersing its disk, the process should be faster when the gas lacks heavier elements. In other words, the disk would disappear before planets could form.&nbsp;



However, Webb’s findings show that disks in environments like NGC 346 are far more resilient than expected.



The team proposed two explanations for why the disks last longer. One possibility is that radiation pressure, which blows away the disk material, depends on the presence of heavier elements in the gas.&nbsp;



Since NGC 346 has only about 10% of the heavy elements found in our Sun, the stars may simply take longer to disperse their disks.



The second explanation is that stars forming in these environments begin with larger clouds of gas. A larger gas cloud produces a larger disk, and the greater mass would naturally take longer to dissipate, even under the same radiation pressure.



“With more matter around the stars, the accretion lasts for a longer time,” Sabbi said. “The disks take ten times longer to disappear. This has implications for how you form a planet, and the type of system architecture that you can have in these different environments. This is so exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-universe-full-of-surprises">A universe full of surprises</h2>



The study highlights how environments with few heavy elements - once thought hostile to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a> - can still support the growth of massive planets. 



Webb’s observations offer a glimpse into the early universe, revealing that planet-forming disks in ancient conditions not only exist but also persist far longer than expected.



The research, published in The Astrophysical Journal, opens a new chapter in our understanding of planet formation. By challenging long-standing models, Webb has shown that the universe may have been creating planets far earlier, and under far harsher conditions, than previously imagined.



As De Marchi and his team continue to study these resilient disks, the findings promise to reshape how scientists view the evolution of planets - and life - in the cosmos.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Olivia C. Jones (UK ATC), Guido De Marchi (ESTEC), Margaret Meixner (USRA)



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How planets formed in the harsh early universe

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has resolved a long-standing mystery,...

The remarkable fossil of a tiny worm found in South Australia has unveiled a crucial piece of the evolutionary puzzle: the origins of Ecdysozoa.&nbsp;



This superphylum includes familiar molting animals like insects, crustaceans, and nematodes, which together form the largest and most species-rich group on Earth. Despite their dominance, evidence of early ecdysozoan ancestors has remained elusive - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-of-the-tiny-worm-fossil">Evolutionary significance of the tiny worm fossil</h2>



In a study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers describe Uncus dzaugisi, a 555-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-explains-insect-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worm</a>-like fossil found in the Precambrian rocks of <a href="https://www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks/nilpena-ediacara-national-park" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nilpena Ediacara National Park</a> (NENP).&nbsp;



At just a few centimeters long, Uncus represents the oldest known ecdysozoan and the only one confirmed from the Precambrian period.



“It’s an incredibly exciting discovery,” said Ian Hughes, lead author and Ph.D. candidate at Harvard University’s <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a>.&nbsp;



“Ecdysozoans were prevalent in the Cambrian fossil record, and we know they didn’t just appear out of nowhere. But, until now, we had no concrete fossil evidence to confirm it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-animal-ecosystems-on-earth-nbsp">The first animal ecosystems on Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Hughes and his team unearthed Uncus from exceptionally fine-grained sandstone beds at NENP, a site renowned for its beautifully preserved Ediacaran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-life-forms-from-800-million-years-ago-redefine-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>. Once an ancient seafloor, the park holds a wealth of fossils preserved under thick microbial mats that covered the sediment millennia ago.



“A lot of the beds that we have are relatively coarse-grained, but the sandstone in several new beds at Nilpena is so fine-grained that it allows for finer details and preservation of smaller animals,” Hughes explained.



“Imagine pouring concrete over the ocean, waiting a half-billion years, and then flipping it over to find an entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-can-lead-to-total-ecosystem-collapse/">ecosystem</a>. That’s what’s really unique about this locality. Because they were all smothered at the same time, we can actually also conduct ecological work on the first animal ecosystems on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-window-into-early-ecdysozoan-life">A tiny window into early Ecdysozoan life</h2>



While scientists have documented over 100 genera of Ediacaran fossils, none had been confidently linked to Ecdysozoa - until now. Uncus dzaugisi bridges this gap, shedding light on the origins and rapid diversification of ecdysozoans during the Cambrian explosion.



The fossil’s unique features stood out immediately. With its cylindrical body, consistent length-to-width ratio, rigid cuticle, and distinct curved traces of movement, the tiny worm shows strong similarities to modern nematodes.&nbsp;



Its trace fossils - evidence of the animal’s mobility - were particularly exciting for the researchers. Unlike many other soft-bodied organisms from that era, Uncus was surprisingly active.



“It’s a remarkable find, as it places Ecdysozoans in the Precambrian Eon, supporting the theory that this lineage predates the Cambrian explosion,” Hughes said. “Ecdysozoans are so diverse and occupy so many niches, that to actually identify an early one and see what Ecdysozoans were doing is just amazing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-discovery-and-preservation">Balancing discovery and preservation</h2>



For Hughes, Nilpena Ediacara National Park isn’t just another field site. It’s a place he and his family have worked for over 25 years, developing close relationships with the indigenous community and local landowners. The park is protected, and researchers follow strict rules to preserve its delicate fossils.



“We do everything we can to make sure every rock stays on site,” Hughes said. “The only exception is if we discover and describe a new species. Then, we deposit a holotype in the Museum in South Australia. This is really important to our work ethic, to not disrupt the land that belongs to the indigenous people.”



Thanks to a grant from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, the team uses a 3D laser scanner to capture high-resolution images of their discoveries in the field. This ensures detailed data collection while keeping the site intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-a-tiny-worm-fossil">Mysteries of a tiny worm fossil</h2>



The discovery of Uncus has opened up new avenues for research. Moving forward, Hughes and his team will use laser scan data to analyze how the species moved and behaved.



“Uncus body fossils and associated trace fossils give us a really unique opportunity to look in detail into the sinuosity and curvature to model the potential musculature of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-wild-beast-how-climate-and-culture-shaped-an-iconic-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient species</a>,” Hughes explained.&nbsp;



“Moreover, because these fossils are preserved on fossil bed surfaces, we can investigate the ecology of this taxon and try to understand whether its distribution on the seafloor might correlate with another species or a particular type of microbial mat structure.”



This tiny worm-like fossil provides a rare and exciting glimpse into life on Earth over half a billion years ago. As researchers dig deeper into its story, Uncus dzaugisi may help unravel even more mysteries about the earliest animal ecosystems and the origins of some of the most diverse life forms on the planet.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Gene Oh



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Tiny worm fossil helps solve an evolutionary mystery

The remarkable fossil of a tiny worm found in South...

Neanderthal DNA holds fascinating secrets about our evolutionary past, and offers us a glimpse into a time when humans coexisted with our now-extinct relatives.



One intriguing aspect of this shared history lies in the formation of our teeth - an area not often explored but equally revealing.



A global team of scientists from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL), the Open University, Fudan University in China, Aix-Marseille University in France, and the National University of La Plata in Argentina has uncovered a variety of genetic variants that shape our teeth.



Among their findings is a particular gene, believed to be inherited from the Neanderthals, which was uniquely found in European participants of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-insights-etched-on-our-teeth">Neanderthal insights etched on our teeth</h2>



"Teeth can tell us a great deal about&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a>, as well-preserved ancient teeth are particularly important to archaeologists, shedding light on milestones such as when we transitioned to cooked food and human tooth sizes began to shrink," explained study co-lead author Dr. Kaustubh Adhikari.



"But little is known about the genetic basis of variation within the modern human population on tooth size and shape, partly due to challenges in measuring teeth. We have now identified numerous genes that impact the development of our teeth, some of which are responsible for differences between ethnic groups."



Data for this study was gathered from 882 volunteers in Colombia, who were of mixed European, Native American, and African ancestry.



The researchers used 3D scans of dental plaster casts to derive measurements of the dental crown, the part of the tooth visible above the gums.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-across-ethnicities-a-genetic-perspective">Teeth across ethnicities: A genetic perspective</h2>



The scientists compared the dental crown measurements with the participants' genetic information using an advanced approach called multiomics.



This unique method brings together numerous data sources to offer a comprehensive overview of the genetic impact on teeth.



The experts identified 18 genome regions that influence the size and shape of different groups of teeth. Among these, 17 had not been previously linked to tooth dimensions.



Interestingly, the researchers identified a gene that influences tooth development and was inherited from Neanderthals when they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-and-humans-lived-side-by-side-45000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interbred with ancient humans</a>.



Carriers of this variant, found only in those of European descent, have thinner incisors leading to smaller teeth overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-anomalies-to-therapies">From anomalies to therapies</h2>



Study first author Dr. Qing Li explained that the genes contributing to the normal variations of tooth sizes among healthy people can also lead to pathogenic variation, such as teeth failing to grow or other dental health conditions.



"We hope that our findings could be useful medically, if people with particular dental problems could undergo genetic tests to help in diagnosis, or if some dental anomalies could be treated one day with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-could-safely-treat-hundreds-of-genetic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene therapies</a>," said Dr. Li.



The study, however, points out that these genes may not have been evolutionarily selected for dental health advantages. Instead, they could have been chosen due to influences they have in other areas, with tooth shape differences resulting as a side effect.



The researchers had previously found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes inherited from Neanderthals</a> might contribute to greater pain sensitivity and impact the shape of our noses.



The fascinating and complex interplay of genes and evolution continues to reveal unexplored aspects of our shared history and contribute to potential future medical advances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-legacy-bridging-the-past-and-present">Neanderthal legacy: Bridging the past and present</h2>



The genetic contributions of Neanderthals extend far beyond teeth, offering valuable clues about their role in shaping modern human traits. 



Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-dna-is-more-common-in-people-with-autism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> has been linked to adaptations in areas such as pain perception and immune system function.



This latest research highlights how their genetic legacy has left an indelible mark on the development of our teeth, providing an evolutionary advantage - or in some cases, challenges.



The discovery of thinner incisors associated with Neanderthal-inherited genes raises questions about how these traits impacted survival and adaptation in ancient environments.



For instance, were these dental traits better suited for specific diets or environments? Ongoing research aims to uncover whether these genetic influences were incidental or served a greater evolutionary purpose.



By understanding how Neanderthal DNA continues to shape modern humans, scientists hope to unlock new pathways for both evolutionary biology and medical advances.



This knowledge could pave the way for tailored dental treatments, gene therapies, and even deeper insights into the interconnectedness of our genetic past and present.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224015689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Neanderthal genes influence the development of modern teeth

Neanderthal DNA holds fascinating secrets about our evolutionary past, and...

Tucked away in the vast expanse of our oceans, marine animals are capable of making remarkable journeys. Species like the green turtle and loggerhead turtle travel thousands of miles to return to the beaches where they were born to lay eggs.



Humpback whales migrate seasonally between cold, nutrient-rich waters where they feed and warm tropical waters where they breed and give birth.



Regardless of the species, marine animals use specific strategies to conserve energy. In a recent study, researchers have found a common theme among these animals - they all swim at similar relative depths when traveling and not feeding.



The research, led by experts from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> and Deakin University, highlights how marine species minimize energy loss by swimming in a precise “sweet spot” below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swimming-patterns-in-marine-animals">Swimming patterns in marine animals</h2>



The study, led by&nbsp;Dr. Kimberley Stokes, Professor Graeme Hays, and&nbsp;Dr. Nicole Esteban, compared the swim depths of sea turtles, penguins, and whales across five countries.



The results showed that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> consistently traveled at depths around&nbsp;three times their body size&nbsp;from the surface. This specific depth reduces the amount of energy that could be lost to wave formation and minimizes vertical travel distance - both of which contribute to efficient swimming.



Some semi-aquatic animals, like mink, swim closer to the surface, where wave generation causes significant energy waste. However, for air-breathing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-climate-impacts-threaten-key-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a> that travel vast distances during migrations or daily commutes, adaptations to reduce energy costs are essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-standing-theory-confirmed-in-wild-animals">Long-standing theory confirmed in wild animals</h2>



Physics has long predicted that drag from wave formation decreases significantly once an object travels at depths greater than three times its diameter. 



Until now, proving this theory in wild animals posed a challenge due to limitations in tracking their movements.



The researchers overcame these challenges by using advanced tracking tools. They recorded near-surface swim depths within&nbsp;1.5 centimeters&nbsp;for&nbsp;penguins&nbsp;and&nbsp;loggerhead turtles.



Motion data and video footage from animal-borne cameras were combined with satellite tracking data for long-distance&nbsp;green turtle migrations. Data from previous studies on penguins and whales further supported the findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-animals-optimize-swim-depth">Marine animals optimize swim depth</h2>



The study was focused on animals traveling for extended distances while not foraging. These patterns showed a clear alignment with the theoretical optimal depths predicted by physics.



“There are of course examples where animal swim depth is driven by other factors, such as searching for prey, but it was exciting to find that all published examples of non-foraging air-breathing marine animals followed the predicted pattern,” said&nbsp;Dr. Kimberley Stokes, lead author of the study.



“This has rarely been recorded because of the difficulty in retrieving depth data from animals that migrate over large distances, so it was great to find enough examples to show a common relationship between swim depth and body size from animals across the size spectrum from 30 cm to about 20 m in length."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-marine-travel-and-conservation">Implications for marine travel and conservation</h2>



The discovery highlights the energy-efficient swimming strategies that marine animals have evolved over millions of years.



Penguins, whales, and turtles all utilize similar techniques, regardless of their size or species, to reduce energy costs during travel. 



For animals covering thousands of kilometers in their lifetimes, such adaptations ensure survival and longevity.



Understanding these patterns could aid marine conservation efforts. Tracking swim depths could help identify migration routes, foraging patches, and key habitats for endangered species. 



Conservationists may use this knowledge to create more effective strategies for protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a> and their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-between-swim-depth-and-body-size">Relationship between swim depth and body size</h2>



The study’s findings provide a rare glimpse into the consistent relationship between body size and swim depth among marine animals. 



From the smallest little penguin, measuring&nbsp;30 centimeters, to massive whales reaching&nbsp;20 meters, the same energy-efficient pattern emerges. 



This highlights a universal principle of physics that governs the behavior of animals across vast size differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



While the study focused on non-foraging travel of marine animals, future research may explore how swim depths change under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1-8-million-species-are-yet-to-be-identified-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different conditions</a>, such as varying water temperatures, ocean currents, or predator avoidance behaviors. 



Advancements in tracking technologies will continue to improve our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animal</a> movements and energy conservation strategies.



Marine mammals, birds, and reptiles have evolved to swim at precise depths that minimize energy loss. This new study confirms a long-held theory with real-world data, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> as different as turtles, penguins, and whales use the same strategy for efficient long-distance travel. 



The work by Swansea and <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deakin</a> Universities opens new doors for understanding marine animal behavior and enhancing conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413768121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Marine animals swim at the perfect depth to save energy

Tucked away in the vast expanse of our oceans, marine...

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site, something unexpected is happening. Amid decaying buildings and lingering radiation, Chernobyl dogs are not just surviving -- they're thriving. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine communities</a> are offering scientists a unique glimpse into how life adapts in one of the most hostile environments on Earth.



"Somehow, two small populations of dogs managed to survive in that highly toxic environment," head researcher <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/norman-kleiman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Norman J. Kleiman</a> remarked.



Dr. Kleiman's team discovered significant genetic differences between two groups of dogs. 



One group roams near the former Chernobyl reactors, while the other lives about 10 miles away in Chernobyl City. This finding suggests that these are two distinct populations that rarely interbreed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-is-chernobyl-and-what-happened">Where is Chernobyl and what happened?</h2>



The Chernobyl disaster happened on April 26, 1986, when a nuclear reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine exploded during a late-night safety test. 



The test was supposed to simulate a power outage to see if the reactor could operate safely without electricity. But things went horribly wrong due to a mix of poor design, operator errors, and miscommunication. 



A sudden power surge caused an uncontrollable reaction in Reactor 4, leading to a massive explosion that blew the reactor’s lid off and released tons of radioactive material into the atmosphere.



The immediate aftermath was chaotic. Fires raged, and radioactive smoke spread across Europe, making it one of the worst nuclear disasters in history. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-go-zone-becomes-a-dog-and-nature-haven">"No-go zone" becomes a dog and nature haven</h2>



In the months and years that followed, the Chernobyl region became a no-go zone, with widespread environmental damage, health problems for people, dogs, and other animals exposed to radiation, and lingering fears of contamination.



In the first few days, radiation levels were so high that plants turned brown and died, and forests close to the reactor were devastated. 



The "Red Forest," just a mile from the plant, got its name because the radiation killed the pine trees, turning them a reddish-brown before they withered away.



Wildlife suffered initially, with high radiation levels causing genetic mutations, reproductive problems, and a sharp decline in populations. 



Birds and small mammals in the area were particularly affected, and aquatic life in nearby rivers and lakes also faced significant harm. 



However, over time, the absence of humans in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone allowed nature to rebound in surprising ways. 



Without people, many species, including wolves, bears, rare animals like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-przewalskis-horse-the-last-surviving-species-of-wild-horse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Przewalski’s horse</a>, and the Chernobyl dogs discussed in this article have made the area home. 



While radiation hotspots remain, wildlife has thrived in the absence of hunting, farming, and urban development, turning Chernobyl into an accidental refuge for nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chernobyl-dogs-the-basics">Chernobyl dogs -- the basics</h2>



The Chernobyl dogs are a heart-wrenching part of the disaster's legacy. After the 1986 nuclear meltdown explosion, many residents evacuated and were forced to leave their pets behind. 



Among them were countless dogs, now descendants of those left behind, roaming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyls-exclusion-zone-wildlife-refuge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. 



These dogs adapted to life in a harsh, radioactive environment, surviving extreme winters, limited food, and lingering radiation. 



They live around abandoned villages and near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, often relying on scraps from workers and visitors.



Many of them form packs for protection and companionship, while some have surprisingly bonded with humans, especially the workers and scientists who still operate in the zone. 



Efforts to help these dogs have increased over the years, with organizations stepping in to provide vaccinations, medical care, and even adoption programs to give some of them a chance at a new life outside the zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-in-a-toxic-landscape">Genetic clues in a toxic landscape</h2>



This study marks the first time scientists have delved into the genetic makeup of stray dogs living near the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. 



"In addition to classifying the population dynamics within these dogs at both locations, we took the first steps towards understanding how chronic exposure to multiple environmental hazards may have impacted these populations," Dr. Kleiman explained.



According to Dr. Matthew Breen from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NC State</a>, "The overarching question here is: does an environmental disaster of this magnitude have a genetic impact on life in the region?" 



By analyzing the dogs' DNA, the team identified 391 outlier regions in their genomes that differed between the two groups.



"Think of these regions as markers, or signposts, on a highway. They identify areas within the genome where we should look more closely at nearby genes," Dr. Breen explained.



Moreover, some of these markers are pointing to genes associated with genetic repair; specifically, with genetic repair after exposures similar to those experienced by the dogs in Chernobyl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-still-unknown-about-the-chernobyl-dogs">Much still unknown about the Chernobyl dogs</h2>



Despite these intriguing findings, the researchers caution that there's still much to learn. 



"At this stage we cannot say for sure that any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-labrador-retrievers-genetic-mutation-pomc-causes-hunger-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic alterations</a> are in response to the multigenerational and complex exposures; we have a lot more work to do to determine if that is the case," Dr. Breen added.



Ph.D. candidate Megan Dillion, a lead author of the study at NC State, is eager to dig deeper. 



"The question we must answer now is why are there striking genetic differences between the two dog populations?" she said. 



"Are the differences just due to genetic drift, or are they due to the unique environmental stressors at each location?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The research has broader implications beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the canine world</a>, because dogs are a sentinel species with much to teach us about human health.



"By teasing out whether or not the genetic changes we detected in these dogs are the canine genome's response to the exposures the populations have faced, we may be able to understand how the dogs survived in such a hostile environment and what that might mean for any population -- animal or human -- that experiences similar exposures," Breen concluded.



With 37 years having passed since the Chernobyl disaster, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-is-teeming-with-worms-resistant-to-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangers of radiation</a> haven't faded. 



The approximately 30-year-long half-lives of lingering radioisotopes mean the danger posed by radiation exposure is still very much real.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-environmental-challenge">Complex environmental challenge</h2>



Radiation isn't the only concern in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. The area is contaminated with chemicals, toxic metals, pesticides, and organic compounds left behind from years of cleanup efforts and decaying infrastructure. 



"When radiation exposure is combined with a complex toxic chemical mixture of uncertain composition, there are very real human health concerns raised for the thousands of people who continue to work within the Exclusion Zone," Dr. Kleiman warned.



"Understanding the genetic and health impacts of these chronic exposures in the dogs will strengthen our broader understanding of how these types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental hazards</a> can impact humans and how best to mitigate health risks."



The research team plans to continue their work, hoping to unravel more of the genetic mysteries held by these resilient dogs. Their findings could pave the way for new insights into genetic adaptation in extreme environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-chernobyl-and-its-dogs">Learning from Chernobyl and its dogs</h2>



To sum it all up, the story of Chernobyl's dogs is a testament to life's resilience. These animals have carved out an existence in a place deemed uninhabitable. 



Their journey raises thought-provoking questions: How do organisms adapt to such hostile conditions? What can we learn from their survival?



As scientists continue to explore these questions, one thing is clear: the dogs of Chernobyl have much to teach us. 



Their survival offers a unique opportunity to understand the genetic impacts of environmental disasters, potentially informing how we protect both wildlife and ourselves in the face of similar challenges.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-023-00124-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canine Medicine and Genetics</a>.



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Chernobyl dogs are responding to the toxic radiation with rapid genetic evolution

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site,...

Titanium has emerged as a key player in a recent carbon capture breakthrough that has been unveiled by scientists at Oregon State University.



This innovative research offers new hope in the battle against climate change, and showcases the power of out-of-the-box thinking and interdisciplinary collaboration.



By leveraging titanium’s affordability and abundance, the team has developed a promising method to capture carbon dioxide more efficiently. 



Their discovery could pave the way for scalable, cost-effective solutions to reduce greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transition-metals-and-carbon-capture">Transition metals and carbon capture</h2>



The novel study, led by Professor May Nyman and Karlie Bach from Oregon State University College of Science, revolves around a vital mission: the reduction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere</a>.



The research is shedding new light on how carbon capture can be significantly improved - all the way down to the molecular level.



In 2021, Professor Nyman was chosen as the leader of one of nine direct air capture projects funded by the Department of Energy, according to a press <a href="https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/new-chemical-structures-developed-oregon-state-show-vastly-improved-carbon-capture-ability">release</a> from OSU.



Her team is studying how specific transition metal complexes can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tech-can-capture-carbon-dioxide-from-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capture carbon dioxide</a> from the air and transform it into metal carbonate, a compound often found in natural minerals.



What are these mysterious "transition metals"? They are a group of elements found near the center of the periodic table. Transition metals derive their name from the "transition" of their electrons between low and high energy states.



This electron movement results in the emission of distinctive colors, which adds a little splash of dazzle to the complex world of chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-a-closer-look-at-titanium">Taking a closer look at titanium</h2>



While carbon capture is an existing technology that allows for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> to be filtered from the air, current implementations are cost-prohibitive and energy-intensive. 



This is precisely where the OSU team's work comes into play. The researchers decided to focus their attention on the element titanium.



"We opted to look into titanium as it's 100 times cheaper than vanadium, more abundant, more environmentally friendly and already well established in industrial uses," noted Bach. 



"It also is right next to vanadium on the periodic table, so we hypothesized that the carbon capture behavior could be similar enough to vanadium to be effective."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-capture-capacity-of-titanium">Carbon capture capacity of titanium</h2>



In the course of their research, the team synthesized several new tetraperoxo titanate structures - compounds containing a titanium atom associated with four peroxide groups. These new compounds showed varying degrees of effectiveness in capturing CO2.



"Our favorite carbon capture structure we discovered is potassium tetraperoxo titanate, which is extra unique because it turns out it is also a peroxosolvate," said Bach. 



"That means that in addition to having the peroxide bonds to titanium, it also has hydrogen peroxide in the structure, which is what we believe makes it so reactive."



The research indicates that the carbon capture capacity of potassium tetraperoxo titanate is roughly double that of vanadium peroxide - a result which gives the team significant grounds for optimism.



"Titanium is a cheaper, safer material with a significantly higher capacity," said Bach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ongoing-fight-against-climate-change">The ongoing fight against climate change</h2>



While the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is ongoing, this research sheds new light on the potential of using an abundant and cost-effective element like titanium to capture CO2 directly from the air.



The study highlights the critical importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and cutting-edge science for addressing the complexities of climate challenges.



By focusing on scalable and affordable solutions, such advances bring us closer to a future where technological innovation can help restore the balance of our atmosphere.



It is yet another reminder that, with innovative thinking, steadfast commitment, and a good dose of scientific curiosity, we can make strides towards a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspires-solutions-for-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable future</a>.



The <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU</a> team included Professor Tim Zuehlsdorff, Professor Konstantinos Goulas, postdoctoral researcher Eduard Garrido Ribó, and crystallographer Lev Zakharov. The team also included graduate students Jacob Hirschi, Zhiwei Mao and Makenzie Nord.



Details of the research are found in this <a href="https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/new-chemical-structures-developed-oregon-state-show-vastly-improved-carbon-capture-ability">press release</a> from OSU.



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Titanium is a promising and abundant resource for carbon capture

Titanium has emerged as a key player in a recent...

Astronomers have uncovered a mysterious phenomenon involving a jet from a supermassive black hole that collided with an unidentified object in its path.



This discovery, made using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, comes from observations of the galaxy Centaurus A (Cen A), which is located about 12 million light-years from Earth. 



The findings offer a fascinating glimpse into the powerful interactions that happen around black holes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-centaurus-a-and-its-black-hole">Centaurus A and its black hole</h2>



Centaurus A has long been the subject of intrigue for astronomers due to supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-gamma-ray-flare-unleashed-from-a-supermassive-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> at its center. This black hole produces jets of high-energy particles, which extend across the galaxy. 



The jets are not emitted from within the black hole itself but are generated by the intense gravitational and magnetic fields that surround it.



In a composite image of Cen A, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra</a>'s data reveals different X-ray energy levels. Low-energy X-rays appear in pink, medium-energy in purple, and high-energy in blue. 



This visual distinction helps researchers pinpoint specific phenomena within the galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-black-hole-jets-the-basics">Understanding black hole jets -- the basics</h2>



Black hole jets are some of the universe’s most spectacular and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-m87-cause-stars-to-erupt-as-they-pass-through-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful phenomena</a>. When matter spirals into a black hole, it forms a swirling disk called an accretion disk around the black hole. 



As the material in this disk gets hotter and moves faster, it generates intense magnetic fields. These magnetic fields can channel some of the infalling matter away from the black hole, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shooting it out into space</a> at nearly the speed of light in narrow, focused beams. 



These jets can stretch for thousands or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/porphyrion-largest-black-hole-jets-ever-seen-is-23-million-light-years-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">millions of light-years</a>, lighting up galaxies and influencing their surroundings in incredible ways.



What makes black hole jets so fascinating is their impact on the cosmos. These jets can blow away gas and dust from their host galaxies, regulating star formation and shaping the galaxy’s evolution. 



They also play a key role in distributing energy and heavy elements across the universe, which can influence the formation of new stars and planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-an-unusual-x-ray-feature">Mystery of an unusual X-ray feature</h2>



The highlight of this study is an unusual X-ray feature called C4. This source appears near the jet’s path and exhibits a distinct V-shaped emission that is connected to a bright X-ray source.



The arms of the "V" stretch at least 700 light-years long, emphasizing the scale of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-took-the-closest-ever-image-of-a-quasar-and-captured-some-weird-things/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic event</a>. For comparison, the nearest star to Earth is only about 4 light-years away.



Astronomers believe the X-rays from C4 result from the jet’s particles colliding with gas from stellar wind. This collision generated turbulence, which increased gas density in the jet and sparked the observed X-ray emission.



However, the exact identity of the object that caused this interaction remains elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-jet-collision">Black hole jet collision</h2>



While Cen A hosts other examples of jet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-spots-two-supermassive-black-holes-spiraling-on-collision-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> with objects -- such as massive stars or gas clouds -- C4 stands apart. Unlike the elliptical blobs seen in previous cases, C4’s V-shape is unique.



"This is not the first time astronomers have seen a black hole jet running into other objects in Cen A. However, C4 stands out from these by having the V-shape in X-rays," explained David Bogensberger, lead author of the study.



The differing post-collision appearances could be linked to the nature of the object struck by the jet or the angle of the impact. 



The bottom arm of the "V" aligns roughly with the jet’s path, supporting the idea of turbulence. The top arm, however, poses more questions due to its large angle relative to the jet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-behavior-of-black-holes">Enigmatic behavior of black holes</h2>



Chandra’s unique X-ray capabilities make it the only observatory capable of capturing such features in the distant cosmos. 



Researchers aim to decipher why C4’s interaction diverges from others in Cen A. This may unlock insights into how jets behave when encountering different types of obstacles.



The study has been detailed in a recent issue of The Astrophysical Journal, authored by David Bogensberger and a team of international researchers. 



The findings contribute to the broader understanding of black hole jets and their dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-capture-magnetic-fields-from-collapsing-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions with the cosmos</a>.



As astronomers continue to study these celestial phenomena, mysteries like C4 remind us of the complexity and wonder of the universe. 



Each discovery brings us closer to understanding the enigmatic behavior of black holes and their far-reaching influence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-centaurus-a-and-galaxy-mergers">Centaurus A and galaxy mergers</h2>



Centaurus A is one of the brightest radio sources in the sky, making it a key target for astronomers who are studying active galaxies.



Its distinct appearance, featuring a warped dust lane and a surrounding halo of stars, suggests it underwent a collision with another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-captured-redirecting-jets-beams-like-death-star-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> in the past. 



This galactic merger may have contributed to its active central black hole and the formation of its spectacular jets.



Additionally, Cen A is known for its high star formation rate, particularly in regions affected by jets. 



These jets compress surrounding gas, triggering the birth of new stars. The jets’ influence on gas density plays a key role in the formation of new stars.



The way the black hole's energy affects the surrounding environment can help astronomers understand the broader processes of galaxy formation and growth over time. It provides insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/awakening-of-a-black-hole-witnessed-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> mergers and black hole activity shape the evolution of galaxies.



The full study is recently published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad73a1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.&nbsp; 



Image Credit: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk



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Enormous jet from a supermassive black hole crashes into an unidentified object

Astronomers have uncovered a mysterious phenomenon involving a jet from...

Could the decades-long mystery of unusual star movements in Omega Centauri, the largest star cluster in the Milky Way, finally be solved?



Located in the constellation Centaurus, Omega Centauri is a massive cluster containing nearly ten million stars. Astronomers have long puzzled over the unexpected high velocities of stars near its center. 



The debate centers on whether these movements are caused by an “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermediate-mass-black-holes-survive-and-thrive-in-giant-star-clusters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intermediate-mass black hole</a>” (IMBH), weighing around 100,000 times the mass of the Sun, or a cluster of smaller “stellar-mass” black holes, each just a few times the Sun's mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cluster-or-a-singular-giant">A cluster or a singular giant?</h2>



Astronomers have theorized that Omega Centauri’s center might host a cluster of black holes, naturally forming through stellar evolution. 



However, experts also speculated that most of these black holes would have been ejected over time due to gravitational interactions with other stars, which made the presence of a single intermediate-mass black hole more plausible.



The case for an IMBH gained further strength when new evidence suggested that certain fast-moving stars near the cluster's center could only achieve such speeds through interactions with a massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-speed-stars-reveal-hidden-black-hole-in-omega-centauri/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-supermassive-black-holes">Formation of supermassive black holes</h2>



IMBHs are particularly intriguing to astronomers as they might represent a missing link between stellar-mass black holes and supermassive black holes.&nbsp;



Stellar-mass black holes form when massive stars collapse, while supermassive black holes - millions to billions of times the Sun's mass - dominate the centers of large galaxies. 



Understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> form - possibly starting as IMBHs - remains one of astronomy's greatest mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-velocities-in-omega-centauri">Star velocities in Omega Centauri</h2>



In a fresh approach to this enigma, researchers from the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a>, the <a href="https://www.iac.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias</a> (IAC, Spain), and the Annecy-le-Vieux Laboratoire de Physique Théorique (France) examined the anomalous star velocities in Omega Centauri using a new type of data: pulsar accelerations.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pulsars</a> are remnants of dying stars, typically weighing up to twice the Sun’s mass but only about 20 kilometers in diameter. Spinning up to 700 times per second, they emit radio waves in a lighthouse-like pattern that sweeps past Earth.&nbsp;



Acting as natural, highly precise clocks, pulsars allow scientists to measure their accelerations and, in turn, the gravitational forces acting on them.



For the first time, the team combined pulsar acceleration measurements with data on star velocities. This innovative approach enabled them to probe the gravitational field at the cluster’s center and differentiate between the effects of an IMBH and a cluster of stellar-mass black holes.&nbsp;



The results leaned toward the latter explanation: a cluster of smaller black holes rather than a single IMBH.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hunt-for-intermediate-mass-black-holes">The hunt for intermediate-mass black holes </h2>



“The hunt for elusive intermediate-mass black holes continues. There could still be one at the center of Omega Centauri, but our work suggests that it must be less than about six thousand times the mass of the Sun and live alongside a cluster of stellar-mass black holes,” noted study co-author Justin Read, an astronomer at the University of Surrey. 



“There is, however, every chance of us finding one soon. More and more pulsar accelerations are coming, allowing us to peer into the centers of dense star clusters and hunt for black holes more precisely than ever before.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-studying-omega-centauri">Significance of studying Omega Centauri </h2>



Study lead author Andrés Bañares Hernández, an astronomer at IAC, noted that we have long known about supermassive black holes at galaxy centers and smaller stellar-mass black holes within our own galaxy.&nbsp;



“However, the idea of intermediate-mass black holes, which could bridge the gap between these extremes, remains unproven,” said Hernández.



“By studying Omega Centauri - a remnant of a dwarf galaxy - we have been able to refine our methods and take a step forward in understanding whether such black holes exist and what role they might play in the evolution of star clusters and galaxies." 



"This work helps resolve a two-decade-long debate and opens new doors for future exploration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulsars-a-key-to-further-discoveries">Pulsars: A key to further discoveries</h2>



The researchers also highlighted Omega Centauri as a prime environment for studying the formation and behavior of pulsars, given the cluster’s density and gravitational complexity.&nbsp;



The recent discovery of numerous pulsars within Omega Centauri has provided new opportunities to investigate their origins.



“The formation of pulsars is also an active field of study because a large number of them have recently been detected. Omega Centauri is an ideal environment to study models of their formation, which we have been able to do for the first time in our analysis," Hernández noted.



While the mystery of an IMBH in Omega Centauri remains unresolved, this study represents a significant step forward.&nbsp;



The new data and techniques for analyzing gravitational fields and pulsar accelerations could soon reveal whether intermediate-mass black holes exist and, if so, what role they play in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>’s cosmic architecture.



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Mysterious star movement in Omega Centauri may finally be explained

Could the decades-long mystery of unusual star movements in Omega...

Humpback,Whale,Breaching.,Humpback,Whale,Jumping,Out,Of,The,Water.

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel distances, often covering thousands of miles between feeding and breeding areas. 



Scientists recently recorded an adult male humpback whale making an unexpected journey from South America to Africa, traveling more than 8,106 miles (13,046 kilometers). 



This new finding suggests there is still much to learn about how whales spread across oceans, especially in the Southern Hemisphere.



“These animals are distinct individuals, and they’ll do surprising things. These oceans are very much connected spaces, and whales travel beyond borders," enthused Ted Cheeseman, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-journey">Record-breaking journey</h2>



A new study detailed this whale’s journey as the longest migration ever recorded for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a single whale</a>. The trek also marked the first time researchers documented an adult male humpback traveling between the Pacific and Indian oceans. 



The whale was first spotted off the coast of Colombia in 2013 and seen again near that area a few years later. But in 2022, it turned up near Zanzibar, off the coast of East Africa. 



Researchers noted that the typical migration route can exceed 4,971 miles (8,000 kilometers) one way, and this whale’s path was close to twice that distance, according to the study published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-behavior">Humpback whale travel behavior</h2>



Scientists say this unexpected movement sheds light on how adaptable humpbacks can be. They say that global data are needed to better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understand whale behavior</a>. 



Such large-scale research could show how whales respond to environmental changes and whether factors like shifting ocean temperatures or reduced food availability push them to seek new territories. 



The whale’s travel between distinct breeding grounds highlights that humpbacks, while often returning to the same places, are not completely predictable. 



“Our dogmatic thinking is that (whales) always go to the place where they came from,” said Ari Friedlaender, professor of ocean sciences at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, who was not involved in the study. 



“But there has to be some movement where you get some (animal) explorers that decide, for whatever reason, to follow a different path," Friedlaender told CNN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-unique-individual">Tracking a unique individual</h2>



Humpbacks exist in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans all over the world</a> and are known for covering huge distances. This whale’s journey stands out because it involved switching between two separate breeding areas. 



Males often travel widely when competing for mates, and scientists note that these movements may depend on shifting conditions. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1s.webp" alt="The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K." class="wp-image-1953566"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K. </figcaption></figure>



They tracked the whale using a platform called <a href="https://happywhale.com/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Happy Whale</a>, which Cheeseman cofounded. It lets citizen scientists, researchers, and whale watchers share their whale photos, helping experts identify whales by the unique underside of their tails. 



“When (whales) dive, they lift their tails, and anyone taking a picture of their tail can record the identity of the animal,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-patterns-in-a-changing-world">Changing patterns in a changing world</h2>



Humpbacks generally show strong loyalty to their breeding sites, though occasional shifts happen. 



Researchers do not fully understand why whales change their breeding locations, but they see that males and females can both move between different spots. 



Scientists think that environmental conditions, competition, and mate availability may influence these changes. Instead of repeating their old routes, some whales may strike out in new directions. 



Cheeseman explained that the whale in this study may have left Colombia due to competition with other males for mates or because of food scarcity, noting that these conditions might push whales to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-perform-full-body-scrubs-on-their-return-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">explore new waters</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



In the 20th century, whaling in the Indian Ocean killed nearly 95% to 99% of the humpback population there, according to Cheeseman. 



That leaves many questions unanswered about their current habits. Researchers say that understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humpback behavior</a> is like observing a classroom full of youngsters without many older individuals around. 



“We’re looking at their behavior like going into a kindergarten classroom,” Cheeseman said. “There’s maybe one adult, someone who’s middle-aged and a whole bunch of children.” 



These shifting demographics mean whales are making new cultural patterns, and unexpected movements could shape how these creatures interact with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-humpback-whale-travel">Documenting humpback whale travel</h2>



Since the 1970s, whale watchers and scientists have used tail photography to identify individuals. Platforms like Happy Whale now let many people submit images, broadening the amount of information available. 



Cheeseman noted that the database currently includes around 109,000 individual whales. The increased collaboration encourages more inclusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-fail-to-respond-to-vessel-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research projects worldwide</a>. 



“(Happy Whale) is going to bring more opportunity for sharing and networking to make our global research partnerships more inclusive,” Friedlaender said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-futures-and-new-connections">Uncertain futures and new connections</h2>



This whale’s travel outside its usual breeding pattern raises questions about acceptance in its new location. Changes in travel routes may mean whales encounter different populations. 



As these movements occur, whales could begin mixing genes and behaviors, influencing how future generations migrate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-felt-less-stressed-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choose their homes</a>. 



Cheeseman said that new sightings will provide more clues. “With every photograph we receive we’re looking for every whale we know,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-creates-communities">Humpback whale travel creates communities</h2>



The Indian Ocean now holds younger populations of humpbacks trying to find their way. Some may follow old patterns, while others search for new possibilities. 



In addition, shifts in migration might change social bonds and behaviors.



“These different paths can connect populations that we otherwise would never think would be in touch with each other to share information and genes that make these populations into more of a global community," Friedlaender concluded.



No one can say when or where this whale will appear next, but future sightings and photographs may deepen our understanding. The world’s oceans hold many secrets about how humpbacks live, move, and interact. 



As more data come to light, researchers and regular folks can pool their knowledge, helping piece together how whales adapt to changing waters and shifting relationships.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241361" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Humpback whale travels farther than any mammal ever recorded

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...