Amber, the fossilized "blood" of ancient coniferous trees, holds the key to an extraordinary chapter of Earth's history.



Imagine stepping into a time machine capable of transporting you back to the era of the dinosaurs. 



Suddenly, you're immersed in a dense, swampy forest, surrounded by buzzing insects, blooming flowers, ferns, and conifers. Strikingly, this lush habitat is where snowy West Antarctica currently stands.



Recently, scientists from top universities in Germany and the UK have unearthed amber in this desolate landscape for the first time. 



These discoveries reveal that between 83 and 92 million years ago, coniferous trees once thrived on what is now the planet's southernmost continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amber-discovery-in-antarctica">Amber discovery in Antarctica </h2>



Coupled with the discovery of roots, pollen, and spore fossils, the unearthed amber supports the evidence indicating the existence of a swampy rainforest in the region of the South Pole during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-discovery-reveals-ancient-alaska-warm-lush-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mid-Cretaceous</a> period.



This prehistoric environment was "dominated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conifer-communication-is-altered-by-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conifers</a>," not unlike the present-day forests in New Zealand and Patagonia.



This Antarctic amber discovery peels back the icy layer shrouding the continent's history, and reveals an ancient habitat that was warm and moist enough to host coniferous trees capable of producing resin.



During the mid-Cretaceous, these resilient trees were able to endure total darkness during the long winter months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resin-producing-trees-on-all-continents">Resin-producing trees on all continents</h2>



Previously, Cretaceous amber deposits had only been found as far south as Australia's Otway Basin and New Zealand's Tupuangi Formation. 



"It was very exciting to realize that, at some point in their history, all seven continents had climatic conditions allowing resin-producing trees to survive," said marine geologist Johann Klages from the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> in Germany.



The goal now is to explore deeper into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest's ecosystem</a> - to uncover whether the forest experienced extensive fires and if traces of life can be found encapsulated within the amber.



Renowned scientists have been unearthing fossilized wood and leaves in Antarctica since the early 19th century. However, most of these discoveries date back hundreds of millions of years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-antarctica-s-past">Evidence of Antarctica's past</h2>



The fate of Antarctica's lush forests, as the land mass separated from Australia and South America and spiraled towards the South Pole, is currently unknown. 



In 2017, researchers unearthed well-preserved evidence of these once-thriving habitats by drilling into the seafloor near West Antarctica. 



After years of analysis, Klages and his team of researchers published a 2020 research paper documenting a 3-meter-long network of fossilized roots that dates back to the mid-Cretaceous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-amber-revelation-in-antarctica">The amber revelation in Antarctica </h2>



Drill expeditions have provided compelling evidence that ancient forests once thrived in Antarctica.



Present in the layer of mudstone where the fossilized roots were found were also tiny slices of translucent amber, each a different hue of yellow to orange.



This amber serves as evidence of resin flow, a natural process where sap leaks out of a tree to seal its bark against potential harm from fires or insect pests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-was-the-amber-preserved">How was the amber preserved?</h2>



The Cretaceous, one of the warmest periods in Earth's history, was prone to frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-were-common-in-ancient-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest fires</a>, evident from the volcanic deposits found on Antarctica and adjacent islands.



The preservation and fossilization of the amber can be attributed to high water levels promptly enveloping the tree resin. This quick coverage shielded the resin from harmful ultraviolet radiation and oxidation. 



Excitingly, it appears that the amber encompasses tiny bits of tree bark, though further analysis is required for confirmation.



Slowly but surely, researchers are piecing together details of what Antarctica's prehistoric forests once looked like and how they functioned 90 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-amber-in-paleoclimate-studies">Significance of amber in paleoclimate studies</h2>



Amber&nbsp;is&nbsp;much&nbsp;more&nbsp;than&nbsp;the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-finds-mangrove-forest-that-was-lost-for-22-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossilized</a> remnant&nbsp;of ancient trees.&nbsp;It&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;kind of&nbsp;time capsule that&nbsp;informs&nbsp;us about&nbsp;conditions on the Earth&nbsp;millions of years ago&nbsp;and allows further insight into its climate.&nbsp;



This discovery of amber&nbsp;in&nbsp;Antarctica is&nbsp;very&nbsp;significant&nbsp;as&nbsp;it indicates that the region once&nbsp;must&nbsp;have had&nbsp;a warm and humid climate&nbsp;suitable&nbsp;for&nbsp;dense&nbsp;forests of trees that could produce&nbsp;resin.



This&nbsp;discovery&nbsp;has&nbsp;sparked a challenge to&nbsp;current perceptions of Antarctica's past and contributed&nbsp;to the growing body of evidence for a once green, thriving landscape on the continent. Information&nbsp;on&nbsp;the amber's chemical composition and inclusions will give scientists clues about what life&nbsp;must&nbsp;have been like in that&nbsp;ancient environment:&nbsp;its temperatures, humidity levels,&nbsp;diversity of flora and fauna,&nbsp;and&nbsp;indeed&nbsp;everything&nbsp;thriving&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;time.



Such analysis&nbsp;can&nbsp;be&nbsp;pieced together&nbsp;to&nbsp;form&nbsp;a more complete picture of global climate patterns during the mid-Cretaceous period - the warmest&nbsp;era&nbsp;in Earth's&nbsp;existence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antarctic-science/article/first-discovery-of-antarctic-amber/700244C13B3972F0048EAC029E34263E" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Research</a>.



Image Credit: Alfred-Wegener-Institut / V. Schumacher



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90-million-year-old amber reveals Antarctica's secret past

Amber, the fossilized "blood" of ancient coniferous trees, holds the key to an extraordinary chapter of Earth's history. Imagine stepping into a time machine capable of transporting you back to the era of the dinosaurs. Suddenly, you're immersed in a dense, swampy forest, surrounded by buzzing insects, blooming flowers, ferns, and conifers. Strikingly, this lush habitat is where snowy West Antarctica currently stands. Recently, scientists from top universities in Germany and the UK have unearthed amber in this desolate landscape for the first time. These discoveries reveal...

Every year, an estimated 750,000 people die from mosquito-transmitted diseases, these include malaria, dengue fever, and West Nile. 

A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swatting-mosquitoes-avoid-scent/">mosquito bite</a> can actually exacerbate some of these diseases, as research has shown infections from bites are more severe than those injected into mice with a needle. 

While these diseases themselves are heavily studied, the effects of mosquito bites and saliva, particularly in the absence of pathogens, on the human immune system is not well understood. 

This is because studies involving mosquito proteins found in saliva during the time of feeding were conducted with mice and therefore not an accurate model for explaining the effects on humans. 

Now, a new study also using mice engrafted with human stem cells sheds insight into the human immune response to proteins in mosquito saliva. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/">Baylor College of Medicine</a> in Houston Texas and published in the journal<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006439"> PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. </a> 

Mosquito saliva contains a complex mixture of proteins which allows the mosquito to feed on a host. The saliva can inhibit coagulation of the blood to make it easier for the mosquito to get an adequate blood meal. 

This mixture of proteins in the saliva is also what causes the annoying itch sensation after a mosquito bite because the body is responding to the saliva, or foreign substance, that was recently left by the insect. 

In order to better understand how the proteins in mosquito saliva affect the immune system, the researchers engrafted human hematopoietic stem cells into mice which gave the mice components of a human immune system. 

The researchers then recorded any changes in the new immune cells after each mouse in the study was bitten by four mosquitoes that were not infected with any pathogen. 

There was a much larger amount of immune response to the bites than previous studies showed. The researchers found altered TH1 And TH2 T helper cells and an increase in levels of cytokines. 

The results also showed increases in several different cells through various points during the immune responses and most notably these immune responses were detectable for up to seven days after the bite. 

The study shows just how much our immune system is affected by the protein in mosquito saliva, even without pathogens and could help with reducing the number of people who suffer from  mosquito-transmitted diseases 

“Understanding how mosquito saliva interacts with the human immune system not only helps us understand mechanisms of disease pathogenesis but also could provide possibilities for treatments,” said the researchers. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquito saliva causes immune responses that last for days

Every year, an estimated 750,000 people die from mosquito-transmitted diseases,...

Our early mammalian ancestors were very fond of insects and today, researchers have discovered ancient enzymes in our genes, one still active, that specifically aid in breaking down the tough outer skeleton of insects while eating them. 

The study, conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of Berkley</a>, sheds insight on how early mammals shifted their diet after the dinosaurs died out and delves into the evolutionary history of enzymes that developed specifically to aid in the digestion of different foods. 

The results were published in the journal Science Advances. 

First, the researchers analyzed the genomes of 107 different species of mammals and found enzymes that would have helped our digest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-insects-biofuel/">insects</a> in almost all of the mammal genomes. 

This led the researchers to theorize that early mammals, alive 66 million years ago, were mostly insectivores and we carry the evidence in our own genomes today. 

“It is a signature in your genome that says, once upon a time you were not the dominant group of organisms on Earth,” said Christopher Emerling, a member of the research team. “By looking at our genomes, we are looking at this ancestral past and a lifestyle that we don't even live with anymore.”

The outer shell of insects is made up of a tough carbohydrate called chitin and the enzymes that break it down are called chitinases. Humans have a chitinase gene, which makes sense because many humans still eat insects as part of their diet today. 

However, the researchers also found the remnants of three other inactive chitinase genes in the human genome. The team traced five different chitinase enzymes to a large group of mammals. 

In order to find out which chitinase enzymes were still active, the researchers used a database of animal genomes and the newly sequenced genomes of armadillos. 

The more insects in an animal’s diet, the more active chitinase enzymes it has. 

“The only species that have five chitinases today are highly insectivorous, that is, 80 to 100 percent of their diet consists of insects,” said Emerling. “Since the earliest placental mammals likely had five chitinases, we think that this makes for a strong argument that they were highly insectivorous.” 

The results of the study align with previous paleontology studies showing that the shape of skulls and teeth from early mammals meant that they ate mostly insects. 

Early mammals were insectivores but when the dinosaurs died off 66 million years ago, diets quickly shifted to match what many species typically eat today. 

Without the food competition from the dinosaurs, mammals could expand their diets to meat and plant-based, and the first carnivorous and herbivorous mammals arose within 10 million years of the extinction of the dinosaurs. 

The study shows how our diets can be imprinted in our DNA and shed insight into the role insect enzymes played in early mammal diets before the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. 

“This is suggesting that there are a lot of these enzymes that might be helping organisms digest their food,” said Emerling. “This goes from being a simple curiosity - humans have a chitinase, how cool! - to being something that can help us understand how different animals are adapted to their specialized diets.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Quentin Martinez

Early mammals ate insects until the dinosaurs died off

Our early mammalian ancestors were very fond of insects and...

A study from the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society For Neuroscience</a> has found new evidence to explain why some individuals are more resistant to authority than others. The researchers have identified specific behavioral traits and functional connectivity in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-feel-gratitude/">brain</a> that are associated with control aversion, which is the urge to rebel against constraints on personal decisions.

Individuals with higher levels of control aversion are at risk of making poor decisions when their choices are limited. For example, a person with a tendency toward control-averse behavior may be less compliant with a doctor's orders or less likely to accept critical medical treatments.

The experts found that an inclination to control-averse behavior was reflected in connectivity between two specific regions of the brain. Control aversion was also linked to distrust and a lack of understanding, according to the research.

Study co-authors Sarah Rudorf and Daria Knoch set out to better understand individual differences in control aversion by  using neuroimaging during a socially interactive game. 

A total of 51 college students engaged in a game that was designed to periodically limit their choices as they divided money between themselves and another player. At some points during the game, partners could choose to restrict the participants’ options of how to divide their assets by asking for a minimum amount of money.

After the games, the participants completed a questionnaire that measured any negative feelings that may be associated with rebellious behavior. The researchers found that feeling mistrusted or confusion about a partner's actions were strong predictors of control aversion.

The brain scans revealed distinctive activity which represented when participants were playing the game with free choice or when they were playing under the controlled conditions. 

The experts noted that the students were much more likely to exhibit defiant behavior when there was stronger connectivity between the parietal lobule and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

While the exact role that these two brain regions play in control aversion is not yet fully understood, further investigation may provide experts with a better understanding of the influence of choice restrictions on personal decisions.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why some people are more prone to resist authority

A study from the Society For Neuroscience has found new...

A recent study could help create new addiction treatments and reduce the potential for relapse after shedding new light on the effects of heroin and cocaine.

It turns out that drug users experience differing levels of pleasure from cocaine and heroin depending on where the drug is taken. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/">University of Sussex</a> in Brighton and<a href="https://www.uniroma1.it/it/"> Sapienza University</a> in Rome. 

Published in the journal JNeurosci, the results show that the substance-specific rewarding effects of heroin and cocaine are dictated by location. 

For the study, the researchers first asked a group of female and male drug users who were receiving treatment at a medical center in Rome to remember a typical drug episode and also how pleasurable taking cocaine or heroin was in or outside the home.

Next, the researchers had another group imagine using the two drugs in different settings. The members of this group had their brain activity measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while they pictured taking the drug. 

During the fMRI experiment, the researchers discovered that drug use activated the prefrontal cortex, the caudate and the cerebellum in the brain. These are the regions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-breathing-brain-health/">brain</a> that process reward. 

After analyzing the responses from both groups, the researchers found that at home the participants preferred to take heroin, while cocaine use correlated with more pleasure in the brain's reward center when taken outside the home.

The study provides a new context for examining addiction and relapse and shows how the pleasurable effects of drugs depend on where the drug is used. 

The results could help with drug treatments and make users more aware of what is driving cravings in certain environments.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heroin and cocaine impact users differently depending on location

A recent study could help create new addiction treatments and...

The rise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/artificial-intelligence-earthquakes/">artificial intelligence</a> has many wondering just how will it impact our society, industries, and the economy. 

The quick-self learning of artificial intelligence using complex algorithms could one day help doctors make accurate diagnoses or reduce the number of accidents on the road with safer self- driving cars. 

However, there are also major concerns that as AI becomes more and more a part of our lives, it could have irreversible consequences. 

According to Elon Musk, the inventor, engineer, and billionaire who wants to colonize Mars, AI is humanity’s “biggest existential threat.” 

“I’m increasingly inclined to think that there should be some regulatory oversight, maybe at the national and international level, just to make sure that we don’t do something very foolish,” Musk told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/oct/27/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat">the Guardian</a>. 

Musk isn’t alone in thinking that there need to be serious policies put in place to regulate AI. 

A newly published policy report from the <a href="https://policyatmanchester.shorthandstories.com/on_ai_and_robotics/index.html#group-contributors-sIsC15rVAW">University of Manchester</a>, titled “On AI and Robotics: Developing policy for the Fourth Industrial Revolution,” discusses the potential bias and marginalization that AI could bring. 

Researchers from the<a href="http://www.research.mbs.ac.uk/innovation"> Manchester Institute of Innovation Research</a> conducted the report. 

One of the main arguments of the report is that investments in AI will mostly be paid by taxpayers and as such, there needs to a significant effort made to ensure that the benefits of Artificial Intelligence are shared equally. 

In other words, as artificial intelligence advances, it must do so in a democratic and socially responsible way. 

“In these 'data-driven' decision-making processes some social groups may be excluded, either because they lack access to devices necessary to participate or because the selected datasets do not consider the needs, preferences, and interests of marginalized and disadvantaged people,” said Barbara Ribeiro,  a contributor of the report. 

The report also emphasizes that people need to be better educated on the differences between robotic technology and artificial intelligence. 

“Although the challenges that companies and policymakers are facing with respect to AI and robotic systems are similar in many ways, these are two entirely separate technologies - something which is often misunderstood, not just by the general public, but policymakers and employers too. This is something that has to be addressed,” said Anna Scaife, Co-Director of the University's Policy@Manchester team, who published the report. 

There are numerous potential and positive advancements that could happen with AI and robotics and experts agree that both technologies will have a serious impact on many different fields in the near future. 

The policy report authors hope that this research will convey the wide spectrum of possibilities with AI and robotics, and demonstrate how vital it is for policymakers, regulators, and researchers to ensure that advancements do not come at the expense of any one group of people. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Alexa, how do we make AI socially responsible?

The rise of artificial intelligence has many wondering just how will...

If you’ve ever been unfortunate enough to accidentally step on a patch of ice, you’re probably well aware of what happens next. The fact that ice is slippery – much to the chagrin of unassuming pedestrians – has been known for years. It’s why we use ice as a surface for sports such as speed skating, curling, and hockey. But while the slipperiness of ice is common knowledge, it’s not entirely understood from a science perspective.

In 1886, an Irish physicist by the name of John Joly presented the first scientific explanation for low friction on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-glacial-meltwater-sea-level/">ice</a>. He posited that when an object touches the surface of the ice, the local contact pressure is so high that the ice melts, creating a liquid water layer that lubricates the sliding. Currently, the consensus is that although liquid water at the ice surface does reduce sliding friction on ice, it is not melted by pressure. Rather, the ice is melted by frictional heat produced during sliding.

Researchers Daniel Bonn, a professor at the <a href="http://www.uva.nl/en/home">University of Amsterdam</a>, and Mischa Bonn, from the <a href="http://www.mpip-mainz.mpg.de/home/en">Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research</a>, have now demonstrated that friction on ice is more complicated than previously thought. Using macroscopic friction experiments at temperatures ranging from 0 °C to -100 °C, they showed that the ice surface transforms from an extremely slippery surface at typical winter sports temperatures, to a surface with high friction at -100 °C.

In determining this, the research team performed spectroscopic measurements of the state of water molecules at the surface, and compared these with molecular dynamics simulations. This combination of theory and experiment determined that two types of water molecules exist at the ice surface: water molecules that are stuck to the underlying ice, bound by three hydrogen bonds, and mobile water molecules that are bound by only two hydrogen bonds. The mobile water molecules continuously roll over the ice, powered by thermal vibrations.

When the temperature is increased, the two types of surface molecules are interconverted: the quantity of mobile molecules is increased at the expense of molecules that are stuck to the surface of the ice. Interestingly, this change in mobility of the topmost water molecules at the ice surface – caused by increases in temperature – perfectly matches the temperature-dependence of the measured friction force. In other words, the larger the mobility at the ice surface, the lower the friction, and vice versa.

Ultimately, the researchers conclude that the high mobility of the surface water molecules is responsible for the slipperiness of ice. They also determined that, while the surface mobility continues to increase all the way up to 0°C, this is not an ideal temperature for sliding on ice. Experiments showed that the friction is minimal at a temperature of -7°C, which is the exact same temperature used at speed skating rinks. So although this study – published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/jpclcd">Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters</a> – is the first to uncover the hidden complexities of ice’s slippery nature, it seems like the sports world has known the ideal ice temperature all along.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is ice so slippery? It’s more complicated than you may think

If you’ve ever been unfortunate enough to accidentally step on...

A team led by Suzana Nunes at <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a> (KAUST) has modeled 3D porous materials after honeycombs. As a result, the experts have created a simple and fast method of developing selective filters that may ultimately be used to remove pollutants or viruses.

The honeycomb has long been admired for its natural structural complexity and has been the basis for many innovations including materials used in the aerospace industry, which are valued for their strength-to-weight ratio. 

In the current study, the researchers set out to develop porous materials that are stable, yet have a large surface area and the ability to selectively extract materials. 

Replicating the intricacy of honeycombs at the nanoscale, including the consistent patterns across individual compartments as well as across the entire structure, represents a major challenge.

But now, the KAUST team has proposed a simple method that can produce a flexible film with a complex structure and consistent patterns of interconnected, regularly-shaped pores. Remarkably, the entire production process takes less than five minutes.

The researchers collaborated with scientists in the Imaging and Characterization Core Lab, using a block copolymer called polystyrene-b-poly (t-butyl acrylate) (PS-b-PtBA) to demonstrate their method. 

The experts combined various concentrations of PS-b-PtBA with different solvent mixtures and cast the solutions on glass plates. Next, they evaporated the samples for different lengths of time to promote the nucleation and growth of cavities with highly porous interconnecting walls. The solvent was then rinsed off the remaining film to halt the phase separation.

“By using this method we create an important platform to design artificial porous materials that replicate highly ordered porous and complex systems mimicking nature,” said study lead author Stefan Chisca.

“These have potential use for separations, such as virus filtration, and for biological scaffolds, such as those used for bone regeneration.”

The film has many other potential applications as well, including new technologies for drug delivery and filters for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-americans-air-pollution/">air pollution</a>.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honeycomb structure inspires scientists to create pollution mop

A team led by Suzana Nunes at King Abdullah University...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.vai.org/">Van Andel Research Institute</a> (VARI) are reporting that ancient microbes which survive in some of the world's harshest conditions share a similar molecular mechanism with humans. The shared system, which is used to respire and conserve energy, has adapted to its changing surroundings for billions of years.

The team used the powerful Titan Krios cryo-electron microscope at VARI to analyze the highest resolution images ever obtained of MBH, a molecular complex involved in microbial respiration. The experts discovered that the structure of MBH is strikingly similar to Complex I in humans.

Study co-author Dr. Michael W.W. Adams has been studying MBH for 20 years.

“Nature is really good at finding molecules that work and then modifying them and using them over and over again. This is a prime example,” said Dr. Adams. “Knowing the structure of MBH provides us with new insights into how Complex I evolved and how it might work.”

In living organisms, respiration produces usable energy by converting electrical energy into a chemical form, and MBH and Complex I play key roles in this process. Prior to this study, however, no clear evolutionary connection had been established between the two molecular complexes.

“The determination of MBH's structure fills in some important missing pieces that reveal how life adjusted to sweeping changes in the environment throughout the millennia,” said co-senior author Dr. Huilin. “This solves a fundamental, long standing mystery in biology.”


Despite their similarities, the complexes have some notable differences. MBH's structure has a mechanism for changing electrical energy into chemical energy that is simpler than that found in Complex I. Furthermore, MBH is used to expel hydrogen gas, while Complex I in humans is used to expel carbon dioxide.


MBH is considered to be an ancient respiratory system because it can be found in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/empire-state-building-microbes/">microbe</a> known as Pyrococcus furiosus, which grows best in boiling water and has lived in volcanic marine vents for billions of years. This environment is similar to the atmospheric conditions present many years ago when the planet was much more volatile.

Complex I has the ability to interact with more molecules compared to MBH, an adaptation that likely emerged alongside a shift in the Earth's atmospheric composition.

“It is amazing to see these two distantly related systems reorganize their shared elements to adjust to their different living conditions,” said study first author Dr. Hongjun Yu. “It looks as if nature is playing with its own building blocks.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient microbes reveal how humans adjust to changing climates

Scientists at Van Andel Research Institute (VARI) are reporting that...

A deadly fungus – known as chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) – has been devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concerns-reptiles-amphibians-pets/">amphibian</a> populations around the world for years. It’s been a direct cause of the decline and extinction of species of frogs, toads, newts, and other amphibians on several continents. While this fungus – also known as Bd – is distributed around the world, it was unknown where the deadly strains of the pathogen first originated… until now. 

New research published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> reports that the fungus may have first emerged in East Asia. This fungus passes from animal to animal, spreading rapidly and causing chytridiomycosis, which attacks the animal’s skin and affects their ability to regulate water and electrolyte levels, leading to heart failure.

Researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> and their partners at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a> – along with almost 40 other institutions around the world – gathered samples of the pathogen from around the world. They sequenced the samples’ genomes, and combined the data with genomes from past Bd studies, resulting in a total collection of 234 samples.

The researchers looked at differences in the genomes of these samples, and identified four main genetic lineages of the fungus. Three of these lineages are distributed globally, while the fourth lineage was only found in Korea, on frogs native to the region. The fungi of Korean lineage were determined to contain much more genetic diversity than any other lineages. Further analysis of this lineage showed no history of global outbreaks within their genomes, which suggests that Korean Bd strains were native to the region, and most closely resemble the ancestry of all modern Bd.

Through analysis of the genetic data, the researchers estimated that the killer strain of Bd currently threatening amphibian species diverged from its most recent common ancestor. Rather than dating back thousands of years, the range of the disease expanded greatly between 50 and 120 years ago, which coincides with the rapid global expansion of intercontinental trade.

The study’s authors believe that humans have contributed heavily to the spread of this fungus, largely through the international pet trade of these amphibians. They provide strong evidence that a ban on trade in amphibians from Asia would be a positive move for mitigating the further spread of the fungus.

“Our research not only points to East Asia as ground zero for this deadly fungal pathogen, but suggests we have only uncovered the tip of the iceberg of chytrid diversity in Asia,” says Matthew Fisher, from the School of Public Health at Imperial College. “Therefore, until the ongoing trade in infected amphibians is halted, we will continue to put our irreplaceable global amphibian biodiversity recklessly at risk.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Frank Pasmans

Killer fungus wiping out amphibians originated in Asia

A deadly fungus – known as chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)...

A team led by Amanda D. Hanford at <a href="http://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> is bringing the concept of cloaking devices out of science fiction and into reality. The researchers have now developed an underwater cloaking device in the form of an acoustic shield.

The experts set out to create an instrument that can redirect sound waves around a cloaked object without scattering the wave energy. In order to do so, they needed to determine the best way to manipulate a metamaterial, which contains unique properties not found in natural materials - including negative density.

“These materials sound like a totally abstract concept, but the math is showing us that these properties are possible,” said Hanford. “So, we are working to open the floodgates to see what we can create with these materials.”

Although most acoustic metamaterials have been developed to control sound in the air, Hanford’s team took on the challenge of engineering these materials for use underwater. Water has a higher density and a lower compressibility compared to air, so design options were much more limited.

The team ultimately engineered a three-foot-tall pyramid out of perforated steel plates, which they tested on the floor of an underwater research tank. A hydrophone was used to generate acoustic waves between 7,000 Hz and 12,000 Hz, and several receiver hydrophones were set up throughout the tank to monitor reflected acoustic waves.

The experts found that the wave reflected from the metamaterial matched the phase of the reflected wave from the surface, and the amplitude of the reflected wave from the cloaked object decreased slightly.

Linear coordinate transformation enabled the researchers to map the flat surface of the bottom of the tank, which revealed that space was compressed into two triangular cloaking regions.

The results indicate that the manufactured metamaterial produced in the study could make an object appear invisible to underwater instruments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-tech-maya-settlements/">sonar</a>.

The research will be presented at the 175th Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Peter Kerrian

Underwater cloaking devices may soon become reality

A team led by Amanda D. Hanford at Pennsylvania State...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a> has used the chemical analysis of tiny fossil shells to gain insight into the Earth's climate over half a billion years ago. The results of the study indicate that animals of this time diversified under atmospheric conditions that were similar to when the dinosaurs lived.

“Many marine animals incorporate chemical traces of seawater into their shells as they grow,” said study co-author Dr.Tom Harvey. “That chemical signature is often lost over geological time, so it's remarkable that we can identify it in such ancient fossils.”

During the Cambrian explosion around 541 million years ago, most of the major animal groups first emerged. It has been assumed that it was warm during the Cambrian Period due to the types of rock deposited at this time, but details of the climate have been relatively unknown.

The fossil record documented in the one-millimeter shells, which were found in limestone dating back around 515 million years, revealed that high latitude sea temperatures were in excess of 20 degrees Celsius. This is similar to the greenhouse climate of the Late Cretaceous Period.

“Because scientists cannot directly measure sea temperatures from half a billion years ago, they have to use proxy data - these are measurable quantities that respond in a predictable way to changing climate variables like temperature,” explained study co-author Thomas Hearing. “In this study, we used oxygen isotope ratios, which is a commonly used paleothermometer.”

“We then used acid to extract fossils about 1mm long from blocks of limestone from Shropshire, UK, dated to between 515 - 510 million years old. Careful examination of these tiny fossils revealed that some of them have exceptionally well-preserved shell chemistry which has not changed since they grew on the Cambrian sea floor.”

Climate model simulations also supported the finding that Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-impacts-environment-climate-change/">climate</a> was in a “typical” greenhouse state, with temperatures similar to more recent intervals in Earth's climate history such as the late Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras.

The research sheds new light on the early animals of the Cambrian Period and their surrounding environment.


“We hope that this approach can be used by other researchers to build up a clearer picture of ancient climates where conventional climate proxy data are not available,” said Hearing.


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a>

Small shell fossils reveal Earth’s climate 500 million years ago

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printing-food-industry/">3D printing</a> is on the rise, and everything from jet engine parts to houses to prosthetic arms can be created with a 3D printer.  

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a simple concept: you can print or create a three-dimensional item by layering raw materials, sometimes even food, to form the desired shape. 

However, new research has found that 3D printing could also be used to make weapons, posing a risk to both the general public and military allies.

The research was conducted by the <a href="https://www.rand.org/">RAND Corporation's</a> Center for Global Risk and Security.

According to the report, additive manufacturing could make it easier than ever to access or create dangerous weapons. Extremist groups could manufacture their own arsenal and street criminals could sell 3D printed weapons. 

3D printing could also benefit countries like North Korea, which could create products domestically and avoid sanctions. 

Not only is weapon manufacturing a major cause for concern with 3D printing, but according to the RAND paper, the technology is susceptible to hackers and sabotage. For example, hackers could create intentionally defective jet engine parts. 

“Lone-wolf attacks may become more lethal when individuals have ready access to 3D printers,” said Trevor Johnston, the lead author of the paper. “Even in countries like the United States, where gun control laws have done little to restrict access to semi-automatic weapons, additive manufacturing could increase the risk of violence and murder.”

The report also looked into the economic ramifications of 3D printed weapons. According to the authors, producing weapons and products locally could weaken international trade connections and threaten jobs. 

“Unemployment, isolation and alienation of middle and low-skilled laborers may be exacerbated by additive manufacturing, potentially leading to societal unrest in both developed and developing countries,” said Troy Smith, a co-author of the paper. 

The paper calls for increased monitoring and regulations, particularly of the raw materials used in additive manufacturing, software and the printers themselves. 

Even with preventive measures, the researchers emphasize that these will not be enough to stop the risks associated with 3D printing. Instead, policymakers and researchers should look at ways to limit the impact of future threats as well implement regulations. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

3D printed weapons could become a major public safety threat

3D printing is on the rise, and everything from jet...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...