You've undoubtedly noticed that the Moon has two distinct sides, right? The near side that we see from Earth and the far side that remains a mystery because it is never turned towards us.



This unusual lunar characteristic -- a global dichotomy -- is what a team of scientists led by Professor XU Yigang from the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry (<a href="http://english.gig.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GIGCAS</a>) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has been investigating.



They have been studying lunar soil samples collected from the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin on the far side of the Moon, and returned to Earth by China's <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANG-E-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chang’e-6 mission</a>.



These invaluable samples have allowed them to investigate the Moon's peculiar dichotomy and the results have shed light on some of its secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-chang-e-6">What is Chang’e-6?</h2>



The Chinese space program launched Chang'e 6, their latest Moon mission, on May 3, 2024. The spacecraft blasted off from Wenchang Satellite Launch Center on a Long March 5 rocket at 9:27 UT (that's 5:27 PM Beijing time). 



Their goal? To grab about four pounds (2 kg) of Moon rocks from the far side - something no one had done before.



The lander touched down in a huge crater called the South Pole Aitken Basin. The team used both a scoop and a drill to dig up surface samples and even went 2 meters deep into the lunar soil. 



They also sent out a small rover that cruised around taking snapshots of the lander doing its work.



Once they collected the samples, the crew packed them into an ascent vehicle sitting on top of the lander. 



On June 3 at 11:38 PM UT (7:38 AM Beijing time the next day), this vehicle shot up from the Moon's surface and met up with the orbiter waiting above. They made the handoff on June 6, 2024.



After ditching the ascent vehicle (which crashed back into the Moon), the return vehicle hung around in orbit for a couple weeks before heading home. 



It pulled off a tricky skip-entry through Earth's atmosphere and landed in Inner Mongolia's Siziwang Banner region on June 25 at 6:07 UT (2:07 PM Beijing time). 



The final haul? Roughly 4.2 pounds (1.9 kg) of Moon rocks and soil from the far side -- marking another big win for China's space program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-side-vs-visible-side-of-the-moon">Far side vs. visible side of the Moon</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon's</a> dichotomy is visible in its topography, chemical composition, crustal thickness, evidence of volcanism and, most noticeably, in the difference in geomorphology between its near and far sides.



The near side of the Moon is home to the familiar "man in the moon" maria - the dark "seas" that are the result of ancient volcanic activity. 



These areas were flooded with molten lava that created rocks known as mare basalts.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_diagram_credit-YANG-Muhan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_diagram_credit-YANG-Muhan_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of distinct volcanic episodes on the Moon’s farside. The remote sensing image highlights the Chang’e-6 landing site along with nearby mare and cryptomare basaltic units. Credit: Image by YANG Muhan" class="wp-image-1950782"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of distinct volcanic episodes on the Moon’s farside. The remote sensing image highlights the Chang’e-6 landing site along with nearby mare and cryptomare basaltic units. Credit: Image by YANG Muhan</figcaption></figure>



How about the far side? Well, here's where it gets intriguing. Only about 2% of this hidden part of the Moon is covered in the basalts, compared to around 30% on the near side.



This inexplicable difference is a vital part of the lunar global dichotomy that the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program aims to unravel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-moon-s-far-side">Secrets of the Moon's far side</h2>



Thanks to the Chang’e-6 lunar soil samples, Professor XU's team discovered the existence of two different types of mare basalts, low-Ti, and very low-Ti (VLT). 



“The samples returned by Chang’e-6 provide a best opportunity to investigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> global dichotomy,” said Professor XU.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-eruptions_basalt-types_credit-GIGCAS_1s.webp" alt="The two types of basalts in Chang’e-6 soils and isochrons of the Chang’e-6 low-Ti basalt. Credit: GIGCAS" class="wp-image-1950784"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The two types of basalts in Chang’e-6 soils and isochrons of the Chang’e-6 low-Ti basalt. Credit: GIGCAS</figcaption></figure>



Let's not dismiss the aspect of dating these samples either. With high-precision Pb-Pb dating techniques, the team determined that the low-Ti basalt dates back to around 2.83 billion years ago.



This attests to the presence of "young" magmatism or volcanic activities on the far side of the Moon. But of course, young is a relative term when we talk about 2.83 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-history-of-volcanoes">Mapping the history of volcanoes</h2>



With such valuable information now in our hands, we can clearly chart the volcanic timeline on the far side of the Moon. 



Led by Professor LI Qiuli, the team conducted radioisotope dating on 108 basalt fragments, with 107 of them revealing a consistent formation age of 2807 million years ago.



But there's more. One fragment, a high-aluminum basalt, was dated to a monumental 4203 million years ago, making it the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvest-moon-2024-will-feature-a-partial-lunar-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> basalt for which age has been precisely determined.



This implies elevated levels of volcanic activity on the far side of the Moon for at least 1.4 billion years - between 4.2 billion and 2.8 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



These findings, available for everyone to dissect, can help recalibrate the existing lunar crater chronology models. 



Christopher Hamilton, an independent planetary volcano expert, emphasized the importance of obtaining samples from this previously unchartered lunar territory.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_Change-6-mission_landing_credit-CLEP_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/moon_farside_volcanic-episodes_Change-6-mission_landing_credit-CLEP_1s.webp" alt="China's Chang’e-6 mission spacecraft landed on the far side of the Moon. Credit: CLAP" class="wp-image-1950787"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">China's Chang’e-6 mission spacecraft landed on the far side of the Moon. Credit: CLAP </figcaption></figure>



More than just understanding the Moon, these lunar soil samples also have implications for some broad astronomical theories.



The new data indicates a constant impact flux after 2.83 billion years, which can offer new insights into planet migration in the early Solar System. 



So, by looking at the Moon, we are indirectly learning about our own cosmic neighborhood as well!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



With more missions like the Chang'e-6, the future will undoubtedly bring many enlightening discoveries about our constant celestial companion.



In the end, we see that the Moon, despite its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-captured-the-moon-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">familiar appearance</a>, still hides untold secrets waiting to be discovered. 



These lunar missions represent a new age of lunar and planetary exploration that pushes the boundaries of our understanding.



-----



The researchers from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> express their gratitude for the support received from various institutes such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the National Natural Science Foundation of China. These institutions' enduring support enables such important lunar explorations.



The study is published in the journals <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08382-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt1093" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Far side of the Moon had volcanic eruptions for over one billion years

You've undoubtedly noticed that the Moon has two distinct sides, right? The near side that we see from Earth and the far side that remains a mystery because it is never turned towards us. This unusual lunar characteristic -- a global dichotomy -- is what a team of scientists led by Professor XU Yigang from the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry (GIGCAS) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has been investigating. They have been studying lunar soil samples collected from the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) Basin on the far...

A study from the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> (UMD) has revealed new clues about the energy conversion process that occurs when the Earth cuts a path through solar wind. The findings of the research are providing scientists with a better understanding of how the Earth's magnetic field protects our planet from harmful particles and radiation.

When the Earth encounters supersonic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-wind-collides-magnetic-field/">solar wind</a>, a shock wave forms just outside of the magnetosphere. This shock wave is called a bow shock, named after the bow-shaped wave that forms on water just ahead of a motorboat.

Scientists have not been able to fully explain how our planet’s magnetic field can plow through the stream of charged particles that make up solar wind without causing chaos. It has been previously established that the bow shock converts energy from solar wind to heat, and now researchers have observed this electron heating process for the first time.

Study lead author Li-Jen Chen is an associate research scientist in the UMD Department of Astronomy and a research scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.

“If you were to stand on a mountaintop, you might get knocked over by a fast wind,” explained Chen. “Fortunately, as the solar wind crashes into Earth's magnetic field, the bow shock protects us by slowing down this wind and changing it to a nice, warm breeze. We now have a better idea how this happens.”

The researchers found that when the electrons in solar wind meet the bow shock, the electrons accelerate to such a high speed that their stream becomes unstable and breaks down. During this breakdown process, the electrons lose their high speeds and the energy is converted to heat.

The scientists used data from NASA's Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) mission, including hundreds of high-frequency measurements captured every 30 milliseconds within the bow shock layer.

Study co-author Thomas Moore is a senior project scientist at the Goddard Space Flight Center.

“The extremely fast measurements from MMS allowed us finally to see the electron heating process in the thin shock layer,” said Moore. “This is groundbreaking because now we have the ability to identify the mechanism at work, instead of just observing its consequences.”

The scientists were surprised by the fact that the bow shock is able to convert the energy in electrons to heat without any friction between the electrons.

“The new observations of electron acceleration at the bow shock rewrite the current understanding of electron heating,” said Chen. “For example, researchers didn't expect that the bow shock could accelerate the solar wind electron stream to the speeds that we observed.”

The researchers had a rare opportunity to observe the solar wind's electron stream before, during, and after its encounter with the bow shock. They found that the electron stream took just 90 milliseconds to destabilize and fully break down after being accelerated by the shock wave.

“The study of electron heating is important not just for understanding how the bow shock protects Earth, but potentially for satellites, space travel and maybe exploring other planets in the future,” said Chen.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/">Physical Review Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center</a>

Earth’s magnetic field shields the planet from solar wind

A study from the University of Maryland (UMD) has revealed...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST) have investigated the relationship between serotonin levels and behavior in mice, with a particular focus on how serotonin may affect patience.

Serotonin is a chemical produced in nerve cells that influences how neurons function. Serotonin has been linked to a range of behaviors, such as mood, sleep, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cravings-sweet-foods/">cravings</a>, and spontaneity. 

The chemical’s influence on human behavior has made it a focal point in the development of ways to treat mental health disorders. For example, selective serotonin receptor inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most common antidepressants, which are used to block the reabsorption of serotonin and make it more available in the brain.


Study co-author Dr. Katsuhiko Miyazaki explained: “Serotonin has had a lot of study in pharmacology, and serotonergic drugs are commonly prescribed, but the role that serotonin has over behavior isn't clear.”

The mice were trained to perform a task to receive a food reward, which involved placing their noses into a small hole and waiting. The team wanted to determine whether mice would wait for the reward regardless of the probability of it turning up or the length of time they had to wait.

The study revealed that an increase of serotonin did not always boost patience. When the mice had a 75 percent chance of a reward, they were willing to wait beyond the typical three-second period to receive a reward.

However, when the probability of reward delivery was cut down to 50 or 25 percent, an increase in serotonin had no effect on the amount of time the mice were willing to wait. “The patience effect only works when the mouse thinks there is a high probability of reward,” said Dr Miyazaki.

A boost of serotonin was also found to influence the mice to wait longer when the timing of a reward was harder to predict.

To better understand the results of the analysis, the team constructed a computational model to interpret the experimental data. 

The model showed that serotonin influenced how confident the mice felt that they would receive food when the reward was perceived as being more likely. For example, serotonin made the mice behave as if there was a 95 percent chance of reward in trials that had a 75 percent reward probability. 

According to the model, serotonin stimulation also increased the mice's confidence that they were in a reward trial versus a no-reward trial when the probability of receiving food was harder to predict, which delayed their decision to stop waiting.

The results show that the relationship between the activation of serotonin and subsequent behavior is highly dependent on the animals' perception of the circumstances, which may have implications for understanding how serotonin-boosting drugs affect humans.

 “This could help explain why combined treatment of depression with SSRIs and Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) is more effective than just SSRIs alone,” said Dr. Miyazaki. “The psychological boost of the therapy is enhanced by raised serotonin levels.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Serotonin helps the brain stay patient, new study finds

Researchers at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate...

It has previously been thought that the first people to enter the Americas divided into two ancestral branches, one northern and one southern. The northern branch were the direct ancestors to many Native communities now living in the Canadian east. The southern branch is thought to have given rise to all the populations in Central and South America. However, for the first time, a new study has found that the majority – and potentially all – of the Indigenous peoples of the southern continent retain at least some DNA from the northern branch deep in their genetic history.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, and shows that – while the two branches may have remained separate for thousands of years – they actually came back together either before or during the expansion of people into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-south-american-forests/">South America</a>. Researchers analyzed 91 ancient genomes from sites in California and Canada, which show that after the first peoples separated into two populations between 18,000 and 15,000 years ago, the northern branch migrated east to the great lakes region. The researchers believe this population may have been following the retreating glacial edges of the thawing Ice Age. The southern branch is believed to have continued down the Pacific coast, inhabiting islands along the way.

But analysis of Central and South American genomes reveals that the two branches “reconverged” despite being separated for millennia. The study’s authors say that there must have been one or more “admixture” events between the two populations roughly 13,000 years ago. This blending of lineages occurred either in North America before they expanded south, or as people migrated even deeper into the southern continent.

“It was previously thought that South Americans, and indeed most Native Americans, derived from one ancestry related to the Clovis people,” says Dr. Toomas Kivisild, co-senior author of the study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. The Clovis culture – named for the 13,000-year-old stone tools found near Clovis, New Mexico – were a prehistoric people once believed to be ancestral to all Native Americans. “We now find that all native populations in North, Central and South America also draw genetic ancestry from a northern branch most closely related to Indigenous peoples of eastern Canada. This cannot be explained by activity in the last few thousand years. It is something altogether more ancient,” Kivisild says.

Interestingly, when present day Central and South American populations were analyzed in this study, the highest proportion of northern branch genetics in South America was found very far south in southern Chile. “It’s certainly an intriguing finding, although currently circumstantial – we don’t have ancient DNA to corroborate how early this northern ancestral branch arrived,” explains Dr. Christiana Scheib, who conducted the work while at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and is first author of the study. “It could be evidence for a vanguard population from the northern branch deep in the southern continent that became isolated for a long time – preserving a genetic continuity.”

The researchers believe that more should be done to include Indigenous communities in ancient DNA studies in the Americas. Genetic analysis of ancient people may have an adverse effect for linked Indigenous communities, but engagement work can help mitigate harm to the community and give Indigenous peoples a voice in the research.

“The lab-based science should only be a part of the research. We need to work with Indigenous communities in a more holistic way," says Schieb. “From the analysis of a single tooth, paleogenomics research can now offer information on ancient diet and disease as well as migration. By developing partnerships that incorporate ideas from Native communities, we can potentially generate results that are of direct interest and use to the Indigenous peoples involved.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The first Americans separated in two groups before reconverging

It has previously been thought that the first people to...

A new tool could help fishermen increase their yields while still protecting at-risk species to the benefit of both the fishing industry and conservationists. 

No-fishing zones <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/no-fishing-zones-penguins/">proven successful in the protection</a> and restoration of endangered and threatened species, but they can present a hindrance to fishermen. 

Currently, protection zones are often static and don’t reflect the constant variations in ocean conditions, which means fishermen may not be able to meet their target quotas or end up catching protected species as bycatch anyway. 

Conservationists and fishers have long had difficulty finding common ground between protecting and making a profit. 

Now, a tool called EcoCast could be just the solution both the fishing industry and conservation scientists have been looking for. 

EcoCast was developed by researchers from <a href="https://www.sdsu.edu/">San Diego State University</a> in collaboration with the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) and provides computer-generated maps of zones that could meet fishing quotas while avoiding areas with protected species. 

“This is a really different way of approaching fisheries management," said Rebecca Lewison, a lead scientist on the project. “EcoCast pioneers a way of evaluating both conservation objectives and economic profitability. Instead of trying to shut down U.S. fisheries, EcoCast is trying to help U.S. fishermen fish smarter, allowing them to meet their set quota of target catch and avoid unwanted bycatch.”

A new report outlining EcoCast’s development and potential was recently published in the journal Science Advances. 

EcoCast collects data from the <a href="https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/">NOAA's CoastWatch program</a>, which monitors ocean conditions worldwide with satellites. Fishers will receive up to date reports daily noting where protected fish populations are likely to be located.  

The tool warns fishers of potential bycatch locations for leatherback sea turtles, blue sharks, and California sea lions but could be expanded to include more species and areas. 

“We're harnessing the field of big data so that information on ocean conditions can be of use to fishermen," said Elliott Hazen, the lead author of the new paper.

After demonstrating the way EcoCast could be used by fishermen, the researchers discovered that the tool could still protect species but reduce no-fishing zones, making them two to ten times smaller and giving fishers more pace to meet their quotas. 

“EcoCast represents a new approach to dynamically manage our ocean resources, which is an exciting advance in fisheries management,” said Lewison. “By working directly with fisheries, we can develop tools that can help US fleets to fish smarter.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandett</a>e,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New technology helps fishermen and conservationists both win

A new tool could help fishermen increase their yields while...

In the last million years, humans have gained remarkable cognitive abilities as our brains have grown considerably in size and complexity. Experts at the <a href="http://www.vib.be/Pages/default.aspx">Flanders Institute for Biotechnology</a> are investigating the underlying genetic changes that have promoted the evolution of the human brain.

It is known that ancestral genes are duplicated and the copies evolve into related genes that are referred to as “paralog” genes. In the current study, the researchers were particularly interested in duplicated genes that emerged in both humans and great apes.

“Developmental biologists usually look at changes in the regulation of genes to explain evolutionary differences, and not so much at genes themselves, since we share so many of our genes even with simple organisms such as worms,” explained study lead author Pierre Professor Vanderhaeghen. 

“But gene duplication can lead to novel genes in a species, which could contribute to the rapid emergence of human-specific traits, like the increased size of the brain's cortex.”


Dozens of genes that are “human-specific” have been identified in the human genome, yet their role remains somewhat of a mystery. Many of these genes are believed to be redundant, and are not even properly interpreted in genome databases.

Study co-author Ikuo Suzuki explained why the search for the human-specific genes involved in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-connections-slow-brain-aging/">brain</a> development is complicated.

“One of the main difficulties is distinguishing the expression of ancestral genes (present in all species) and human-specific paralogs (present only in human DNA), as obviously they are extremely similar,” said Suzuki. 

“That is why we had to use a tailored RNAseq analysis for specific and sensitive detection of the human-specific genes of interest. In that way, we could identify a whole repertoire of duplicated genes that are involved in the development of the cerebral cortex in humans.”

The researchers focused on NOTCH2NL, a cluster of human-specific paralogs of the NOTCH2 receptor. This pathway is known to be critical in the development of the brain and other organs.

Brain enlargement is largely attributed to an increase in the number of neurons in the outer part of the brain, the cerebral cortex.

The scientists found that NOTCH2NL genes boosted the production of cortical stem cells, which subsequently generated more neurons.

“Given the paramount importance of the Notch pathway during neurogenesis, we hypothesized that NOTCH2NL genes could act as species-specific regulators of brain size,” said Vanderhaeghen. “It is fascinating to see that genes that arose very recently during evolution interact with probably the oldest signaling pathway among all animals: the Notch pathway.”

“Three human-specific NOTCH2NL genes are located on the first chromosome, in a region that had previously been linked to disease-related changes in brain size: genetic microdeletions in this region are associated with microcephaly and schizophrenia, while microduplications are associated with macrocephaly and autism spectrum disorders,” explained Suzuki. 

“So naturally, we wondered whether these effects could be linked to NOTCH2NL genes.”

An American team of scientists led by David Haussler at the <a href="https://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a> analyzed DNA from patients with microcephaly or macrocephaly and found that the exact regions where genetic deletions and duplications originated also held two of the NOTCH2NL genes.

“Taken together, our study and that of our colleagues in the US point to a selective repertoire of human-specific gene duplications that may act as key controllers of human brain size and function: fewer copies of NOTCH2NL would lead to reduced brain size, while more copies would lead to an increase in brain size,” explained Professor Vanderhaeghen.

He also noted that this same region of DNA contains several other human-specific genes whose function is unknown. “It will be interesting to see if they control other aspects of human brain development.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the human brain grew to be so big

In the last million years, humans have gained remarkable cognitive...

Researchers at <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/">The University of Manchester</a> have developed technology that can recognize individuals by the way they walk. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificia-intelligence-socially-responsible/">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) system was found to accurately identify a person by their walk 99.3 percent of the time.

Fingerprints, facial recognition, and retinal scans are all physical biometrics that are commonly used for security screening. Behavioral biometrics, such as footstep recognition, can detect unique characteristics in a person's natural movement.

“Each human has approximately 24 different factors and movements when walking, resulting in every individual person having a unique, singular walking pattern,” said lead author Omar Costilla Reyes. “Therefore monitoring these movements can be used, like a fingerprint or retinal scan, to recognize and clearly identify or verify an individual.”

While study participants walked, 3D data was collected using floor sensors and high-resolution cameras. The team used this information to create the largest-ever footstep database that includes almost 20,000 footstep signals from 127 study participants.

The experts tested the AI system by using some of the participants and also “imposters” in real-world security scenarios at homes, airport security checkpoints, and in the workplace.

“Focusing on non-intrusive gait recognition by monitoring the force exerted on the floor during a footstep is very challenging,” said Reyes. “That’s because distinguishing between the subtle variations from person to person is extremely difficult to define manually, that is why we had to come up with a novel AI system to solve this challenge from a new perspective.”

The new technology will provide a non-intrusive way for security screening, as individuals will not even have to take off their shoes for the recognition process to work.


“The research is also being developed to address the healthcare problem of markers for cognitive decline and onset of mental illness, by using raw footstep data from a wide-area floor sensor deployable in smart dwellings,” said Reyes. “Human movement can be a novel biomarker of cognitive decline, which can be explored like never before with novel AI systems.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=34">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New technology can identify people by the way they walk

Researchers at The University of Manchester have developed technology that...

Archaeologists have found evidence to dispute the commonly accepted theory of how the first-ever Americans arrived. Scientists now believe that this migratory route may have occurred along Alaska's coast by sea, which is a far cry from the concept that a route was trekked from Siberia to Canada on foot.

At the end of the last ice age, a major passageway opened up between huge ice sheets, exposing land that connected North America to Asia across the Bering Sea. This was believed to be the way the first Americans arrived, by crossing the Bering land bridge.

But now, a research team led by the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo</a> has analyzed rock sediment that reveals a coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-alaskan-hunters-advanced/">Alaskan</a> migration route had become accessible around 17,000 years ago. Recent studies suggest that new settlers may have traveled deeper into the Americas 16,000 years ago, which corroborates the new theory.

“People are fascinated by these questions of where they come from and how they got there,” said study lead author Dr. Jason Briner. “Our research contributes to the debate about how humans came to the Americas. It's potentially adding to what we know about our ancestry and how we colonized our planet.”

“Our study provides some of the first geologic evidence that a coastal migration route was available for early humans as they colonized the New World,” said study first author Alia Lesnek. “There was a coastal route available, and the appearance of this newly ice-free terrain may have spurred early humans to migrate southward.”


Ancient seal bones that date back approximately 17,000 years provide further evidence that the Alaskan coast could have supported human life at this time.

According to Dr. Briner, the path that had opened up in Canada did not develop enough biological diversity to support human life until about 13,000 years ago.

The new migration theory provides an alternative narrative, and may help to solve the mystery of how humans came to the Americas.

“Where we looked at it, the coastal route was not only open - it opened at just the right time,” said study co-author Dr. Charlotte Lindqvist. “The timing coincides almost exactly with the time in human history that the migration into the Americas is thought to have occurred.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human migration to the Americas may have taken a different route

Archaeologists have found evidence to dispute the commonly accepted theory...

Not long after the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs struck 66 million years ago, its crater was soon teeming with life, according to a new study. 

The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-event-darkness/">eliminated 75 percent</a> of life on Earth, including all non-flying dinosaurs. 

After the extinction, it was believed that the rate of recovery at sites closest to where the asteroid hit was much slower due to environmental contaminants like toxic metals released after impact. 

However, researchers from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas, Austin</a> found the exact opposite to be true in a new study examining core samples. Less than a decade after the asteroid hit, the crater was home to microorganisms, and within 30,000 years, a thriving ecosystem. 

The study was published in the journal Nature and the results suggest that recovery after major catastrophic events are influenced by local factors. 

“We found life in the crater within a few years of impact, which is really fast, surprisingly fast," said Chris Lowery, the leader of the research. “It shows that there's not a lot of predictability of recovery in general.”

Extracted during a 2016 expedition, the core section used in the study showed the researchers a detailed map of life in the crater from impact to thousands of years after. The researchers had 130 meters of material to analyze. 

A few years after the asteroid hit, the core samples showed microorganisms inhabited the area, and 30,000 years later, the crater was home to an entire ecosystem. 

The presence of microfossils in the crater led the researchers to theorize that the area was also a habitat for larger species later on down the line. 

“Microfossils let you get at this complete community picture of what's going on,” said Lowery. “You get a chunk of rock and there's thousands of microfossils there, so we can look at changes in the population with a really high degree of confidence ... and we can use that as kind of a proxy for the larger scale organisms.”

While the area close to the crater was recovering at a remarkable rate, the researchers also found that other regions around the world took up to 300,000 years to similarly recover. 

The study has promising implications in examining recovery rates worldwide, particularly from potential climate change-triggered events.

Local factors such as water circulation and interactions between organisms have the most influence on an area or ecosystem’s potential to recover, according to the results.  

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Original art by John Maisano, University of Texas Jackson School of Geosciences

Life recovered not long after the asteroid killed the dinosaurs

Not long after the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> have found that our sweet food cravings may be completely eliminated by manipulating a region of the brain which regulates emotions known as the amygdala.

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brains-fixated-social-lives/">brain</a> has a very complex system which produces memories and emotions, among other thoughts, when tasting food. The current study indicates that this system can be manipulated by isolating, modifying, or removing its units.

Study senior author Dr. Charles S. Zuker is a principal investigator at Columbia's Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute.


“When our brain senses a taste it not only identifies its quality, it choreographs a wonderful symphony of neuronal signals that link that experience to its context, hedonic value, memories, emotions and the other senses, to produce a coherent response,” explained Dr. Zuker.

A team led by Dr. Zucker has formerly demonstrated that specialized cells on the tongue send signals when they encounter one of the five tastes: sweet, bitter, salty, sour, or umami. Once a particular taste is identified by the brain, specific behaviors or reactions are triggered.

The amygdala is a region of brain that is associated with making value judgments about sensory information. The current study was focused on sweet and bitter taste regarding this specific area of the brain.
The previous research by Dr. Zuker confirmed that the amygdala is directly connected to the taste cortex.

Study first author Dr  Li Wang is a postdoctoral research scientist in the Zuker lab.

“Our earlier work revealed a clear divide between the sweet and bitter regions of the taste cortex,” said Dr. Wang. “This new study showed that same division continued all the way into the amygdala. This segregation between sweet and bitter regions in both the taste cortex and amygdala meant we could independently manipulate these brain regions and monitor any resulting changes in behavior.”


A study focused on mice showed that removing the animal’s capacity to crave or dislike certain foods had no influence on its ability to identify the taste.


The team manipulated the mice so that the sweet or bitter connections to the amygdala were turned on or off. When the sweet connections were turned on, the animals responded to water just as if it were sugar. 

By altering the same connections, the researchers discovered they could even change the way that a taste was perceived, turning a sweet taste into a bitter one, or vice versa.


On the other hand, when the experts turned the amygdala connections off, but left the taste cortex unaffected, the mice could still recognize and distinguish sweet from bitter. However, they no longer had a preference for either taste, suggesting that the emotional reaction to either taste had also been turned off.

“It would be like taking a bite of your favorite chocolate cake but not deriving any enjoyment from doing so,” said Dr. Wang. “After a few bites, you may stop eating, whereas otherwise you would have scarfed it down.”


The brain usually associates the identity of a food and the pleasure of its taste, but the study demonstrated that these components can actually be cut off from each other and can be controlled independently.


“Our goal is to piece together how those regions add meaning and context to taste,” said Dr. Wang. “We hope our investigations will help to decipher how the brain processes sensory information and brings richness to our sensory experiences.”

The research may have new implications for treating eating disorders including obesity and anorexia nervosa.

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists working to switch off brain cravings for sweet foods

Researchers at Columbia University have found that our sweet food...

There are actually two different types of water. Many people do not realize that water molecules take on two different forms, yet contain almost identical physical properties. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html">University of Basel</a> is the first to demonstrate that these two different forms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-first-rose-water-earth/">water</a> do not have the same reaction to chemicals. 

Water is a molecule comprised of a single oxygen atom linked to two hydrogen atoms. At this molecular level, water exists in two forms, or isomers.

The two hydrogen atoms that make up water spin in a different relative position in one isomer versus the other. Depending on the orientation of the spins, they are referred to as being either ortho- or para-water.

The nearly-identical physical properties of the isotopes make it challenging to separate them. However, thanks to a technique based on electric fields developed by Professor Jochen Küpper from the <a href="https://www.cfel.de/">Hamburg Center for Free-Electron Laser Science</a>, the team succeeded in its observation. 

The experts managed to separate the two forms of water to examine how they differ in terms of their chemical reactivity, and found distinctive reactions between them.

The researchers determined that there were controlled reactions between the “pre-sorted” water isomers and ultra-cold protonated nitrogen held in a trap. During this process, a diazenylium ion transfers its proton to a water molecule. This reaction is also observed in the chemistry of interstellar space.

According to the study, para-water reacts about 25 percent faster than ortho-water, which can be explained by the nuclear spin that also impacts the rotation of the water molecules. This means that different attractive forces act between the reaction partners. Para-water is able to attract its reaction partner more strongly than the ortho-form, which leads to an increased chemical reactivity. 

“The better one can control the states of the molecules involved in a chemical reaction, the better the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of a reaction can be investigated and understood,” explained study lead author Professor Stefan Willitsch.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

There are actually two different types of water

There are actually two different types of water. Many people...

Attaching human cells to a chicken embryo have allowed scientists to make a major leap forward in their knowledge of how human fetuses develop. The new technique could give medical researchers important new data about fetal health in future experiments – but not everyone is happy about it.

A headline in the Daily Mail called the experiment a “half-man half-chicken abomination.” One Twitter user compared the experiment to the monstrous characters of “The Island of Dr. Moreau.” Others questioned the ethics around creating human-animal hybrids.

It isn’t the first time scientists have created hybrids in a lab, though the technology is relatively new. In 2016, scientists at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> announced that they’d created a “chimera” – an embryo with both pig and human cells.

Even then, the news made some recoil. 

“I find these experiments disturbing. In mythology human-animal chimeras were frightening monsters for good reason,” <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-4161022/Human-animal-hybrid-embryo-created-time.html">David King told the Daily Mail</a>. “I don't recall these scientists asking for the public's opinion before going ahead with such experiments.”

Vice spoke to a medical ethicist about the experiments, but included a manipulated image that showed an artist’s imagining of a <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/jpdmmy/was-it-wrong-for-scientists-to-create-a-pig-human-hybrid-embryo">full-grown human-pig chimera</a> (the actual embryos were destroyed at four weeks old). 

But the Salk Institute team says their research can help provide a way to grow organs tailored specifically for individual transplant patients, saving countless lives by preventing organ rejection or long waits on transplant lists. 

“One reason that human-pig hybrids are a source of anxiety is that they can conjure up a fear of our own death,” Dr. Brock Baston, a psychologist at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/wary-of-human-animal-hybrids-its-probably-just-your-own-moral-superiority-72720">University of Melbourne</a>, wrote for <a href="https://theconversation.com/wary-of-human-animal-hybrids-its-probably-just-your-own-moral-superiority-72720">The Conversation</a> in February 2017. “The possibility that a pig could grow your next pancreas is a cogent reminder that humans are also animals, and this very biological reminder can create existential angst.”

Previous research into chimeras included growing rat pancreatic tissue in mice. Scientists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> have announced their plans to create a sheep-human chimera using stem cells. 

And now, the team of biologists led by Dr. Ali Brivenlau of <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a> has used a chicken embryo infused with human cells to study the process by which organizer cells lay out a fetus.

If people find the research so disturbing, why use human-animal hybrids at all?

Brivenlau’s team grafted human organizer cells onto a chicken embryo because of U.S. laws limiting the use of human embryos and tissue in research.

Organizer cells determine which part of an embryo will become the head, feet, front or back. They’ve been observed in other animals, and experiments on salamanders have demonstrated how “confusing” the organizer cells can lead to conjoined twins or other issues.

But salamanders and humans are different, and scientists wanted to observe how human organizer cells worked. The problem is that legally, scientists cannot experiment with human embryos more than 14 days old, which is too young to study the organizer cell process. Before the experiment, researchers weren’t even sure that humans had organizer cells, or that they worked like the ones seen in fish and amphibians.

“No one knew what happens after the ball of cells attaches itself to the uterus,” Brivenlau told <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hybrid-human-chicken-embryos-illuminate-key-developmental-milestone/">Scientific American</a>.

So they used a chicken embryo, but infused with human cells that would cause it to behave like a human one. The hybrid did not live long enough to hatch.

Learning how the organizer cells work in humans might someday allow scientists to use stem cells to regenerate organs and other tissues. But without the chicken embryo hybrid – or chimeras using other animals – researchers can’t legally study those organizer cells.

“Human embryonic stem cells and eggs have all the information,” Brivanlou told Scientific American. “Everything else is pushing the first domino.”

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05202-0">Nature</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey,<a href="http://www.earth.com"> Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology and Molecular Embryology, <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a>

Human cells in chicken embryo offer major breakthrough

Attaching human cells to a chicken embryo have allowed scientists...

Thanks to a more than $1.3 million grant, woolly mammoths and saber-toothed cats could someday be reborn. A new DNA bank for extinct animal species, known as the CryoArks Biobank, is the first effort to create a zoological biobank in the UK.

The DNA bank will also include samples from endangered species. The collection will allow researchers from all over the UK to study species and learn how they evolved, and what factors played a role in their rise and decline. 

“Strategic sampling and careful storage allows us to measure shifts in key data such as species number and biodiversity and also chart biological adaptations to climate and habitat change,” said Tim Littlewood, who heads the Life Sciences department at the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> in London. The museum will donate DNA samples to the biobank. 

The collection will provide a record of species that lived on Earth, so that they can still be studied even after they’ve disappeared. It may even be able to harvest and preserve DNA from samples of long-dead species kept in museums, allowing them to someday be recreated.

The genetic samples will be preserved at very low temperatures to prevent degradation.

The work will be supported by a £1 million grant – about $1.33 million – from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, which maintains a fund for sponsoring bioinformatics and biological research and resources.

Other institutions that will donate genetic material to the DNA bank are <a href="https://www.nms.ac.uk/">National Museums Scotland</a>, <a href="http://www.rzss.org.uk/">Royal Zoological Society of Scotland</a>, <a href="https://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/">Edinburgh Zoo</a>, <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> and <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>. 

The CryoArks project will also be linked to already-existing biobanks in the UK and Europe, such as the <a href="https://frozenark.org/">Frozen Ark</a>. The project will be led by Dr. Mike Bruford of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a>.

“Collections of tissue and DNA from laboratories, zoos, aquariums and museums will come together under a single structure, providing us with an unparalleled opportunity to better manage and share the vast amount of genetic material we have,” Bruford said in a press release. “It will allow researchers and conservationists to access material they never thought existed – including samples from wild populations and animals that are now extinct.”

—

By Kyla Cathey,<a href="http://www.earth.com"> Earth.com</a> staff writer

New DNA bank could help recreate extinct animal species

Thanks to a more than $1.3 million grant, woolly mammoths...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...