A long-standing enigma surrounding the Crab Pulsar, a neutron star at the center of the Crab Nebula, may have been unraveled by a theoretical astrophysicist from the University of Kansas.&nbsp;



The study, led by Professor Mikhail Medvedev and recently published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.205201" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>, explains the origins of the pulsar’s unique “zebra” pattern, a peculiar banding in high-frequency radio waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-emission-from-the-crab-nebula">Powerful emission from the Crab Nebula</h2>



At the heart of the Crab Nebula, 6,000 light years from Earth, lies the Crab Pulsar, a 12-mile-wide neutron star emitting powerful electromagnetic radiation.



“The emission, which resembles a lighthouse beam, repeatedly sweeps past Earth as the star rotates,” said Medvedev, professor of physics and astronomy at the <a href="https://www.ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a>.&nbsp;



“We observe this as a pulsed emission, usually with one or two pulses per rotation. The specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsar</a> I'm discussing is known as the Crab Pulsar.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zebra-pattern-in-the-crab-nebula">Zebra pattern in the Crab Nebula</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> itself is the remnant of a supernova documented in 1054, with historical records from China describing an unusually bright star in the sky.&nbsp;



However, unlike other pulsars, the Crab Pulsar exhibits a zebra pattern in its high-frequency emissions, making it a singular case in the study of neutron stars.



“This is the only object we know of that produces the zebra pattern, and it only appears in a single emission component from the Crab Pulsar,” Medvedev noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-decades-in-the-making">A puzzle decades in the making</h2>



Since its discovery in 2007, the zebra pattern has stymied researchers. The band spacing in its electromagnetic spectrum, along with its high polarization and stability, defied explanation.&nbsp;



“Researchers proposed various emission mechanisms, but none have convincingly explained the observed patterns,” said Medvedev.



The zebra pattern occurs within the pulsar’s high-frequency interpulse, a range between 5 and 30 gigahertz - frequencies akin to those of a microwave oven. Using innovative techniques, Medvedev’s research links the phenomenon to the plasma surrounding the pulsar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-crab-nebula-s-zebra-pattern">Decoding the Crab Nebula's zebra pattern </h2>



Medvedev’s breakthrough came from studying the Crab Pulsar’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere</a>, a region filled with plasma composed of charged particles like electrons and positrons.&nbsp;



By applying wave optics, Medvedev connected the zebra pattern in the Crab Nebula to diffraction effects caused by the pulsar’s plasma.



“If you have a screen and an electromagnetic wave passes by, the wave doesn’t propagate straight through,” Medvedev explained.&nbsp;



“Wave optics introduces a different behavior - waves bend around obstacles and interfere with each other, creating a sequence of bright and dim fringes due to constructive and destructive interference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plasma-diffraction-patterns-in-the-crab-pulsar">Plasma diffraction patterns in the Crab Pulsar </h2>



In the Crab Pulsar, these diffraction patterns vary based on the plasma’s density and the radio wave’s frequency.



“A typical diffraction pattern would produce evenly spaced fringes if we just had a neutron star as a shield,” Medvedev said. “But here, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-stars-may-hold-the-key-to-understanding-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a>’s magnetic field generates charged particles constituting a dense plasma, which varies with distance from the star.”&nbsp;



“Low frequencies reflect at large radii, casting a bigger shadow, while high frequencies create smaller shadows, resulting in different fringe spacing.”



This plasma diffraction creates the zebra pattern, with the fringe spacing reflecting variations in the density of the plasma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-pulsar-s-magnetosphere">Mapping the pulsar’s magnetosphere</h2>



“This model is the first one capable of measuring those parameters,” Medvedev said. “By analyzing the fringes, we can deduce the density and distribution of plasma in the magnetosphere.”&nbsp;



“It’s incredible because these observations allow us to convert fringe measurements into a density distribution of the plasma, essentially creating an image or performing tomography of the neutron star’s magnetosphere.”



Medvedev’s findings not only clarify the zebra pattern but also open the door to understanding the intricate structure of the Crab Pulsar’s plasma environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The study provides a framework for further investigation of the Crab Pulsar and other neutron stars. With additional data collection and refinements to account for gravitational and polarization effects, the method could yield insights into other young and energetic pulsars.



“The Crab Pulsar is somewhat unique - it’s relatively young by astronomical standards, only about a thousand years old, and highly energetic,” Medvedev said. “But it’s not alone; we know of hundreds of pulsars, with over a dozen that are also young.”



The method may even be applied to binary pulsars, which were instrumental in confirming Einstein’s theory of general relativity. “Known binary pulsars can also be explored with the proposed method,” Medvedev added.&nbsp;



“This research can indeed broaden our understanding and observation techniques for pulsars, particularly young, energetic ones.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-leap-forward-in-astrophysics">A leap forward in astrophysics</h2>



By identifying the role of plasma diffraction in the Crab Pulsar’s zebra pattern, Medvedev’s work bridges a critical gap in astrophysics.&nbsp;



The study not only explains a unique phenomenon but also establishes a technique for probing the magnetospheres of pulsars, advancing our understanding of these extraordinary objects.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University)



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Mysterious signals from Crab Nebula form a zebra pattern

A long-standing enigma surrounding the Crab Pulsar, a neutron star at the center of the Crab Nebula, may have been unraveled by a theoretical astrophysicist from the University of Kansas.&nbsp; The study, led by Professor Mikhail Medvedev and recently published in the journal Physical Review Letters, explains the origins of the pulsar’s unique “zebra” pattern, a peculiar banding in high-frequency radio waves. Powerful emission from the Crab Nebula At the heart of the Crab Nebula, 6,000 light years from Earth, lies the Crab Pulsar, a 12-mile-wide neutron...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/">World Economic Forum</a> (WEF) has revealed that robots will take over 52 percent of the current workforce by 2025. This means that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/robots-respect-personal-space/">machines</a> will be performing in almost twice as many positions over the next eight years. 

According to the WEF’s research, accelerated changes in computers and their processes “could create 133 million new roles in place of 75 million that will be displaced between now and 2022.”

“As technological breakthroughs rapidly shift the frontier between the work tasks performed by humans and those performed by machines and algorithms, global labor markets are undergoing major transformations,” the WEF report states. 

“These transformations, if managed wisely, could lead to a new age of good work, good jobs and improved quality of life for all, but if managed poorly, pose the risk of widening skills gaps, greater inequality and broader polarization.”

While the increasing number of machines in the labor force is expected to create new roles for humans, existing and potential workers will need to upgrade various skills to keep up with the pace of the technological shift.

The researchers explain, “By 2022, no less than 54% of all employees will require significant re- and upskilling. Of these, about 35% are expected to require additional training of up to six months, 9% will require reskilling lasting six to 12 months, while 10% will require additional skills training of more than a year.”

“Skills continuing to grow in prominence by 2022 include analytical thinking and innovation, as well as active learning and learning strategies.”

The experts predict that robots will rapidly replace humans across some fields including client management, accounting, industrial, postal, and secretarial positions. On the other hand,  jobs that require human skills will show an increased demand, such as social media, marketing, and customer service.

“As the Fourth Industrial Revolution unfolds, companies are seeking to harness new and emerging technologies to reach higher levels of efficiency of production and consumption, expand into new markets, and compete on new products for a global consumer base composed increasingly of digital natives,” write the researchers.

“Yet in order to harness the transformative potential of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, business leaders across all industries and regions will 
increasingly be called upon to formulate a comprehensive workforce strategy ready to meet the challenges of this new era of accelerating change and innovation.”

The report by the WEF, <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2018.pdf">The Future of Jobs 2018</a>, details the anticipated technological shift and its impact on the workforce across specific industries and individual countries.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Robots will replace half the current workforce by 2025, WEF says

A new study from the World Economic Forum (WEF) has...

Over the past 30 years, the boundary of the Earth’s tropics has shifted by ten degrees latitude, according to the <a href="https://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/tropical-widening/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).

The tropics make up a large portion of the planet along the equator, and tropical areas are determined by their latitude, precipitation, and climate among other factors. 

Given that around half of the world’s population lives in or near tropical zones, monitoring and predicting this widening is crucial. 

The expanding tropics increases the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-dengue-fever/">tropical diseases like dengue fever</a>, and further widening could adversely impact billions of people. 

There had been concern that the tropics are widening faster than previous models have predicted due to climate change and weather extremes, but a new study has found this is not the case. 

An international collaboration of researchers from <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University Bloomington</a>, the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>, the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> and the <a href="https://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/">Ludwig Maximilians University Munich</a> found that recent models match current widening rates. 

“If we compare the observed trends of how the tropics have widened to modeling trends, it's actually not outside of what the models predict,” said Paul Staten, a co-author of the study which was published in the journal Nature Climate Change. 

The findings put fears that the tropics are widening at an increased rate to rest and although climate change will continue to expand the boundaries of the tropics, it should match projected rates.

“Climate change should continue to expand the tropics over the next several decades,” said Staten. “But the expansion may not continue at the rapid rate we've seen; at times it may even temporarily contract.”

The researchers calculate that the tropics have been widening at an average rate of about 17 miles per decade, although this rate varies wildly depending on year and location. 

There are many factors that are contributing to this widening, according to the researchers, including increased greenhouse gas emissions, ozone depletion, volcanic eruptions, pollution, and natural climate phenomena like El Niño. 

Even though the researchers can’t specifically point to human activities as the main drivers of tropic expansion, as greenhouse gasses increases, human activities will have more and more of an impact on the widening of the tropic boundaries. 

It will be important to keep a steady eye on the widening tropics and to implement policies that help minimize the negative impacts to humans such as influxes in tropical diseases in future. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists confirm that the tropics are widening at predicted rate

Over the past 30 years, the boundary of the Earth’s...

Over the last 200 million years, mammals have thrived on this planet – and have done so through a unique evolutionary pattern. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mammals-evolved-brains-babies/">Mammals</a> originated back when dinosaurs dominated the landscape. And while dinosaurs would evolve to become some of the largest land animals to ever exist, new research shows that mammals went the opposite route.

A recent study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> reports that over the last 200 million years, mammals evolved to shrink in size. Using modern computer analysis to assess mammal skeletons, an international team of scientists focused in on the mammalian jaw.

Every species of vertebrate has a complex lower jaw formed by at least five bones joined together… except for modern mammals. The mammalian jaw is just a single bone that bears teeth. Through the course of evolution, fossils show that the lower jaw of mammalian ancestors became simplified, and formed a new jaw joint while also moving some bones to the middle ear to help with hearing.

The researchers wanted to know how it was possible for these past mammalian species to simplify and restructure their lower jaw, while still being able to feed and hear. Their study involved X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning of many fossil skulls and lower jaws, which aided in generating digital models that they put through numerous computer simulations. The simulations showed that the smaller size of the mammals helped reduce stress in the jaw bones when they were eating, although they were still powerful enough to capture and kill prey – such as insects.

“Our results provide a new explanation of how the mammalian jaw evolved over 200 million years ago,” says Dr. Stephan Lautenschlager, a lecturer at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> and lead author of the study. “Getting very small appears to have been crucial for our mammalian ancestors. This allowed them to reduce the stresses in the jaw during feeding and made the restructuring of the jaw bones possible.”

Mammals’ jaw joint evolution has been the topic of debate for decades, but this study may have just found the answer. 

“Using computational methods we can offer explanations to how our mammalian ancestors were able to maintain a working jaw while co-opting bones into a complex sound detection system,” says study leader Emily Rayfield, a professor at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. “Our research is about testing ideas of what makes mammals unique among the animal kingdom, and how this may have come about.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Bob Nicholls, <a href="http://paleocreations.com/">Paleocreations.com</a>

Mammals evolved to shrink in size and it was key to their success

Over the last 200 million years, mammals have thrived on...

The evolution of complex patterns in nature, such as how <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-spinal-cord-injuries/">zebrafish</a> develop their stripes or how leopards change their spots, has baffled scientists for many years. Researchers at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> have now created a model that is shedding new light on this mystery. 

By applying just a few parameters to the new mathematical model, the experts can simulate the complex wing patterns of a large group of insects. The system will provide scientists with a framework for analyzing the evolution of diverse tissue patterns. 

The research team compiled a database with more than 500 specimens from 215 different species of dragonflies and damselflies. Next, the experts developed an algorithm to distinguish between each individual shape created by the intersecting veins located on the wings of the insects. 

The study revealed that, while the wing patterns are unique, the distribution of the patterns is remarkably similar across families and species. Using these similarities, the researchers built a mathematical model to represent how these patterns may be formed.


[caption id="attachment_1647564" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/wings.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1647564" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/wings-1024x610.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="417" /></a> Image Credit: Harvard University[/caption]

According to the experts, it is likely that an unknown inhibitory signal is transmitted from multiple signaling centers in the regions between the primary veins. They propose that these inhibitory zones emerge randomly and repel each other, which would prevent secondary veins from growing in certain areas. When the wings stretch out as they develop, the zones may form complex geometric patterns as the veins grow around them

By testing the model using many different insect species, the researchers have discovered that it can produce life-like simulations of wings.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Harvard University

How do insects develop different intricate wing patterns?

The evolution of complex patterns in nature, such as how...

Having to scrape ice off car windshields and windows can add time to one’s already-troublesome winter commute, and can even be quite dangerous.

Research has also shown that frost can cost billions of dollars in taxpayer money due to ice build-up causing power outages, flight delays, and building damage. 

Current de-icing methods like rock salt, antifreeze chemicals, and special anti-frost treatments are not always effective and are sometimes very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/road-salt-runoff-killing-twin-city-lakes/">harmful to the environment</a>. 

Runoff from salt and chemicals can seep into the soil and waterways and salt is also harmful to animals. 

But now, researchers from <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> have developed a novel passive solution to the frost problem that’s chemical-free and keeps 90 percent of surfaces dry. 

“Frosting is a big issue, and researchers have been working to solve this problem for years,
 said Farzad Ahmadi, the lead author of the study detailing the new anti-frost technique. “For this project, we're not using any kind of special coating, chemicals, or energy to overcome frost. Instead, we're using the unique chemistry of ice itself to prevent frost from forming.”

[caption id="attachment_1647548" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/frost.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1647548" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/frost-1024x680.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="465" /></a> Image Credit: Virginia Tech[/caption]

The study was published in the journal ACS Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces.

The researchers used untreated aluminum and patterned it with stripes on a microscopic array of elevated grooves. These grooves are “sacrificial areas” where the ice can form by pulling moisture out of the air and allowing it to form ice on the stripes. 

All other surrounding surfaces are then kept frost free and the sacrificial grooves only take up ten percent of the entire area. The researchers say that the method would work on any surface which is a part of its appeal. 

“The real power of this concept is that the ice stripes themselves are the chemistry, which means the material we use is irrelevant,” said Jonathan Boreyko, an assistant professor in the Virginia Tech Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics. “As long as you have that proper pattern of sacrificial ice, the material you use could be virtually anything. So there are a lot of possibilities.”

The new technology could help keep everything from airplane wings to car windshields to heat pumps and fans from being covered in ice. It would also ensure that harmful antifreeze chemicals won’t damage the environment. 

“The good thing about ice is that it's environmentally friendly,” said Ahmadi. “It's not like other chemicals or even salt, which not only stick around but also get diluted or watered down over time.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.co">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New, clean anti-frost solution keeps surfaces 90 percent ice-free

Having to scrape ice off car windshields and windows can...

Using data from more than 1.5 million survey respondents, researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have identified  four distinct clusters of personality types, including average, reserved, self-centered,  and role model. The research challenges the existing models that are commonly used in psychology.

The findings of the study, which was led by Luís Amaral of the <a href="https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/">McCormick School of Engineering</a>, could be of particular interest to hiring managers and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/college-freshmen-mental-health/">mental health</a> care providers.

Study co-author William Revelle is a professor of Psychology in the <a href="https://www.weinberg.northwestern.edu/">Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences</a>.

“People have tried to classify personality types since Hippocrates' time, but previous scientific literature has found that to be nonsense,” said Professor Revelle. “Now, these data show there are higher densities of certain personality types," said Revelle, who specializes in personality measurement, theory and research.”

The study was focused on the responses from over 1.5 million participants in various personality questionnaires, including the myPersonality project and the BBC Big Personality Test. In the current study, the team used an alternative computational approach to analyze the data. 

“The thing that is really, really cool is that a study with a dataset this large would not have been possible before the web,” said Amaral. “Previously, maybe researchers would recruit undergrads on campus, and maybe get a few hundred people. Now, we have all these online resources available, and now data is being shared."

From the massive dataset, the experts used various algorithms to map the Big 5 personality traits - neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness - and four main personality types emerged. 

First, there are those who are high in neuroticism and extraversion, while low in openness. These are the “average” type of individuals. Study first author Martin Gerlach explained, “I would expect that the typical person would be in this cluster.

People who are emotionally stable, but not open or neurotic, fall into the category of “reserved.” These individuals are described as being somewhat agreeable and conscientious and not particularly extraverted.

“Role models” are individuals with low levels of neuroticism and high levels of all of the other primary traits. The likelihood that someone is a role model increases dramatically with age. According to the experts, women are more likely than men to be role models.

“These are people who are dependable and open to new ideas,” said Amaral. “These are good people to be in charge of things. In fact, life is easier if you have more dealings with role models.”

“Self-centered” people exhibit high levels of extraversion with low levels of openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. “These are people you don't want to hang out with,” said Professor Revelle. 

Among both men and women, the number of self-centered individuals drops with age.


In addition to serving as an aid for mental health service providers, Amaral said the study findings could be helpful for hiring managers looking for the right employee or for single people looking for a partner who is a good fit.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nathumbehav">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts introduce four newly-identified personality types

Using data from more than 1.5 million survey respondents, researchers...

A research team led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> has conducted a thorough investigation into the potential impacts of transitioning from coal to natural gas in China. The study has examined the possible effects on air quality, carbon mitigation, and water stress by the year 2020.

As China attempts to shift from coal to natural gas, the country is considering a variety of solutions, including domestic and imported gas or the creation of synthetic gas from coal.

The study has revealed that the use of coal-based synthetic natural gas (SNG) would cause a spike in both carbon emissions and water demand, particularly in regions of China that already face high levels of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chinas-carbon-emissions-decline/">carbon emissions</a> and water insecurity.

Overall, the researchers found that a transition from coal to other natural gas sources would produce significant environmental benefits when methane leakage is controlled. However, the extent of improvements for air quality and water scarcity greatly depend on where the natural gas is being used as an alternative.

This study is one of the first to investigate  the interactions between air quality, carbon emissions, and water use in both energy production and consumption. 


“Assessing air quality, carbon emissions, and water scarcity impacts across local, regional, and global levels is crucial to capturing potential co-benefits while avoiding unintended consequences," said study first author Yue Qin.

Denise L. Mauzerall is a professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Public and International Affairs at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and the School of Applied Science and Engineering. Professor Mauzerall is also the study's lead investigator.

“Although there is a lot of discussion on the need for a clean energy supply transition, in what sector the clean energy is used and what it is displacing is also critical in determining air quality, carbon, and water co-benefits,” said Professor Mauzerall. “While the paper focuses on China, its general conclusions are widely applicable.”

The researchers ultimately found that, with the exception of coal-based SNG, replacing coal with natural gas will benefit air quality, carbon mitigation, and water stress. 

On the other hand, SNG increases carbon emissions and water consumption in China's northwestern provinces, which already suffer from high per capita carbon emissions and severe water scarcity.

“Importantly, as the regions with high air pollution do not overlap with regions with high water stress, and substitution in different sectors bring different levels of air quality and water impacts, there are trade-offs in the magnitude of air quality and water improvements,” said Qin.

“Our findings show why it is critical to understand the underlying air-carbon-water synergies and trade-offs so that China, as well as other developing countries, can properly design clean energy transition pathways according to their local environmental priorities.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natsustain">Nature Sustainability</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Energy production methods must consider environmental trade-offs

A research team led by Princeton University has conducted a...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California-Berkeley</a> have discovered that bacteria which are commonly found in the human gut produce electricity. While experts have previously identified electrogenic bacteria in exotic environments such as mines, Listeria monocytogenes have been found to generate electricity using a completely different technique.

Many of these sparking bacteria are part of the human gut microbiome. Others are pathogenic, like the bug that causes the foodborne illness listeriosis. The bacteria that cause gangrene, Clostridium perfringens, and some disease-causing streptococcus bacteria also produce <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/electricity-spiders-balloon-air/">electricity</a>.

Study co-author Dan Portnoy is a professor of Molecular and Cell Biology and Plant and Microbial Biology at UC Berkeley.

“The fact that so many bugs that interact with humans, either as pathogens or in probiotics or in our microbiota or involved in fermentation of human products, are electrogenic -- that had been missed before,” said Portnoy. “It could tell us a lot about how these bacteria infect us or help us have a healthy gut.”

The findings could also help to create living batteries from microbes. This type of bioenergetic technology could ultimately be used to generate electricity from bacteria in waste treatment plants.

Bacteria produce electricity to remove electrons produced during metabolism and support energy production, which is the same reason that we breathe oxygen.

To transfer electrons out of the cell, a series of special chemical reactions is required. This is referred to as the extracellular electron transfer chain, which carries the electrons as a tiny electrical current.

The newly-identified electron transfer system is simpler than the transfer chain that was previously established, and seems to be used by bacteria only when necessary - possibly when oxygen levels are low. The simpler electron transfer chain has been found in bacteria with a single cell wall that live in an environment with lots of flavin, which are derivatives of vitamin B2.

“It seems that the cell structure of these bacteria and the vitamin-rich ecological niche that they occupy makes it significantly easier and more cost effective to transfer electrons out of the cell,” said study first author Sam Light. “Thus, we think that the conventionally studied mineral-respiring bacteria are using extracellular electron transfer because it is crucial for survival, whereas these newly identified bacteria are using it because it is ‘easy.’”

Light is especially interested in studying this system in Lactobacillus, bacteria that are critical in the production of cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut. He suggests that the electron transport plays a role in the taste of cheese and sauerkraut.

“This is a whole big part of the physiology of bacteria that people didn't realize existed, and that could be potentially manipulated,” said Light.


The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Amy Cao graphic. Copyright UC Berkeley

Your gut bacteria actually produce electricity in a unique way

Scientists at the University of California-Berkeley have discovered that bacteria...

Toxic contaminants like fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and fuel emissions all present hazards to local ecosystems, but cleanup efforts can be thwarted by a compound that until now, scientists were unable to counter. 

Sulfite reduction is a common oxidation-reduction compound from bacteria that hinders the clean up of environmental contaminants like nitrates or arsenate. These can seep into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-groundwater-leak/">soil, watershed, and environment</a> as a byproduct of different agricultural operations and other human activities. 

Naturally occurring sulfite can also make eliminating toxic compounds difficult as well. Removing sulfite requires a complex chemical reaction that reduces the compound to sulfide, something that had long eluded chemists. 

But now, researchers from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> developed a synthetic enzyme that effectively remove sulfites.

“Many biochemical reactions require a series of enzymes working together to carry out multistep reactions, but sulfite reduction uses only one enzyme, called sulfite reductase, that does all of the work,” said Yi Lu, a professor of chemistry at Illinois. “Nature created a very complex enzyme structure to handle this chemical reaction, and researchers have not been able to replicate it until now.” 

The solution to the puzzle, according to the results published in the journal Science, was to stop looking at ways to replicate the catalyst that jump-starts the process for changing sulfite to sulfide and instead focus on creating synthetic interactions that would be up to the challenge.

In order to create a synthetic sulfite reductase, the researchers developed an enzyme with two different iron-containing centers linked together. The enzyme was used as a scaffold to anchor the iron clusters and sulfur atoms in the hopes that it would create the catalyst reaction necessary. 

“I believe we were successful because we focused on the functionality of our synthetic enzyme, not rebuilding the simplest possible structure,” said Evan Mirts, a chemistry graduate student at Illinois. “We accounted for interactions that are typically thought of as secondary, or less important to the overall redox reaction. It turns out that these interactions are extremely important.”

The synthetic enzyme could one day be used for difficult environmental cleanup projects targeting toxic waste. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic cleanup made easier thanks to a new synthetic enzyme

Toxic contaminants like fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and fuel emissions...

As the autumn season begins, more and more birds will begin to be making their annual migrations. September is a peak month for bird migrations and billions of birds will soon be flocking to the skies to begin their journey.

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> developed a new bird migration forecast model that could help with bird conservation and predict major bird migrations as soon as seven days beforehand.

These journeys, although critical for the birds, are not easy. It’s a taxing flight and human activities have only made it worse. City lights <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/light-pollution-luring-birds/">can distract birds</a> or they can end up crashing into tall buildings, cell towers and power lines as urban areas expand, and loss of habitats for the birds means fewer feeding stops along the way.

Sometimes when the birds reach their destination, they are too tired to mate or take longer to restore their energy and mating is put off until later, leaving fewer resources for the young. 

Having a way to predict migrations and identify regions where major populations of birds are expected could help improve conservation efforts and make the journey less perilous. 

To do this, the researchers used bird migration data and weather forecasting radars to help create a system for forecasting bird migrations. 

“Most of our songbirds migrate at night, and they pay close attention to the weather,” said Benjamin Van Doren, the lead author of a study outlining the bird migration forecast model. “Our model converts weather forecasts into bird migration forecasts for the continental United States.”

The study was published in the journal Science. 

The researchers quantified 23 years of spring bird migrations data across the United States using 143 weather radars.

Then, the team trained a machine learning computer model to predict bird migrations around the US based on atmospheric conditions. The model was able to explain eighty percent of variation in bird migration intensity. The researchers were also able to project nightly migratory movements across the country. 

“We used 12 variables to model the distribution of migratory birds across the continent,” said Van Doren. “Temperature was the most important variable. Migration intensity was greatest on warm nights, probably because warm temperatures generally bring favorable winds and the emergence of leaves and insects.

Bird forecasts based on this research have been available to the public for some time and the forecasts, which are found on the website <a href="http://birdcast.info/">birdcast.info</a>, are updated every six months. The forecasts also project bird migration movements up to three days in advance. 

“The capacity to forecast where and when birds are likely to be flying is instrumental for conservation goals,” said  Kyle Horton, a co-author of the study. “Radars have been illuminating the movement of birds for nearly 75 years -- there are still integral discoveries to be made. With migration coming into full swing, we're excited to deliver autumn forecasts for the first time.”
--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bird migration forecasts can help back conservation efforts

As the autumn season begins, more and more birds will...

According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>, mainland Britain was created by the collision of three ancient land masses. For centuries, scientists have thought this region was formed from the impact of only two continental masses, Avalonia and Laurentia, more than 400 million years ago.

Based on an extensive analysis of mineral properties found in rocks across Devon and Cornwall, geologists have found evidence that a third landmass known as Armorica also contributed to the development of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hedgehog-populations-decline-uk/">British mainland</a>.

“This is a completely new way of thinking about how Britain was formed,” said study lead author Dr. Arjan Dijkstra. “It has always been presumed that the border of Avalonia and Armorica was beneath what would seem to be the natural boundary of the English Channel. But our findings suggest that although there is no physical line on the surface, there is a clear geological boundary which separates Cornwall and south Devon from the rest of the UK.”

Dr Dijkstra and postgraduate student Callum Hatch visited 22 sites in Devon and Cornwall that were left exposed following underground volcanic eruptions and other events. Using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, the team performed a detailed chemical analysis on rock samples collected from each site.

Next, the experts conducted an isotopic analysis to examine the elements strontium and neodymium, which provide scientists with information about the long history of the rocks. 

The experts identified a clear boundary that divides areas geologically linked to England and Wales to the north from areas that are geologically tied to France and mainland Europe to the south. According to the researchers, this could explain an abundance of tin and tungsten, which are metals commonly found in mainland Europe, in the far southwest region of England but not in the rest of the UK.


“We always knew that around 10,000 years ago you would have been able to walk from England to France,” said Dr. Dijkstra. “But our findings show that millions of years before that, the bonds between the two countries would have been even stronger. It explains the immense mineral wealth of South West England, which had previously been something of a mystery, and provides a fascinating new insight into the geological history of the UK.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists find new clues about how Britain was formed

According to a new study from the University of Plymouth,...

Researchers have investigated the potential uses of fungi and determined that these organisms could help to address some of the biggest environmental issues that we are facing today. 

For example, the experts identified one fungus species that can break down <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tons-plastic-trash-great-lakes/">plastics</a> such as polyester polyurethane in a matter of weeks, which is a process that normally takes hundreds of years.

Professor Kathy Willis is a biologist at the <a href="https://www.kew.org/">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a>.

“The potential of fungi to address clearly critical problems we have is very strong,” said Professor Willis. “This report represents the first time the understanding of fungi is brought together in one document.”

“This is an incredibly diverse, yet hidden kingdom. Our knowledge of fungi is so small in comparison to plants and animals. And yet in terms of addressing global challenges going forward, fungi may well hold many of the answers.”

The experts have estimated that there are around three million species of fungi. Although not very much is known about these organisms, the researchers believe that fungi will ultimately be used in many important eco-friendly applications, such as the development of sustainable biofuels.

In addition, one fungus species that was uncovered in Pakistan may revolutionize the way that plastic pollution is tackled. 


This unprecedented investigation into the state of the world's fungi has found that many species are threatened by habitat loss and climate change, which could have far-reaching consequences for wildlife and ecosystems that depend on them.

“They are the Jekyll and Hyde, because they are important for all aspects of life on Earth but they are also some of the most devastating organisms to life on Earth.”

Professor Willis also explained that the exact threats to fungi are not yet understood, and more research is needed to anticipate the future impacts of climate change.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Special fungus can break down plastic in a matter of weeks

Researchers have investigated the potential uses of fungi and determined...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...