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From the tiniest fluctuations after the Big Bang, gravity has orchestrated the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets, creating the vast cosmic web we see today.



Gravity isn't just what keeps us grounded -- it's been shaping the universe since its earliest days. Recent studies have provided the most precise tests of gravity on the grandest scales imaginable. 



By examining how cosmic structures have grown over the past 11 billion years, scientists have confirmed that gravity behaves just as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-glitch-in-gravity-expands-the-theory-of-general-relativity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Einstein's theory</a> of general relativity predicts, even across billions of light-years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desi-tracks-gravity-over-11-billion-years">DESI tracks gravity over 11 billion years</h2>



Pauline Zarrouk, a cosmologist at the French National Center for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>) working at the Laboratory of Nuclear and High-Energy Physics (LPNHE), has been exploring this cosmic evolution.



In collaboration with the international team behind the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (<a href="https://www.desi.lbl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI</a>), Zarrouk and her colleagues have traced how cosmic structures grew over the past 11 billion years.



Using data from DESI, the researchers provided the most precise test to date of gravity on the largest scales. 



"General relativity has been very well tested at the scale of solar systems, but we also needed to test that our assumption works at much larger scales," Zarrouk explained. 



"Studying the rate at which galaxies formed lets us directly test our theories and, so far, we're lining up with what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general relativity</a> predicts at cosmological scales."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-is-smiling-from-the-grave">Einstein is smiling from the grave</h2>



Their findings confirm that gravity behaves as Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts, even across the immense distances of the universe. 



This validation supports our leading model of the cosmos and narrows down alternative theories of gravity that have been proposed to explain puzzling observations, like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accelerating expansion</a> of the universe often attributed to dark energy.



The study also sheds light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gravity-search-south-pole-neutrinos-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutrinos</a> -- the elusive particles that zip through space almost undetected. 



Previous experiments determined that the combined mass of the three types of neutrinos should be at least 0.059 electron volts (eV/c²). For perspective, an electron has a mass of about 511,000 eV/c². 



DESI's results suggest that the total mass of neutrinos should be less than 0.071 eV/c², tightening the constraints on these mysterious particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desi-gravity-and-cosmic-structure">DESI, gravity, and cosmic structure</h2>



"Both our BAO results and the full-shape analysis are spectacular," said Dragan Huterer, a professor at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> and co-lead of DESI's group interpreting the cosmological data. 



"This is the first time that DESI has looked at the growth of cosmic structure. We're showing a tremendous new ability to probe modified gravity and improve constraints on models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>. And it's only the tip of the iceberg."



DESI is no ordinary telescope. Mounted on the Nicholas U. Mayall 4-meter Telescope at <a href="https://kpno.noirlab.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kitt Peak National Observatory</a>, it's capable of capturing light from 5,000 galaxies at once. 



Funded by the DOE Office of Science, the project is now in its fourth year of surveying the sky and aims to collect data from roughly 40 million galaxies and quasars by the time it's done.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Testing gravity</a> at cosmic scales is crucial. While Einstein's theory has passed every test within our solar system, there's always the possibility that it might behave differently across the vastness of space. 



By confirming that gravity acts as expected over billions of light-years, scientists can be more confident in their models of how the universe has evolved. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-the-desi-data">Interpreting the DESI data</h2>



<a href="https://profiles.utdallas.edu/mishak">Dr. Mustapha Ishak-Boushaki</a>, a professor of physics in the <a href="https://nsm.utdallas.edu/">School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics</a> at UT Dallas, co-led the DESI working group that interpreted the cosmological data.



“For this round of DESI results, I focused my efforts at UT Dallas on conducting a large part of the analysis on gravity, which puts constraints on how matter in the universe moves and how large-scale structures, such as clusters of galaxies, evolve,” explained Ishak-Boushaki. 



“The results from DESI, combined with datasets from other experiments, are consistent with general relativity theory operating at cosmic scales, although they do not completely exclude other theories of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/central-theory-of-quantum-gravity-is-modeled-in-the-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modified gravity</a>.”



The new results provide an extended analysis of <a href="https://news.utdallas.edu/science-technology/desi-findings-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI’s first year of data</a>, which in April contributed to the largest 3D map of the universe to date and revealed hints that <a href="https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2024/04/04/desi-first-results-make-most-precise-measurement-of-expanding-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy might be evolving</a> over time.



“The latest analysis is also consistent with our previous findings that give preference to the theory that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a> is not constant, but dynamic, which is a very important result for cosmic acceleration,” Ishak-Boushaki said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-this-happen">How did this happen?</h2>



The collaboration is currently analyzing data from the first three years and expects to present updated measurements of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-dark-energy-comes-from-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a> and the universe's expansion history by spring 2025. 



The recent results align with earlier hints that dark energy might be evolving over time, adding to the excitement for what's to come.



"Dark matter makes up about a quarter of the universe, and dark energy makes up another 70 percent, and we don't really know what either one is," said Mark Maus, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berkeley Lab</a> and UC Berkeley who worked on theory and validation modeling pipelines for the new analysis. 



"The idea that we can take pictures of the universe and tackle these big, fundamental questions is mind-blowing."



The study utilized nearly 6 million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-quasars-in-the-early-universe-cannot-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies and quasars</a>, allowing researchers to peer up to 11 billion years into the past. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-desi-and-gravity">What's next for DESI and gravity?</h2>



To sum it all up, with just one year of data, DESI has made the most precise overall measurement of the growth of cosmic structures, surpassing previous efforts that took decades.



The DESI project is remarkable not just for its technological capabilities but also for its collaborative spirit. 



With over 900 researchers from more than 70 institutions worldwide, it's a testament to what can be achieved when the global scientific community comes together.



As we await the next round of results, one can't help but wonder: What other secrets of the universe are waiting to be uncovered? 



The quest to understand gravity, dark matter, and dark energy continues, and each new discovery brings us a little closer to unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos.



The full study was published in <a href="https://data.desi.lbl.gov/doc/papers/">several scientific journals</a>.



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New 'mind-blowing' gravity discovery proves Einstein right again

From the tiniest fluctuations after the Big Bang, gravity has orchestrated the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets, creating the vast cosmic web we see today. Gravity isn't just what keeps us grounded -- it's been shaping the universe since its earliest days. Recent studies have provided the most precise tests of gravity on the grandest scales imaginable. By examining how cosmic structures have grown over the past 11 billion years, scientists have confirmed that gravity behaves just as Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts, even across...

The holidays are coming up, and it’s more likely than not that you’ll soon be standing over a table full of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-restaurants-unhealthy-options/">food</a>, brain firing with anticipation and building the perfect plate in your mind before you dig in. In these situations, we have to make quick decisions about which dishes to try and how much of each to take. While you may think these decisions are made mainly by your stomach, neuroscientists at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have now found the region of your brain that is strongly linked to food preference decisions.

The research team wanted to find out how the brain determines what to eat and how much of it to eat when an individual has several good food options. Even if there are similar foods available that we desire somewhat equally, the favorite dish will likely be eaten faster and with bigger bites.

In their study, the scientists gave rats two similar sugary drinks. The rats preferred the drink made with sucrose over the one made with maltodextrin – so that when they receive sucrose, they’d lick it up faster. Over the course of multiple days, the rats were given either one drink or the other while the researchers mapped their brain activity at the exact moment the animals realized which drink they received. Thus, the neuroscientists could pinpoint the neurons that registered excitement for sucrose, and the disappointment for maltodextrin.

“We found a region in the brain that reflects our perception of food in a strikingly dominant way,” says lead author David Ottenheimer, a Johns Hopkins University graduate student studying neuroscience. “The level of brain activity we saw exceeded our expectations by far.” The neurons that were activated are in a region called the ventral pallidum, an area that has long been associated with reward and pleasure perception – but always considered to be in more of a secondary role.

The researchers then presented the rats with a different set of options – either the maltodextrin drink or plain water. They found that when the rats got maltodextrin, these neurons fired like they had for sucrose. These results indicate that the brain area is making context-dependent decisions, responding to the best food option at any given time.

“Because the signaling by ventral pallidum neurons changes immediately when the rat changes his ranking of which flavor is his favorite, we see this response as providing a real-time readout of what you like best from currently available options,” says senior author <a href="https://pbs.jhu.edu/directory/patricia-janak/">Patricia Janak</a>, a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Neuroscience.

Although more research is needed to figure out what the signaling in this region of the brain really means, the team believes their study could be key to developing therapies and treatments that encourage healthy eating. “Our data suggest that further investigation of ventral pallidum will be critical for understanding how we make decisions about eating,” says Ottenheimer. “If we want to figure out why a food can be exciting in one scenario and disappointing in another, ventral pallidum could be the key.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What determines our food preferences and decisions?

The holidays are coming up, and it’s more likely than...

A new study has found that the herpes virus has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease, and that people with severe herpes benefit from taking antiviral drugs as they decrease the risk of developing dementia. 

A new paper by Ruth Itzhaki, a professor at the <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a>, was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00324/ful">Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience </a>and reviews 25 years of research examining the link between herpes and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a>. 

Itzhaki is a leading expert on Alzheimer’s and it’s connection to HSV1, the Herpes Simplex Virus 1. 

Herpes viruses remain in a person’s immune cells, and neurons for the entirety of their life and flare-ups or reactivation of the virus can happen when stress or illness puts a strain on the body’s immune system. 

It’s been theorized and extensively studied that because HSV1 infects neurons, during reactivation, the infected neurons cause mental deterioration. 

“Viral DNA is located very specifically within plaques in postmortem brain tissue from Alzheimer's sufferers,” said Itzhaki. “The main proteins of both plaques and tangles accumulate also in HSV1-infected cell cultures - and antiviral drugs can prevent this.”

Carriers of the gene variant APOE-ε4 are particularly at risk of developing Alzheimer's later on in life. 

“HSV1 could account for 50% or more of Alzheimer's disease cases,” said Itzhaki, “Our theory is that in APOE-ε4 carriers, reactivation is more frequent or more harmful in HSV1-infected brain cells, which as a result accumulate damage that culminates in development of Alzheimer's.” 

To prove this, Itzhaki analyzed data from <a href="https://nhird.nhri.org.tw/en/">Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database</a>. 

The database is appealing to researchers like Itzhaki because 99.9 percent of Taiwan’s population is enrolled in it and there is a lot to be learned about microbial infections and diseases from such a large sample. 

Three studies were published in 2017 and 2018 using the National Health Insurance Research Database to investigate the development of senile dementia and the success of treatments administered to patients with obvious signs of HSV1 infection. 

“The striking results include evidence that the risk of senile dementia is much greater in those who are infected with HSV, and that anti-herpes antiviral treatment causes a dramatic decrease in number of those subjects severely affected by HSV1 who later develop dementia,” said Itzhaki.

Itzhaki notes that the results only apply to patients with severe HSV1 infections but that over 150 publications provide evidence to support the theory that HSV1 influences Alzheimer's. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New study shows that herpes can increase risk of Alzheimer’s

A new study has found that the herpes virus has...

Kisspeptin, a hormone responsible for regulating reproduction, has a much stronger influence on regulating mood and brain activity than previously realized. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> studied kisspeptin and its effect on brain activity during the brain’s resting state, something that had never been done before. 

“Although we have previously investigated how this hormone affects the brain when it is in an active state, this is the first time we've demonstrated it also affects the brain in its baseline, resting state,” said Waljit Dhillo, the senior author of the study. “These insights suggest the hormone could one day be used to treat conditions such as low sex drive or depression.” 

Think of the resting state like a car in neutral. It’s a period when the brain isn’t concentrating on a task, and studies that delve into the brain’s resting state are providing new insights into the active <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/switch-turns-brain-off-sleep/">brain</a> and psychological disorders. 

Kisspeptins were discovered along with the gene that produces them, KISS1, in 1996. KISS1 and kisspeptin are named after <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/landia/PIIS2213-8587(13)70098-6.pdf">Hershey’s Kisses</a> because the gene was discovered in Hershey, Pennsylvania. 

Studies have shown that kisspeptin <a href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physiol.00009.2010">is a “master regulator” of reproduction</a> and the researchers wanted to better understand how the hormone influences brain activity. 

According to the researchers, the study could help pave the way for new treatments for problems like low sex drive. 

For the study, 29 men were given a kisspeptin infusion and shown an array of themed images while they were in an MRI scanner. The images were either sexual, negative, or neutral in nature and the researchers monitored brain activity as the participants viewed the images. 

In a second visit, the participants were given a placebo and asked to take part in the same MRI test, but the men didn’t know that they had not been given the hormone. 

The results were published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation Insight, and the researchers found links between the hormone and decreased sexual aversion and increased sexual arousal during resting states. 

“Our findings help unravel the many and complex roles of the naturally-occurring hormone kisspeptin, and how it orchestrates reproductive hormones as well as sexual and emotional function,” said Alexander Comninos, the first author of the study. “Psychosexual problems, such as low sex drive, affect up to one in three people, and can have a devastating effect on a person's, and a couple's, wellbeing. These findings open avenues for kisspeptin as a future treatment for these problems, although there is a lot of work still to be done.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Imperial College London

Hormone that regulates reproduction could treat low sex drive

Kisspeptin, a hormone responsible for regulating reproduction, has a much...

For many decades, scientists have explored the theory of panspermia, the idea that life itself can be transferred through <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/life-recovered-asteroid-dinosaurs/">asteroids</a> and other space objects. Panspermia depends upon whether the microorganisms and chemicals that are necessary for life could survive being transported from one stellar system to another.

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/">Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics</a> (CfA) have recently investigated the possibility of panspermia on a galactic scale. The study revealed that “the entire Milky Way could potentially be exchanging biotic components across vast distances.”

Study lead author Idan Ginsburg told <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/">Universe Today</a>: “We expect most objects to likely be rocky, but in principle they could also be icy (cometary) in nature.”

“Regardless of whether they are rocky or icy, they can be ejected from their host system and travel potentially thousands of light-years away. In particular the center of the galaxy can act as a powerful engine to seed the Milky Way.”

The team constructed a model to estimate how many icy or rocky bodies may reach a new star system, as well as the likelihood that any life contained on them would survive.

“We estimate the capture rate of objects ejected from planetary systems over the entire phase space as well as time,” wrote the study authors. “We further take into account the number of stars that an interstellar object traverses, as well as the scale height and length of the Milky Way's disk.”

The results of the study suggest that life could, in fact, be spread throughout the galaxy that contains our solar system.

“It’s like billiards,” said Ginsburg. “You hit the cue ball and it hits the other balls, and beside just transferring momentum it also spreads life, and then life spreads across the whole table, which is the galaxy.”

The researchers concluded that up to 100 million life-bearing objects with a radius of 200 kilometers could have been captured by planetary systems around the Milky Way. While smaller objects are more likely to survive the journey, microbial content would have less shelter and would be more exposed to the harsh conditions of outer space.

“It’s a very dangerous ride, but you can think of the microbes as tiny astronauts sitting in a natural spacecraft,” said study co-author Abraham Loeb. “I would actually be thrilled to be a microbe sitting in a rock that makes it across the Milky Way.”

After a space body is captured into a new orbit, it would have to smash into a planet to transfer any life that it may be carrying. In the past, many rocks from Mars crashed into the Earth, which has caused some scientists to speculate that life on our planet originated on Mars. According to Loeb, it is even possible, if unlikely, that life on Earth began with interstellar microbes.

The study is being reviewed for publication by the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Space rocks could be carrying life across the milky way

For many decades, scientists have explored the theory of panspermia,...

An international team of researchers has demonstrated how simple multicellular organisms called Placozoa evolved to form complex nervous systems that transmit signals between different parts of the body. 

The researchers found that Placozoa can coordinate their body shape and movement in the absence of a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nervous-system-immune-infection/">nervous system</a> by using a signalling system among small peptides between cells.

Study co-author Gáspár Jékely is a professor at the Living Systems Institute of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.

“Each peptide can be used individually as a different signal, but the peptides could also be used sequentially or together in different combinations which allows for very high numbers of unique signals between cells,” explained Professor Jékely. “This explains how Placozoans can coordinate sophisticated behavioral sequences such as feeding.”

Placozoans are the simplest of all animals with just three cell layers. Despite having no true nerve or muscle cells, they manage to glide across surfaces in the ocean. The researchers investigated how these simple organisms can perform complex behavior without a nervous system.

They found that the cells of Placozoa contain a variety of small peptides, made up of amino acids that are secreted from one cell and detected by neighboring cells. This system represents how more complex organisms use neuropeptides for signalling within the nervous system.

“These new findings show that outer appearances can be deceiving, because cells that look the same are actually signalling with different molecules and are very likely to have different functions,” said study co-author Professor Dirk Fasshauer.

The researchers constructed synthetic versions of the Placozoan signalling peptides to examine the role of each peptide in coordinating movement and body shape.

The team discovered that the peptides changed Placozoan behavior within seconds, and that each peptide had a unique effect. The main behavioral changes induced by the peptides included crinkling, turning, flattening, and internal churning - a behavior associated with feeding.

“It might seem strange to use an animal with no neurons or synapses to study nervous system evolution, but although Placozoans are nerveless, you can still find within their cells the basic molecules needed for communication in complex nervous systems,” said study co-author Dr. Frédérique Varoqueaux. “So studying Placozoans can tell us more about the origins of neurons and how they became the body's control system.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, Earth.com Staff Writer

Image Credit: Bernd Schierwater - Eitel M, Osigus H-J, DeSalle R, Schierwater B (2013) Global Diversity of the Placozoa. PLoS ONE

Tiny organisms coordinate their movement without a nervous system

An international team of researchers has demonstrated how simple multicellular...

The gene-editing technique CRISPR/Cas9 has taken the scientific world by storm in recent years, generating buzz about the potential to use gene-editing in preventing birth defects and disease before they ever happen. Diseases such as cancer, heart conditions, and dementia are a result of mutations in our genes, and CRISPR/Cas9 may one day be advanced enough to eradicate the root cause of these conditions.

While all of this sounds exciting and promising, it’s going to take years of work before the full potential of the CRISPR/Cas9 technique can be utilized in humans. Much of this work will require the use of genetic models in the lab, which are a key component of scientists’ research. To develop animal models of disease, the genes of the animals must be manipulated to replicate the genetic defect that is the basis of the disease. Ironically, the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technique will be an enormous asset in this development, and is currently revolutionizing disease model development.

The CRISPR/Cas9 technique is derived from the bacterial immune response, which is a process by which a short sequence from the DNA of an invader – such as a virus – is stored in the bacterial genome. If the bacterium is infected a second time by the same virus, the stored DNA sequence helps guide a protein (Cas9) to the matching region in the viral genome. Cas9 then causes DNA breaks that lead to annihilation of the invading virus. 

Researchers discovered that they could use the CRISPR/Cas9 system to deliver Cas9 into cells along with a guide molecule in order to direct to the exact site that they want DNA to be cut. When combined with a single-stranded template for DNA repair after the cut, this system has allowed researchers to introduce specific point mutations to replicate the mutations that cause certain diseases in humans.

Despite these advances, the process is still complex and imperfect. Instituting a blanket “knockout” of a gene with this technique is relatively straightforward, but introducing specific point mutations in a “knock-in” model still causes issues. Now, three articles published in <a href="http://dmm.biologists.org/">Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms</a> report on the potential for using CRISPR/Cas9 to create knock-in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-spinal-cord-injuries/">zebrafish</a> models of human disease. 

“There are almost no limitations on what we can design in zebrafish or other systems to generate models of human genetic disorders,” says Dr. Lisa Maves, the lead author of an article from <a href="https://www.seattlechildrens.org/research/">Seattle Children's Research Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>. “CRISPR/Cas9 has really for the first time made it feasible to test the effects of human disease-associated genetic variants in animal models.”

Her research team worked on using CRISPR/Cas9 zebrafish models to test whether variants in gene sequences identified in patients with congenital heart defects contribute to the development of the disease. 

Meanwhile, Dr. Andy Willaert and his team at <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en">Ghent University</a> have been investigating how point mutations in zebrafish with CRISPR/Cas9 and single-stranded repair templates can introduce errors into the zebrafish genome.

“Zebrafish and CRISPR/Cas9 form the ideal duo for massive and swift disease model generation,” says Willaert. “However, genome editing using a single-stranded repair template often occurs erroneously and commonly used analysis techniques do not always detect such erroneous repair. This can lead to a model with a gene disruption instead of knock-in and a possible misinterpretation of the experimental results obtained. As these models might be eventually used in therapeutic applications, we want to stress the possible occurrence of erroneous repair.”

The final article is from the Netherlands, where a team led by Dr. Jeroen Bakkers from the <a href="https://www.hubrecht.eu/">Hubrecht Institute</a> and Dr. Gijs van Haaften from the <a href="https://www.umcutrecht.nl/en/Research">University Medical Center Utrecht</a> investigated the potential of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in developing patient-specific alleles for modelling human disease. They did so by generating knock-in zebrafish models of four human cardiovascular disorders caused by point mutations. “The ability to introduce point mutations exactly replicating the situation in human patients is paramount for proper understanding of disease and for successful development of therapeutic strategies,” explains first author Dr. Federico Tessadori.

Ultimately, all of these articles focused on the massive potential of creating precise knock-in zebrafish models of human diseases caused by point mutations. Many hope to continue improving the CRISPR/Cas9 techniques for developing error-free models and opening new opportunities for chemical screens and drug development.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Seattle Children's

Zebrafish gene editing used to model human diseases

The gene-editing technique CRISPR/Cas9 has taken the scientific world by...

Ice Station

Over 70 percent of our planet is covered with water, and yet more than 80 percent of the world’s oceans remain unexplored, according to the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). </a>

For the permanently ice-covered Arctic ocean, mapping life on the ocean floor is challenging, and there exists little data on species diversity, biomass, and composition at different depths. 

In fact, the deepest parts of the Arctic Ocean are some of the least studied on Earth. 

The Arctic is an area of particular interest because of its susceptibility to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-arctic-taller-climate-change/">climate change</a>. If researchers don’t have a thorough understanding of the Arctic’s ecosystem now, it will be difficult to understand how the Arctic is impacted by climate change in the future. 

Researchers led by the <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Home.html">Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology</a> recently conducted one of the most extensive surveys of animal life on the ocean floor of the Central Arctic Ocean, and the results show that species diversity at the lowest depths of the Arctic Ocean is similar to diversity patterns recorded in warmer waters.

[caption id="attachment_1861029" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/arctic.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861029" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/arctic-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Image Credit: Sea Ice Group, Alfred Wegener Institute[/caption]

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200121">PLOS ONE. </a>

Life in the Benthic zone (the lowest depths of the ocean) of the Central Arctic is sparse because of the long winters and ice cover, but the researchers wanted to characterize species composition for benthic communities, something long overlooked by previous studies. 

The researchers reviewed data from ocean floor surveys and categorized communities of marine life based on depth. 

It was determined that there were five different groups of benthic communities, the outer shelf, the upper slope, lower slope, mid-slope, and the abyssal plain. 

Species abundance, biomass, and diversity were at their lowest at the plain depths (3,236-4,381 meters). 

The dominating groups of species also differed for each group. For example in the upper slope, (73-577 meters), bivalves, polychaetes, and Cirratulidae made up the dominant species. 

Biomass decreased at the lower depths in correlation with available food, but the rate of decline witnessed by the researchers was greater than in more temperate oceans. 

The researchers hope that the new study will provide a crucial groundwork for future research and will help answer questions about the impacts of climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Alfred Wegener Institute, Stefan Hendricks

Scientists explore uncharted parts of the Arctic Ocean seafloor

Over 70 percent of our planet is covered with water,...

The possibilities most people associate with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/virtual-reality-beach-dental-procedures/">virtual reality technology</a> (VR) usually revolve around an immersive experience in the next big videogame – but this technology can be put to even better use. New research from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> uses a virtual reality experience called “Becoming Homeless” to see how this new technology can affect people’s level of empathy.

Published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>, the study used VR to lead participants through the experience of becoming homeless, showing different scenarios one might experience in the process. They compared empathy levels of those who did the VR experience to participants who were shown other media versions of the VR scenario, such as text.

“Experiences are what define us as humans, so it’s not surprising that an intense experience in VR is more impactful than imagining something,” says Jeremy Bailenson, a professor of communication and a co-author of the paper.

Previous research exploring how VR affects empathy has produced varying results, and most studies used small sample sizes made up of primarily college students. Furthermore, few studies have examined the long-term effects of VR on empathy.

For their study, the researchers conducted two-month-long trials with over 560 participants of varying ages and ethnic backgrounds. Some participants in the study were shown the VR experience “Becoming Homeless,” in which they are led through multiple interactive scenarios of what would happen if they lost their jobs. Scenes range from looking around an apartment to find items to sell to pay for rent, to sheltering on a public bus and protecting their belongings from being stolen by a stranger.

The results showed that participants who underwent the VR experience were more likely to have long-lasting positive attitudes towards the homeless than participants who did the other tasks. The same individuals were also more likely to sign a petition in support of affordable housing.

“Taking the perspective of others in VR produces more empathy and prosocial behaviors in people immediately after going through the experience and over time in comparison to just imagining what it would be like to be in someone else’s shoes,” says lead author Fernanda Herrera, a graduate student in the Department of Communication at Stanford. “And that is an exciting finding.”

These findings show that VR can be used for much more than just personal entertainment.

“What’s special about this research is that it gives us longitudinal evidence that VR changes attitudes and behaviors of people in a positive way,” explains Bailenson.

The impact that “Becoming Homeless” had on some members of the study didn’t go away once the research was completed. “Long after our studies were complete, some research participants emailed me to reflect on how they started becoming more involved in the issue afterward,” says Herrara. “One of them befriended a homeless person in their community and wrote me again once that person found a home. It was really inspiring to see that positive, lasting impact.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image credit: L.A. Cicero

Virtual reality experiences can help promote empathy, study shows

The possibilities most people associate with virtual reality technology (VR)...

One family of tiny, shelled organisms that float in the sea called Planktonic foraminifera (forams) are providing scientists with information that proves that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decoded-genomes-shark-evolution/">evolution</a> is not always a slow, gradual process. A team of researchers discovered a foram lineage which evolved much more quickly than anyone could have predicted.

Study first author Russell Bicknell is a palaeontologist at the University of New England's <a href="https://www.une.edu.au/research/research-centres-institutes/palaeoscience-research-centre">Palaeoscience Research Centre</a> in Australia.

“It was an exciting moment. What our study and many others are starting to agree on is that evolution of forams is not necessarily gradual, as Darwin and more recent scientists thought,” explained Bicknell. “Life can exist for long periods of time exhibiting only minor changes followed by rapid, punctuated shifts.”

The investigation was focused on the size and shape of 1,459 fossils belonging to a lineage of forams called Truncorotalia, which lived 5.9 to 4.5 million years ago. The measurements revealed that the shape of Truncorotalia's shell rapidly changed 5.1 million years ago, when the oceans were cooling and flooding the earth.

“The abrupt change in the shape of Truncorotalia's shell shows that foram lineages can evolve rapidly, explosively, and dramatically,” said Bicknell. “That points to more complex evolutionary dynamics than previously thought and justifies a re-evaluation of the evolutionary dynamics of other foram lineages.”

According to the researchers, two post-Darwinian theories could describe the rapid changes they observed: punctuated equilibrium and quantum evolution. Punctuated equilibrium refers to short bursts followed by steady periods of morphological change within a lineage, while the theory of quantum evolution describes broader splits into new families, orders, and classes.

The researchers may have observed quantum evolution at a species level for the first time. Regardless, the researchers believe that previous theories of gradual evolution in foram lineages should be re-evaluated.

“Evolution is so much more complicated than we think,” said Bicknell. “How, when, and why evolutionary changes occur constantly surprise us. It is one of the reasons working in evolution is so much fun.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evolutionary changes are not always gradual

One family of tiny, shelled organisms that float in the...

At the peak of the hysteria surrounding the poliovirus in the 1950s, famed scientist Jonas Salk discovered the polio vaccine and changed the world forever. The vaccine has now led to the potential for total eradication of the poliovirus being an attainable goal. However, for global eradication of polio to occur, it will take more than just widely-available vaccines.

A study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> suggests that robust environmental monitoring be relied upon as we get closer to eradicating the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/prenatal-gene-editing-fatal-disease/">disease</a>. This comes after the researchers studied the epidemiology of the 2013 silent polio outbreak in Rahat, Israel. Thanks to Israel’s efficient environmental surveillance program, the epidemic was detected and vaccines were mobilized before any cases of acute flaccid paralysis could occur. Because the infections didn’t result in paralysis, the outbreak is called “silent.”

Despite the quick response, researchers discovered that a significant portion of children under the age of 10 were likely infected during the outbreak. Silent transmission is still a concern, as it can lead to paralytic cases if left undetected. 

The researchers say that – despite being so close to polio eradication – silent transmission of wild-type and vaccine-driven polioviruses can be expected to occur every so often. “Environmental surveillance is particularly useful for detecting silent circulation of the disease,” says first author Andrew Brouwer, a research investigator in epidemiology at the UM School of Public Health. “Because paralytic polio only occurs in a small fraction of infections, and that fraction is shrinking as vaccination improves, standard surveillance of paralytic cases will not be sensitive enough to trigger the fast and robust responses needed.”

Brouwer and his colleagues came up with an analytical method to estimate the epidemic trajectories of polio from sewage data. 

“Beyond polio, environmental surveillance of pathogens coupled with our method to estimate epidemic curves is a powerful public health surveillance tool to improve our control of infectious diseases.” Their work could one day result in the total eradication of the polioviruses, and pave the way for us to do the same with other infectious diseases.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Full eradication of polio will require close environmental monitoring

At the peak of the hysteria surrounding the poliovirus in...

The oldest evidence of animal life dating back 100 million years before the Cambrian Explosion has been found by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside (UCR)</a>. 

The Cambrian period (524 to 483 million years ago) marks a crucial time <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php">for life on Earth</a>, according to the University of California Museum of Paleontology. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/">Cambrian Explosion</a> describes when, for the first time, most of the major animal groups appear in the fossil record.

Life existed on Earth long before the Cambrian period, but it was mostly in the form of bacteria, algae, and plankton, and finding evidence of these single and multi-celled organisms is difficult because of the sparse fossil evidence left behind. 

Researchers are turning to molecular fossils, a relatively recent field of research involving the study of preserved molecules like <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossilsarchive/molecu.html">DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids</a> to piece together the molecular structure of an organism. Molecular fossils can provide insight into the long since decayed soft-tissues of an organism. 

A research team from the University of California, Riverside recently conducted a study showing how biomarkers can be used to trace ancient evidence of life on earth dating back as far as 660 to 635 million years ago during the Neoproterozoic Era. 

A biomarker is any measurable biological characteristic. For example, someone's blood pressure is a biomarker, and a lot of genome research is devoted to findings specific biomarkers that could indicate disease. 

The UCR researchers have been working on tracking biomarkers in rocks and oils from Oman, Siberia, and India. 

According to a study published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, it was in these rocks that the researchers found an organic compound, a steroid, produced by the earliest forms of life on Earth, sponges. 

“Molecular fossils are important for tracking early animals since the first sponges were probably very small, did not contain a skeleton, and did not leave a well-preserved or easily recognizable body fossil record,” said Alex Zumberge, a first author of the study. “We have been looking for distinctive and stable biomarkers that indicate the existence of sponges and other early animals, rather than single-celled organisms that dominated the earth for billions of years before the dawn of complex, multicellular life.”

In 2009, led by Gordon Love, a professor in UCR's Department of Earth Sciences, researchers uncovered the first evidence of a biomarker for Neoproterozoic animals in rocks in South Oman. 

The compound uncovered was a steroid called 24-isopropylcholestane (24-ipc), and while the discovery was noteworthy, the researchers were not able to conclusively prove that early life forms made the compound because modern algae also create 24-ipc. 

For this study, the researchers identified a different steroid called 26-methylstigmastane (26-mes) which is exclusively produced by demosponges. 

“This steroid biomarker is the first evidence that demosponges, and hence multicellular animals, were thriving in ancient seas at least as far back as 635 million years ago,” said Zumberge. 

--

By <a href="http://milto;kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Paco Cárdenas

Oldest evidence of animal life on Earth identified by scientists

The oldest evidence of animal life dating back 100 million...

Anyone who has bit into a juicy Honeycrisp apple has the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> to thank for what has become one of the most popular breeds of apple ever sold. 

Bred specifically to be juicier, crispier, and sweeter, the Honeycrisp was first introduced in 1991 and since then millions of the apples have been planted in apple orchards around the world. 

The Honeycrisp was so revolutionary that it was recognized as a top innovation of the decade by the 2006 Better World Report, according to the <a href="https://mnhardy.umn.edu/varieties/fruit/apples">University of Minnesota (U of M)</a>. 

But the Honeycrisp isn’t the only new breed of apple that the U of M has worked on. In fact, their breeders have introduced dozens of varieties of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/best-wash-pesticides-apples/">apples</a>, berries, grapes, tomatoes, and even evergreen trees. 

Now, there is another variety of apple joining the ranks, and by all accounts, it’s slated to give the Honeycrisp a run for its money. 

The U of M’s new apple, First Kiss, made headlines when it’s release was announced just in time for the <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2018/08/26/new-apple-variety-debuts-at-minnesota-state-fair">Minnesota State Fair.</a>

Horticultural science involves research and practices devoted to plant cultivation which includes breeding and the U of M has become a pioneer in horticultural sciences. 

Just how do these pioneers in cultivation create new apple breeds with specific traits? The answer is cross-pollination, a traditional method for innovating plants and crops and something that naturally occurs in the wild. 

Researchers are playing build-a-breed with cross-pollination, by taking preferred traits of one plant and breeding it with another variety to create a wholly new breed. 

For example, in 1887, according to the U of M, by breeding cold climate apples with apple varieties grown on the East Coast, researchers were able to develop a hardier apple built to withstand the drastic seasonal changes of Minnesota. 

It’s a time consuming and lengthy process as was evidenced by the First Kiss apple which took decades to perfect.

I spoke with <a href="https://horticulture.umn.edu/people/faculty/jimluby">James Luby</a>, U of M Horticultural Sciences professor who worked on First Kiss since its early beginning in 1997, about just what goes into making a new variety through cross-pollination. 

Not surprisingly, it’s such a time-consuming process because the researchers have to wait for whatever new breeds they develop to grow and produce fruit. 

First comes the actual pollination, and to achieve this Luby said they cover the flowers of a plant or tree designated as the “female tree” in order to avoid being pollinated by bees and other insects. 

Then, a team will gather the pollen from the “father” that has whatever desirable traits or qualities they are looking for and by hand pollinate the mother flowers with the pollen, just like a bee would do. 

After pollination, the researchers have to wait for seeds to develop which are then harvested and germinated over the winter. Once germinated, the hybrid seedlings are planted and it’s just a waiting game. 

For apple trees, they go through a period of juvenility Luby explained, and aren’t ready to flower for about five to ten years. 

Once the researchers have the new flowering trees, they make their selection based on appearance, texture, and of course, taste. Luby told me that one in maybe 200 seedlings are chosen for later grafting, which is how the U of M researchers clone their prototype. 

“You can look at it like any prototype,” Luby said. “A car manufacturer might make a new car, but then they have to make more, and keep scaling up, to make sure it’s right for the consumer.” 

This scaling up process involves growing trees from the prototype seedlings and making sure the resulting fruit or flowers are exactly what the researchers are looking for. 

With First Kiss, eventually, the researchers came upon the perfect pairing with the Honeycrisp and a variety of apple developed by the University of Arkansas, the AA-44. 

Because of this opportune crossbreed, the University of Minnesota created an apple with the same juicy texture of the Honeycrisp that would be available as early as late August. It also possesses a lovely red color. 

“With First Kiss, we got the best of both worlds,” said David Bedford, a research scientist in the UMN’s Department of Horticultural Science, in a <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/news-events/umn-plant-breeders-introduce-first-kiss-apple">U of M News release</a>. “Its crisp texture and spritely flavor make it an excellent choice for fresh eating and its early harvest date means Minnesota apple lovers can enjoy their favorite Minnesota grown fruit sooner than ever.”

Advancements in horticulture and agriculture typically start with a need. For many agricultural innovations, the aim is to find ways to make crops more resistant to droughts or disease. Looking forward, many researchers are working on creating crops that can handle climate change. 

Luby told me about how he and his colleagues find ways to cross-pollinate breeds keeping in mind pest and disease resistance, particularly fire blight and apple scab. 

Interestingly, the Honeycrisp is more resistant to apple scab than its new offspring, First Kiss. 

The U of M is slowly in the process of working on identifying genetic markers of disease, something only made possible by the advancements made in gene mapping. 

While drought and climate resistance remain a top concern for agriculturalists, I learned from Luby that this isn’t necessarily at the forefront of the U of M’s radar. Climate change’s impact is so varied and you can’t grow a perfect apple that will be able to thrive in any climate. 

For example, the Honeycrisp is grown all over the world, even in Africa and while drought and irrigation isn’t a problem so much here in Minnesota, in Africa, apple growers may face completely different challenges. The U of M creates its variety by starting with what the consumer wants. 

“We’re looking for an apple that tastes and looks good, or else no one will buy it,” Luby said.

When the Honeycrisp burst onto the scene with its incredibly juicy texture, it reinvigorated apple orchards here in Minnesota and has since become a fan favorite all over. 

Other factors that the horticultural department is looking for is storage ability and cold hardiness. Storage and shelf life are particularly important because you could have the best apple in the world, but if it doesn’t last long off the tree then it makes marketing and selling the apple difficult. 

First Kiss is available in limited quantity, but soon you’ll be able to find it at local Minnesota orchards and farmers markets and eventually your local grocery store. 

But the next time you pass by the fruits and vegetables at your local supermarket, take a second to think about all the ingenuity that went into to creating that produce, from seed to harvest to your dinner table. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a>

Scientists unveil newly cultivated First Kiss apple

Anyone who has bit into a juicy Honeycrisp apple has...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...