Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-and-nano-spearguns">Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. 



They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>. 



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t6ss-genes-the-basics">Understanding T6SS genes - the basics</h2>



T6SS genes control the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), an impressive molecular weapon that bacteria use to fight each other and sometimes even mess with host cells. 



Think of it as a microscopic harpoon gun - bacteria literally shoot toxic proteins into rival microbes to kill them or weaken their defenses. 



Some bacteria also use T6SS to interact with host organisms, either to establish infections or to outcompete other microbes in a shared environment. 



This system gives bacteria a serious advantage in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic battlefield</a>, whether they're battling it out in soil, water, or even inside a host’s gut.



Scientists are fascinated by T6SS because it plays a huge role in bacterial survival, competition, and even virulence. 



Some nasty pathogens, like Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a major threat in hospitals), use T6SS to dominate their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. 



The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. 



These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-attack-detection">Pseudomonas bacteria attack detection</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler.



 Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. 



This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-pseudomonas-bacteria-study">Next steps for Pseudomonas bacteria study</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. 



Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. 



This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. 



Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



-----



Featured image: Pseudomonas bacteria deploy their nano-spearguns when damaged by a sharp tip (15,000 x magnification). Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum/<a href="https://nanoscience.unibas.ch/en/services/nano-imaging-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNI Nano Imaging Lab</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bacteria build tiny 'nano-spearguns' to fight back against attacks

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria. According to new research, these cells react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. This work comes from the lab of Professor Marek Basler at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (T6SS), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into...

A new study has revealed that some large <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-birds-looked-and-behaved-like-giant-penguins/">birds</a> rely on wind currents to fly through the air, without any need to flap their wings. The researchers discovered that the world's heaviest soaring bird, the Andean condor, only flaps its wings for one percent of the time spent flying.

Led by <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a>, the experts set out to investigate how the flight efforts of birds vary depending on environmental conditions. The research will provide new insight into the soaring capacity of large birds and the specific conditions that make flight costly.

The team used flight-recorders on Andean condors to track their wing movement during flight. The high-tech recorders logged every wingbeat, twist, and turn as the birds searched for food.

The researchers found that more than 75 percent of wing flapping was associated with take-off. Once in the air, however, the birds sustained soaring for extended time periods in a wide range of wind and thermal conditions. One bird even clocked five hours without flapping, covering more than 100 miles.

"Watching birds from kites to eagles fly, you might wonder if they ever flap," said study co-author Dr. Hannah Williams. "This question is important, because by the time birds are as big as condors, theory tells us they are dependent on soaring to get around."

"Our results revealed the amount the birds flapped didn't change substantially with the weather. This suggests that decisions about when and where to land are crucial, as not only do condors need to be able to take off again, but unnecessary landings will add significantly to their overall flight costs."

Professor Shepard pointed out that all of the birds observed in the study were immature, which demonstrates that low investment in flight is possible even in the early years of a condor's life.

Upon further analysis, the experts recognized that the birds faced challenges as they moved between weak thermals. The Andean condors flapped more as they reached the end of the glides between thermals when they were likely to be closer to the ground.

"This is a critical time as birds need to find rising air to avoid an unplanned landing. These risks are higher when moving between thermal updrafts," said study co-author Dr. Sergio Lambertucci.

"Thermals can behave like lava lamps, with bubbles of air rising intermittently from the ground when the air is warm enough. Birds may therefore arrive in the right place for a thermal, but at the wrong time."

"This is a nice example of where the behavior of the birds can provide insight into the behaviour of the air."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Andean condors ride wind currents for hours at a time

A new study has revealed that some large birds rely...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> are introducing a new scientific technique to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/employees-criminal-records-jobs/">criminal</a> justice system to help prevent wrongful convictions. The team has developed an improved method for presenting a lineup to eyewitnesses.

"Misidentification by eyewitnesses is a long-standing problem in our society. Our new lineup method uncovers the structure of eyewitness memory, removes decision bias from the identification process, and quantifies performance of individual witnesses," explained study co-author Professor Thomas D. Albright. "This study is a great example of using laboratory science to bring about criminal justice reform."

According to the Innocence Project, nearly 70 percent of people in the U.S. who are exonerated through DNA evidence were wrongly convicted as a result of misidentification by an eyewitness. 

Professor Albright said that a key factor in whether a witness will identify the correct person is the manner in which suspects are presented during the lineup. The two most common methods used by law enforcement are known as simultaneous and sequential lineups. 

A simultaneous lineup presents an eyewitness with six photographs of individuals at the same time, while a sequential lineup presents six photos, one at a time. The witness can either identify a suspect or reject the lineup if no suspect matches their memory of the crime scene.

The researchers set out to create a new lineup method that can estimate the strength of the memories that an eyewitness associates with each face in a lineup. This technique would eliminate unconscious biases that influence decisions.

"Traditional lineups just reveal the top choice - the tip of the iceberg. But the cause of the witness's decision is ambiguous. It may reflect strong memory for the culprit, or it may mean that the witness was not very discerning," said Professor Albright. "Our new procedure overcomes that ambiguity by revealing the strength of recognition memory for all lineup faces."

The scientists used a technique called the method of paired comparisons, which works similarly to an eye exam. Just like how a person looks through pairs of lenses to determine which lens is clearer, the eyewitness is presented with the photographs of two suspects and chooses the face that looks more similar to the person they remember from the crime scene. 

The procedure allows experts to calculate the strength of recognition memory for each lineup face, and these calculations can be statistically analyzed to measure the probability that the eyewitness can correctly identify the culprit.

"Our methods derive from a branch of science called sensory psychophysics," said study first Staff Scientist Sergei Gepshtein.

"Psychophysical tools are designed to reveal how properties of the physical world are ordered - or 'scaled' - in the mind. Our approach allowed us to peek into the 'black box' and measure how lineup faces are organized in the witness's memory in terms of their similarity to the culprit."

The paired comparison method produces more information about the identity of a culprit compared to previous techniques. Furthermore, it delivers an unprecedented scale for measuring the certainty or uncertainty of individual eyewitnesses, which is critical information for the judge and jury.

"The conduct of a lineup is just one application of our method. Another application is selection of lineup 'fillers,' which are faces of people known to be innocent. The fillers should not be too similar or too dissimilar to the suspect. Because the new method reveals the perceived similarity of faces, it can be used to optimize the choice of lineup fillers," said Gepshtein.

The study authors hope that the paired comparison lineup will soon be applied in police casework, leading to more correct identifications and fewer wrongful convictions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New scientific approach measures the certainty of eyewitnesses

Experts at the Salk Institute are introducing a new scientific...

People remain optimistic throughout the majority of life. When are we the most hopeful in life? While some studies suggest that people are generally the most optimistic in middle age, a new study shows that humans are much more resilient, holding onto hope for the future throughout the majority of life.

Researchers from <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> have led the largest study of its kind to investigate when people feel the most optimistic, and how major events affect this outlook.

"We found that optimism continued to increase throughout young adulthood, seemed to steadily plateau and then decline into older adulthood," said study lead author Professor William Chopik.

"Even people with fairly bad circumstances, who have had tough things happen in their lives, look to their futures and life ahead and felt optimistic."

The investigation was focused on 75,000 individuals between the ages of 16 and 101. The experts accounted for life events such as marriage, divorce, new jobs, retirement, changes in health, and the loss of a partner, parent, or child.

"Counterintuitively - and most surprising - we found that really hard things like deaths and divorce really didn't change a person's outlook to the future," said Professor Chopik. 

"This shows that a lot of people likely subscribe to the 'life is short' mantra and realize they should focus on things that make them happy and maintain emotional balance."

Professor Chopik explained that regardless of life's good and bad circumstances, from the time people are 15 to about 60 or 70, they become more and more optimistic.

"There's a massive stretch of life during which you keep consistently looking forward to things and the future. Part of that has to do with experiencing success both in work and life," said Professor Chopik.

"You find a job, you meet your significant other, you achieve your goals and so on. You become more autonomous and you are somewhat in control of your future; so, you tend to expect things to turn out well."

The study showed that there is a shift toward declining optimism in the elderly phase of life, which is likely driven by health-related concerns and having fewer years ahead. While the elderly are not full-fledged pessimists, there is still a noticeable change, said Professor Chopik.

"Retirement age is when people can stop working, have time to travel and to pursue their hobbies. But very surprisingly, people didn't really think that it would change the outlook of their lives for the better."

Professor Chopik noted that one of the most profound findings is  how resilient people are in life.

"We oftentimes think that the really sad or tragic things that happen in life completely alter us as people, but that's not really the case."

"You don't fundamentally change as a result of terrible things; people diagnosed with an illness or those who go through another crisis still felt positive about the future and what life had ahead for them on the other side."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-research-in-personality">Journal of Research in Personality</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

People remain optimistic throughout the majority of life

People remain optimistic throughout the majority of life. When are...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have found that road medians have great potential to support <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-existed-long-before-flowers/">pollinators</a> and help reverse their declining numbers.

According to the study, pollinators such as butterflies and bees can greatly benefit from road verges with plants and flowers, which provide food and shelter.

There are some risks involved with living beside the highway, such as exposure to pollution, but the study showed that the benefits of median habitats were much higher than the potential costs.

The investigation was focused on a review of more than 140 published studies. The meta-analysis revealed that road medians can be dramatically improved for pollinators with simple management practices such as planting flowers, mowing less often, and limiting street lighting.

Study lead author Ben Phillips is an expert in the Environment and Sustainability Institute on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall.

"There is huge untapped potential to improve road verges for pollinators through management," said Phillips. "In many cases, this involves mowing less, and at the right times, to increase flowers and reduce the amount of pollinators, eggs and larvae killed."

"We can help pollinators further by reducing impacts of road pollution. This includes light pollution, which can be addressed by limiting how long streetlights are switched on for, as these confuse nocturnal insects."

Andrew Whitehouse of the conservation charity Buglife said that the organization's B-Lines initiative has identified the lack of connected wildflower-rich habitats as a major contributor to the decline in pollinating insects.

"This new research shows the potential that road verges have to help to reverse insect declines, said Whitehouse. "By making small changes to the management of our road verge network, local authorities and others involved in road verge management can make a significant difference to support nature's recovery."

In the time since the review was conducted, many road medians went through a transformation during COVID-19 lockdowns.

"There were lots of reports of road verges not being mowed because councils and contractors weren't operating as normal," said study co-author Claire Wallace. "This gave us a brief glimpse of the benefits of wilder verges for nature, with plants such as orchids popping up all over the place where they hadn't been seen before."

"In Cornwall, however, it is really positive that the council has just changed its policy of mowing verges in urban areas eight times per year," noted Phillips. "Now they will only do this twice or three times a year, so this will be a big local change."

The research supports an ongoing campaign by conservation charity <a href="https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk">Plantlife</a> to save wildlife on road verges.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Road medians could potentially reverse the decline of pollinators

Researchers at the University of Exeter have found that road...

The mechanism used by Venus flytraps to catch spiders and insects is activated when its leaves are touched twice within 30 seconds. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, researchers have discovered for the first time that the trap is also triggered by a single, slow touch.

The Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula, is a carnivorous <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/salmonella-has-found-a-way-to-evade-plant-defenses/">plant</a> that is native to the subtropical wetlands of North and South Carolina in the eastern United States. The plant is equipped with an incredibly elaborate system for trapping its prey.

The flytrap has leaves which contain highly sensitive hairs, and even the slightest touch to one of these hairs produces an electrical signal that spreads throughout the entire leaf. The flytrap responds to two consecutive signals by snapping shut in a matter of milliseconds.

For over 200 years, experts have believed that one touch of a trigger hair generates an electrical signal, and that it takes two signals within 30 seconds for the trap to close. However, the new study reveals a previously unknown triggering mechanism.

"Contrary to popular belief, slowly touching a trigger hair only once can also cause two signals and thus lead to the snapping of the trap," said study co-author Ueli Grossniklaus.

The groundbreaking research was conducted using highly responsive sensors and microrobotic systems developed in the Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems at ETH Zurich by study co-author Bradley J. Nelson and colleagues. The team used this sophisticated system to pinpoint the amount of force needed for a Venus flytrap to snap its leaves shut.  

Based on the collected data, the experts developed a mathematical model to quantify the range of angular deflection and velocity thresholds that activate the trap. 

"Interestingly, the model showed that at slower angular velocities one touch resulted in two electrical signals, such that the trap ought to snap," explained Grossniklaus. Experiments confirmed that the model's prediction was accurate.

The electrical signals generated within the flytrap are produced by ion channels in the cell membrane. Study co-first author Hannes Vogler explained that when the plant is touched more slowly, the flow of ions is enough to trigger several signals. 

The researchers theorize that the newly described triggering mechanism evolved for the Venus flytrap to catch slow-moving prey, such as larvae or snails.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Venus flytraps have a previously unknown trigger

The mechanism used by Venus flytraps to catch spiders and...

Experts have used mathematical modeling inspired by social media to evaluate the future impacts of global warming on the world's fisheries. The study revealed that winter warming has the most profound influence on fish biodiversity.

Study lead author Dr. Nicholas Clark is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> School of Veterinary Science.

"Usually, when modeling ecosystems to understand how nature is changing, we build models that only focus on the effects of the environment," said Dr. Clark. "But it's just not accurate enough."

"Newer models - commonly used in social media to document people's social interactions - offer an exciting way to address this gap in scientific knowledge."

"These innovative network models give us a more accurate picture of reality by incorporating biology, allowing us to ask how one species responds to both environmental change and to the presence of other species, including humans."

The team applied this modeling technique to analyze fish populations in the Mediterranean Sea, a biodiversity hotspot that is threatened by rapidly warming waters.

"Experts from fisheries, ecology and the geographical sciences have compiled decades of research to describe the geographical ranges for more than 600 Mediterranean fish species," said Dr. Clark.

"We put this information, along with data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's sophisticated climate models into our network model."

The analysis revealed that warming seas have widespread effects on fish biodiversity, particularly during the winter. Study co-author Professor Ceridwen Fraser noted that winter warming is often overlooked when considering the impacts of climate change.

"A great deal of research and media attention has been on the impacts of extreme summer temperatures on people and nature, but winters are getting warmer too," said Dr. Fraser. "Interestingly, coastal water temperatures are expected to increase at a faster rate in winter than in summer."

"Even though winter warming might not reach the extreme high temperatures of summer heatwaves, this research shows that warmer winters could also lead to ecosystem disruption, in some cases more than hotter summer warming will."

"Our results suggest that winter warming will cause fish species to hang out together in different ways, and some species will disappear from some areas entirely."

The researchers hope the study brings attention to the urgent need to understand and address climate change.

"If fish communities are more strongly regulated by winter temperatures as our model suggests, this means that fish diversity may change more quickly than we previously thought," said Dr. Clark.

"Catches for many bottom-dwelling and open-ocean fishery species in the Mediterranean Sea have been steadily declining, so any changes to fish communities may have widespread economic impacts."

"For the sake of marine ecosystems and the people whose livelihoods depend on them, we need to gain a better understanding of how ocean warming will influence both species and economies."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Winter warming will rapidly alter fish diversity

Experts have used mathematical modeling inspired by social media to...

A new study has examined the complex fluctuations in precipitation and water availability that will occur with ongoing climate change. The experts report that higher rates of both rainfall and evaporation will lead to more extreme wet and dry seasons worldwide.

Study co-author Professor Ashok Mishra of <a href="http://www.clemson.edu/">Clemson University</a> explained that previous studies have been primarily focused on how climate change will affect precipitation. The new research has taken a more thorough approach by examining the magnitude of precipitation and evaporation, as well as the subsequent variations in water availability.

According to Professor Mishra, the research shows that dry seasons will become drier, and wet seasons will become wetter.

The researchers found that most of the Eastern United States, including all of South Carolina, currently has high levels of precipitation that are well distributed throughout the year. These regions can expect greater precipitation and evaporation, along with wider variation in water availability, in both wet and dry seasons. Professor Mishra said the greatest concern will be more flooding.

The experts also determined that the areas that will be hardest hit by climate change are those that already receive excessive rainfall during wet seasons and struggle with drought during dry seasons. The highest risk areas identified in the study include parts of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, northern Australia, Brazil, and Africa.

"The regions which already have more drought and flooding relative to other regions will further see an increase in these events," said Professor Mishra.

Based on the analysis of multiple climate models, the team found that the best opportunity for stabilizing water availability during wet and dry seasons is to limit global warming to two degrees Celsius over pre-industrial levels.

When the researchers evaluated outcomes at temperature increases of 3.5 or 5 degrees Celsius, they found a consistent correlation between higher temperatures and more variation in water availability.

Professor Mishra said that his message to the world is that water is a very important resource.

"The availability of this resource is an issue everybody is facing. We need to take precautions to optimally use how much water we have. As the climate changes and population increases, we should be preparing for the future by improving the technology to efficiently use water for crops."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Expect more extreme wet and dry seasons with climate change

A new study has examined the complex fluctuations in precipitation...

A new study from <a href="https://www.cuimc.columbia.edu/">Columbia University Irving Medical Center</a> has linked <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-can-cause-dangerous-neurological-complications/">delirium</a> to an increased risk of long-term cognitive decline and mental health impacts. The researchers found that an episode of delirium more than doubled the odds of accelerated cognitive decline.

Delirium is a common surgical complication in older adults, and is also often observed in patients with critical illnesses such as COVID-19.

"Delirium is associated with a variety of complications, ranging from patient and family stress, increased hospital costs, increased duration of hospital stay, escalation of care, and increased mortality and morbidity including institutionalization," said Dr. Goldberg. "In our study, we discovered it had longer term effects as well."

The researchers conducted a systematic analysis of 24 observational studies to investigate the potential for cognitive impairment in the months after an episode of delirium. 

The study revealed that patients who experienced delirium demonstrated significantly greater cognitive decline than those patients who did not.

The researchers wanted to know if it is possible that delirium simply exposes cognitive decline in individuals who are already compromised, or if the episodes are actually the cause of cognitive impairment. The analysis showed that delirium was causative in decline.

Dr. Goldberg said that from a public health standpoint, it is important that we develop better strategies for addressing outcomes related to delirium, as it is associated with increases in mortality, long-term cognitive decline and the cost of care.

"Assuming that delirium occurs in about 20% of those 11.8 million case of individuals older than 65 years who are hospitalized per year, costs attributable to delirium may be between $143 billion and $152 billion owing to longer hospital stays, outpatient visits, nursing home care, and rehabilitation," said Dr. Goldberg. 

"And with evidence pointing toward patients with COVID-19 experiencing delirium in ICUs, it is vital that we gain a better understanding of how to help these individuals, as more people than ever are at risk for cognitive decline."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology">JAMA Neurology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Episodes of delirium can cause cognitive decline

A new study from Columbia University Irving Medical Center has...

The number of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nearly-half-of-healthcare-staff-had-covid-19-with-no-symptoms/">COVID-19</a> hospitalizations for young people between the ages of 18 and 25 is growing, and a new study suggests that the odds of dangerous infections in this age category is higher than previously expected. 

Research from <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">UC San Francisco</a> shows that one out of every three COVID-19 cases among young people could become severe, and a major risk factor in this age group is smoking.

Study first author Dr. Sally Adams is an expert in the Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">UC San Francisco</a>.

"Recent evidence indicates that smoking is associated with a higher likelihood of COVID-19 progression, including increased illness severity, ICU admission or death," said Adams. "Smoking may have significant effects in young adults, who typically have low rates for most chronic diseases."

The study was focused on data from the National Health Interview Survey, including 8,400 men and women between the ages of 18 and 25. The researchers found that "medical vulnerability" was 33 percent for males and 30 percent for females. 

Medical vulnerability was measured based on risk factors established by the CDC: heart conditions, diabetes, current asthma, immune conditions, liver conditions, and obesity. 

Smoking within the previous 30 days, including e-cigarettes, tobacco or cigar use, was also measured. The CDC states that all three types of smoking are associated with adverse effects on respiratory and immune function.

The analysis revealed that medical vulnerability was nearly doubled in young smokers, jumping from 16.1 percent for non-smokers to 31.5 percent for smokers.

According to Dr. Adams, recent research shows that young adults are starting to smoke at higher rates than adolescents, which is a reversal of previous trends.

"The risk of being medically vulnerable to severe disease is halved when smokers are removed from the sample," said senior author Dr. Charles Irwin. "Efforts to reduce smoking and e-cigarette use among young adults would likely lower their vulnerability to severe disease."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jahonline.org/">Journal of Adolescent Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young smokers have double the risk of severe COVID-19

The number of COVID-19 hospitalizations for young people between the...

In a surprising new study, experts at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> have found evidence that the first continents on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-shifts-ten-times-faster-than-expected/">Earth</a> were not formed by subduction, which has long been the prevailing theory. 

The research indicates that the early continents were created by an entirely different process that has not yet been identified.

The Earth's crust is susceptible to continuous tectonic activity as land plates move slowly over the underlying mantle. 

Subduction happens when one plate moves under another and sinks, and this process can transport continental or oceanic crust. While it was widely accepted that this is how the first continents formed, the new investigation suggests otherwise.

The researchers based the new findings on measurements of iron and zinc isotopes in rock from central Siberia and South Africa. The analysis showed that these rocks appear to have formed in a non-subduction environment.

Study lead author Dr. Luc-Serge Doucet is an expert in the Earth Dynamics Research Group in Curtin's School of Earth and Planetary Sciences. He explained that the first continents were formed early in Earth's history more than three billion years ago, but how they were formed is still open to debate.

"Previous research has suggested that the first supercontinents formed through subduction and plate tectonics, which is when the Earth's plates move under one another shaping the mountains and oceans," said Dr. Doucet.

"Our research found that the chemical makeup of the rock fragments was not consistent with what we would usually see when subduction occurs." 

"If the continents were formed through subduction and plate tectonics we would expect the ratio of iron and zinc isotopes to be either very high or very low, but our analyses instead found the ratio of isotopes was similar to that found in non-subduction rocks."

According to Dr, Doucet, the team used a relatively new technique known as the non-traditional stable isotope method, which has been used to identify the processes that formed continental and mantle rocks.

"Our research provides a new, but unknown theory as to how the Earth's continents formed more than three billion years ago. Further research will be needed to determine what the unknown explanation is."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G47647.1/587447/Archean-lithospheric-differentiation-Insights-from?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Geology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The formation of Earth's continents remains a mystery 

In a surprising new study, experts at Curtin University have...

Experts at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> have identified a type of gut bacteria that reduces the risk of heart disease. The heart health benefits of this bacteria, Eubacterium limosum, were previously unrecognized.

The activity of E. limosum reduces the production of a chemical within the intestines that is linked to clogging of the arteries in a condition known as atherosclerosis. After the chemical is produced, it travels through the bloodstream to the liver where it is converted into a more harmful form.

The researchers linked the beneficial behavior of E. limosum to a specific family of proteins, and this link helps to explain how good gut bacteria positively contribute to human health. 

In the gut, good bacteria compete with bad bacteria for the same nutrients. By helping to eliminate the bad microbes, the good bacteria may prevent health problems that can develop as a result of metabolic issues.

More research is needed, but the experts believe there is a lot of potential for E. limosum to be used for therapeutic purposes. Previous studies have already established that the bacteria calms gut inflammation.

"Over the last decade, it has become apparent that bacteria in the human gut influence our health in many ways," said study senior author Professor Joseph Krzycki. "The organism we studied affects health by preventing a problematic compound from becoming a worse one." 

"It's too soon to say whether this bacterium could have therapeutic value. But that's what we're working toward."

The chemical linked to clogged arteries is called trimethylamine (TMA). This is produced during metabolism when intestinal microbes - usually the bad type of gut bacteria - interact with certain nutrients from food. One such nutrient is L-carnitine, a chemical compound in meat and fish that is often used as a supplement to improve recovery after exercise.

The researchers discovered that E. limosum interacts with L-carnitine in a different way in the gut, eliminating L-carnitine's role in production of TMA.

The bacteria's beneficial behavior has been attributed to the protein MtcB, an enzyme involved in demethylation. By removing a methyl group, this process changes a compound's structure or function. 

The study revealed that when E. limosum is exposed to L-carnitine, the bacteria synthesizes the MtcB protein to specifically target and cut off L-carnitine's methyl group.

"The bacterium does this for its own benefit, but it has the downstream effect of reducing the toxicity of TMA," said Professor Krzycki. "Up until now, the only known gut microbial reactions with L-carnitine involved converting it into its bad form." 

"We've discovered that a bacterium known to be beneficial could remove a methyl group and send the resulting product down another pathway without making any other harmful compounds in the process."

According to Professor Krzycki, finding this significant health benefit in one species of gut bacteria suggests there is still a lot to learn about how gut bacteria can influence health outcomes associated with human metabolism.

"MtcB is part of a family of proteins with thousands of representatives that may use different compounds and change what nutrients bacteria consume in the gut," said Professor Krzycki. "These proteins may behave very similarly chemically, but using different compounds obviously can create big changes as far as biology goes."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jbc.org/">Journal of Biological Chemistry</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Experts find a gut bacteria that reduces the risk of heart disease

Experts at Ohio State University have identified a type of...

Native bee populations have been declining across the globe as a result of colony collapse disorder (CCD), a strange phenomenon where most of the healthy adult bees of a colony simply vanish. Scientists believe that the disorder affects the ability of the bees to navigate, which is why they never return, and the colony faces sudden death.

Colony collapse disorder is caused by pesticides, poor nutrition, pests, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/simple-leg-stretches-can-lower-your-risk-of-heart-disease/">disease</a>. A new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a> suggests that one particular pathogen, Nosema, has been playing a major role in the collapse of bee colonies worldwide.

The experts say there is growing evidence that Nosema has caused a "pandemic," infecting bees around the world for the past two decades. Various strains of Nosema have been recorded in Europe, Canada and Kenya, yet the European honeybee has taken by far the hardest hit. 

The researchers said that very little is known about the impact of Nosema on native bees. Study lead author Arthur Grupe II is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.

"More work needs to be done to understand Nosema infections in native bee species and the potential consequences to native ecosystems, and if native bees suffer a similar fate as honeybees when infected," said Grupe.

Native bees are critically important pollinators in their local ecosystems, where honeybees are often absent. According to Grupe, one out of every three bites of the food we eat can be attributed to a pollinator.

Nosema is a spore-forming single-celled parasite that survives by infecting the guts of bees. When the pathogen enters a host cell, it reproduces and ruptures the cell to release its spores. Other cells in the body become infected as the spores are passed through the digestive tract.

Once a bee is infected by Nosema, it can contaminate flowers, pollen, and the hive. There are some types of Nosema so destructive that they mutilate the male genitalia of bumblebees and lower their sperm count.

The study shows that different strains, such as Nosema apis, are now appearing in new places. One particular strain, Nosema ceranae, is even persisting year-round when it was previously seasonal.

Nosema bombi has arrived in Colorado, where it is infecting bumblebees. While this is the only strain documented in Colorado so far, Gripe said the more detrimental N. ceranae is probably not far behind.

The study authors emphasize that it is crucial for scientists to better understand how these Nosema strains are traveling the globe and affecting native, solitary bees, as they could lead to further bee pandemics and contribute to colony collapse.

"We know so little about the biology of what's happening," said study co-author Professor Alisha Quandt. "That's one of the reasons why we think it's so important for people to start doing this kind of surveillance work, going out there and sampling more native bees."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/">PLOS Pathogens</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bees have been enduring a pandemic for decades

Native bee populations have been declining across the globe as...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

News coming your way