Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, University of Basel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tiny-spearguns-matter">Why tiny spearguns matter</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>.&nbsp;



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-detect-membrane-damage">Bacteria detect membrane damage</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler. Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacterial-response-to-membrane-damage">Bacterial response to membrane damage</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny weapons when their membrane is damaged

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria. According to new research, these cells react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. This work comes from the lab of Professor Marek Basler at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Why tiny spearguns matter These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (T6SS), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals....

In an international study led by the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>, experts have pinpointed genes that may help explain why some people age better than others. The analysis of genetic data from more than a million people suggests that healthy blood iron levels may be key to slower <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-uses-eye-scanner-to-measure-biological-aging/">aging</a> and longer life.

The study has major implications for slowing the progression of biological aging. According to the researchers, the findings could accelerate the development of drugs to reduce age-related diseases, extend healthy years of life, and increase the chances of living to old age free of disease.

"We are very excited by these findings as they strongly suggest that high levels of iron in the blood reduce our healthy years of life, and keeping these levels in check could prevent age-related damage," said study co-author Dr. Paul Timmers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/usher">Usher Institute</a>.

"We speculate that our findings on iron metabolism might also start to explain why very high levels of iron-rich red meat in the diet has been linked to age-related conditions such as heart disease."

The study was focused on three major factors that influence biological aging:  lifespan, longevity, and healthspan - years of life free of disease.

The rate at which the body declines, known as biological aging, is variable among individuals and is the primary driver of the most deadly diseases such as cancer and heart disease.

The comprehensive analysis was based on three public datasets. Collectively, the data represented the equivalent of 1.75 million lifespans.

The team pinpointed ten regions of the genome linked to long lifespan, longevity, and healthspan. 

The study revealed that gene sets linked to iron were overrepresented in all three measures of aging. This finding was confirmed with a statistical method known as Mendelian randomization, which suggested that genes involved in metabolizing iron in the blood play a major role in promoting a long, healthy life.

Blood iron levels are affected by diet. Unusually high or low iron levels are associated with age-related conditions such as Parkinson's disease, liver disease, and a declining ability to fight infection.

The study authors explained that developing a drug that can mimic the influence of genetic variation on iron metabolism could be a future step to overcome some of the effects of aging, but also emphasized that further research is needed.

"Our ultimate aim is to discover how aging is regulated and find ways to increase health during aging," said Dr. Joris Deelen from the <a href="https://www.age.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging</a>.

'The ten regions of the genome we have discovered that are linked to lifespan, healthspan and longevity are all exciting candidates for further studies."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Blood iron levels may be key to a long, healthy life

In an international study led by the University of Edinburgh,...

A poor work-life balance may be more of a threat to our well-being than previously realized, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.biomedcentral.com/">Biomed Central</a>. Beyond the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/inflammatory-response-to-stress-linked-to-brown-fat-cells/">stress</a> associated with working too much, researchers have found that a lack of quality personal, social, and family time is associated with generally poorer health.

Working adults are often faced with the challenge of juggling work deadlines, financial obligations, and urgent responsibilities at home.  With a limited number of hours in the day, work-life conflicts are basically inevitable.

According to new research, the pressure of trying to strike a good balance between work and personal life can take a major toll on our health.

To investigate, researchers analyzed data from the 6th European Working Condition Survey, which involved 32,275 working adults in 30 countries. 

Survey participants reported on their general health and how well their work schedule fit with family or social commitments.

The analysis revealed that adults who reported poor work-life balance were twice as likely to also report poor health. The association was slightly higher among women than men, even though men reported poor work-life balance more frequently. 

Men were found to be more likely to have the freedom to choose their own work hours, while women mostly had work schedules that were determined by their employers.

Study lead author Aziz Mensah is a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/(en)/">University of Bielefeld</a>.

"Traditional and societal expectations of behavior for men and women, where women are responsible for caregiving and household activities and men responsible for paid work, may explain the gender work-life imbalance and adverse health outcomes we observed," said Mensah.

The researchers also compared work-life conflict and self-reported health across different regions in Europe. Working adults in the Nordic countries, including Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Norway, were the most likely to report a good work-life balance. 

By contrast, men and women in Southern Europe, including Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Cyprus, and Malta, were the least likely to report having a good work-life balance.

"Long working hours, increased psychological involvement in work, inflexible working times and role overload can all contribute to work-life conflict among employees. Variations in socioeconomic policies common to multiple countries, such as parental leave, support for child and elderly care, and general welfare and equality policies, may also have an effect on the balance of work and family life," said study co-author Dr. Nicholas Kofi Adjei.

According to the researchers, the findings highlight a need for organizations and policymakers to provide working conditions and social policies which allow adults to deal with competing demands from work and family activities without a negative effect on health.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Public Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Work-life conflicts have a negative impact on health

A poor work-life balance may be more of a threat...

Individuals who are obese have an increased likelihood of developing severe COVID-19 infection, and this link has been observed in patients with only mild obesity, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ese-hormones.org/">European Society of Endocrinology</a>.

The research shows that BMI over 30 is associated with a significantly higher risk of respiratory failure, admission to intensive care, and death among COVID-19 patients. 

The correlation between mild obesity and life-threatening COVID-19 infection was found regardless of age, gender, and other pre-existing health conditions.

Obesity is a global epidemic that is linked to a number of chronic illnesses including diabetes and heart disease. Since the start of the pandemic, several studies have identified obesity as a risk factor for the development of potentially fatal COVID-19 infection.

In the United States and the UK, the current guidelines for identifying individuals with a higher risk of severe COVID-19 are set at a BMI of 40 and above. The new study suggests that the risk is elevated with much lower BMI scores.

A team of researchers led by Dr. Matteo Rottoli from the Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna analyzed the outcomes of almost 500 patients hospitalized with COVID-19. 

The study confirmed that obesity is a risk factor for severe infection, but also revealed that any BMI higher than 30 was associated with adverse outcomes.

"Our study showed that any grade of obesity is associated with severe COVID-19 illness and suggests that people with mild obesity should also be identified as a population at risk," said Dr. Rottoli.

While the link between higher BMI and severe COVID-19 illness is strong, the underlying cause is not yet clear. Some of the potential mechanisms include: an impaired immune response to viral infections, alterations of lung function, and obesity-related chronic inflammatory states.

"Our hypothesis is that Sars-CoV-2 infection outcomes depend on the metabolic profile of patients and that obesity, interlaced with diabetes and metabolic syndrome are involved too," said Dr. Rottoli.

"The BMI cut-off should be reassessed to ensure we identify everyone at higher risk of serious infection and to avoid underestimating the potential population impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly in Western countries with higher obesity rates."

The study is published in the <a href="https://eje.bioscientifica.com/">European Journal of Endocrinology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Mild obesity linked to greater risk of severe COVID-19 infection

Individuals who are obese have an increased likelihood of developing...

Social distancing and isolation puts older adults at a higher risk of  physical inactivity and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sedentary-behavior-linked-to-higher-risk-of-cancer-mortality/">sedentary</a> behavior. Experts at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of Sao Paulo</a> in Brazil have published a report on the dangers of physical inactivity for older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. 

According to the researchers, older adults who do not get regular exercise become more susceptible to COVID-19 and other chronic diseases, as well as weakened muscles and frailty.

The experts noted that it only takes five to 10 days of physical inactivity for muscles to begin shrinking. This can speed up the progression of muscle loss, which subsequently increases the risk of serious conditions including cancer, chronic inflammation, and neurological disorders.

Previous studies have shown that older adults who walk fewer than 1,500 steps a day can lose as much as four percent of the muscle tissue in their legs in just two weeks.

The actual impact of the pandemic on physical activity is not yet known, but the researchers said that wearable fitness trackers are providing early estimates. Data from 30 million users worldwide suggest that there was a 12 percent step-count decline in the United States during the week of March 22, 2020 compared to the same week in 2019. In some other countries, the step counts were reduced even more dramatically.

Muscle weakness and frailty is a known risk factor for death in older adults. Two weeks of inactivity, or a 75 percent daily step reduction, has been found to decrease muscle strength by 8 percent. Research has also shown that two weeks of rehabilitation exercises failed to help individuals rebuild their muscle strength. 

Furthermore, a reduction of 1,000 to 1,500 steps per day is linked to higher blood sugar levels and increased inflammation.

According to the study authors, strategies to reduce the potential unhealthy effects of isolation are extremely important. Resistance exercise is a proven strategy for increasing muscle mass, strength, and mobility, even for people in their 90s, the experts said. Exercise programs that can be practiced at home are especially helpful during isolation, and can help improve strength and prevent life-threatening falls. 

The researchers suggest that health education for older adults should introduce light activity into daily routines, focusing on sitting less and moving more. Some easy ways to incorporate more movement into a daily routine at home include strolling or standing up during television commercial breaks, engaging in leisure activities such as dancing or walking, and performing light household chores like cleaning and gardening.

"There is evidence that older individuals with higher age‐adjusted cardiovascular fitness and regular physical activity show better vaccine responses, lower low‐grade inflammation, and improved immune markers in various conditions, including cancer and cardiometabolic diseases," wrote the study authors. "Whether this holds true for COVID‐19 remains to be investigated."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15325415">Journal of American Geriatrics Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Physical inactivity is especially dangerous for older adults

Social distancing and isolation puts older adults at a higher...

Experts have identified a tipping point at which the rapid spread of invasive species will cause major <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/turku-scientists-race-against-the-clock-to-save-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> loss. The researchers found that a 20 to 30 percent increase in non-native plants and animals will result in the loss of many native species worldwide.

Human activities such as global trade and transport are increasingly moving species into regions where they are not usually found. Invasive plants and animals can cause major problems in their new habitats, where they compete with native wildlife for food and often trasmit diseases.

While the historical movement of invasive species has been well-studied, the potential magnitude of this issue - as well as the future consequences - are largely unknown.

The current study was conducted by 38 researchers from Europe, North and South America, New Zealand and South Africa. The international team was led by Franz Essl and Bernd Lenzner of the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>.

"At the moment it is not yet possible to generate precise predictions based on computer models as to how the spread and impact of alien species will change in the future," said Essl. "Therefore, expert assessments via standardized surveys are an important tool to obtain a better understanding of the causes and consequences of the spread and impact of alien species for the coming decades."

The experts determined that when 20 to 30 percent more invasive species become established, which could happen in the near future, a large amount of wildlife will be completely phased out of their native habitats.

According to the study findings, humans are the driving force behind the introduction of invasive species in three main ways: the increasing global transport of goods, human-induced climate change, and economic development including land use changes. 

"There has been a rapid escalation in the number of non-native species being transported and introduced by humans around the world; the adverse effects of some of these so called invasive non-native species on biodiversity and ecosystems has been extensively documented," said study co-author Helen Roy of the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a>.

"It is now critical that we work collaboratively to predict future patterns so that we can inform appropriate action going forward - such as improved biosecurity to prevent further introductions of the most damaging invasive non-native species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Invasive species could cause dramatic biodiversity loss

Experts have identified a tipping point at which the rapid...

Researchers at the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> are providing new insight into the causes and health impacts of poor <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/indias-air-quality-improves-as-lockdown-continues/">air quality</a>. The study reveals that each year, approximately 100,000 deaths are tied to various sources of air pollution in the United States.

While about half of these deaths can be linked to fossil fuel emissions, the researchers also identified sources of deadly pollution that are much less obvious.

"People usually think of power plants and cars, but nowadays, livestock and wood stoves are as big of a problem," said study co-author Sumil Thakrar. "It's also our farms and our homes." 

The study showed that government regulations have succeeded in reducing pollution from some sectors of the economy, such as electricity and transportation. Meanwhile, other polluting sectors like agriculture and residential buildings have received much less attention.

The investigation was focused on data from the EPA on all sources of pollution in the United States, including their locations and total emissions. Using newly-developed computer models, the team analyzed the data to determine where pollution travels and how it affects human health.

Previous studies have linked one particularly harmful pollutant, PM2.5, to heart attacks, strokes, lung cancer, and other diseases. 

The current investigation revealed that about half of all deaths from PM2.5 are a result of burning fossil fuels. The remaining PM2.5 pollution-related deaths were largely tied to animal farming, dust from construction and roads, and wood burning for heating and cooking.

"Essentially we're asking, 'what's killing people and how do we stop it?'" said Thakrar. "The first step in reducing deaths is learning the impact of each and every emission source."

Air quality in the U.S. is primarily regulated by the federal government, which sets maximum pollution limits. The study authors suggest regulators can improve this approach by focusing instead on reducing emissions from specific sources.

"Targeting particularly damaging pollution sources is a more efficient, and likely more effective, way of regulating air quality," said study co-author Professor Jason Hill. "Think of springing a leak in your boat while out fishing. Why fret too much about how much water is coming in when what you really should be doing is plugging the hole?"

The study also revealed that PM2.5 is harmful to human health in other forms beyond vehicle exhaust. 

Ammonia, which is released from animal manure and the fertilization of crops, was found to be responsible for about 20,000 deaths caused by man-made PM2.5 pollution. However, ammonia is not regulated to any large extent, noted the researchers.

"Our work provides key insights into the sources of damage caused by air pollution and suggests ways to reduce impacts," said Thakrar. "We hope policymakers and the public will use this to improve the lives of Americans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Study reveals sources of deadly air pollution in the U.S. 

Researchers at the University of Minnesota are providing new insight...

When it comes to predicting heat waves, a new study from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> shows that the necessary data already exists, and simply needed a new approach. The experts found clear patterns in temperature evolution that precede abrupt global warming events.

"Critical transitions have been identified in global and regional climate systems, during which a small perturbation can lead to a qualitative change. They are notoriously difficult to predict and can have potential catastrophic impacts on ecosystems and human society," wrote the study authors. 

"However, certain characteristics may exist prior to such transitions, and can serve as the early‐warning signals to predict critical transitions in climate systems. Here we investigate the early‐warning signals in global warming and regional heat waves based on temperature records."

The researchers analyzed temperature records during the early 20th century - before global warming - as well as temperatures leading up to recent heat waves. The analysis revealed clear patterns that can serve as early warning signals of extreme heat waves.

Study co-author Chenghao Wang is a former ASU Research Scientist who is now at the Department of Earth System Science at Stanford University. 

"Many studies have identified such changes in climate systems, like the sudden end of a glacial period," said Wang. "These qualitative changes usually have early-warning signals several thousand years before them."

"We detected similar signals in events much shorter than previous studies. We found early-warning signals also exist before global warming and heat waves on the time scale of years and days."

Beyond looking at historical data, the experts have been tracking current temperature fluctuations based on data from airport weather stations. The researchers explained that when three consecutive days are unusually hot compared to the 30-year record, it is considered a heat wave.

"This method isn't just applicable for predicting extreme weather events in the next few days or weeks," said Professor Zhihua Wang. "It observes human-induced variabilities and will support prediction over the next decades or even century." 

According to Professor Wang, the new analytic method creates a "completely new frontier" for evaluating how things like global energy consumption and, conversely, the introduction of urban green infrastructure, are affecting climate change. 

"We're not replacing existing evaluation tools. The data is already there. It's enabling us to gauge what actions are having an impact."

For their investigation, Chenghao Wang and Professor Zhihua Wang also collaborated with rising high school junior Linda Sun at Horace Greely High School in Chappaqua, New York.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists identify early warning signals of heat waves

When it comes to predicting heat waves, a new study...

Dinosaurs first appeared during extreme climate change. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>, experts are describing an unusual time in Earth's history when the climate abruptly shifted in the middle of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-like-reptile-chewed-bones/">Triassic</a> period about 237 million years ago.

This major climate change event, known as the Carnian Pluvial Episode (CPE), was characterized by massive volcanic eruptions that released enormous amounts of carbon dioxide, intense rainfall, extreme heat and humidity, and the very first appearance of dinosaurs. 

Recent studies suggest that the volcanic eruptions caused the CPE, and that the resulting environmental conditions could have triggered  the early diversification of dinosaurs. 

However, a lack of precise dates for many Carnian sediments has made it difficult for scientists to draw important comparisons. In addition, there is a lack of relevant data for many regions outside of Europe, and it has remained unclear whether the CPE was truly a global climate change event.

The new study was led by Adriana Mancuso, a National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) researcher in Argentina. She and her team have found evidence that the CPE affected South America, which supports the theory that the climate changed drastically on a global scale.

"There are ample Triassic, and specifically Carnian, rocks and fossils in South America, and Argentina in particular, but until now there were no paleoclimatic studies that could conclusively show that the Carnian Pluvial Episode occurred in the southern hemisphere," said Mancuso.

The investigation was focused on Carnian rocks from the Los Rastros Formation, which is located in the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin in northwest Argentina. 

The experts managed to accurately date volcanic ash preserved in lake sediments for the first time, which allowed them to reconstruct the paleoclimate.

"Our study focused on these rocks because they had the perfect combination of a good fossil record, dateable ash layers, and rich climate data preserved in lake sediments," said study co-author Randall Irmis.

The team investigated detailed features in the sediments, such as the types of clay preserved and carbon and oxygen isotopes in freshwater limestone layers. The analysis revealed clues about the temperature, humidity, and aridity at the time the sediments were deposited.

Based on dates derived from the rocks, climate change in the southern hemisphere was found to correspond with the CPE in the northern hemisphere. 

Evidence of this particularly warm and humid time in the southern hemisphere is also contained in layers of sediments where the fossil footprints of early dinosaurs or their closest relatives have been discovered.

"Our study suggests that the appearance of dinosaurs in South America could be linked to the CPE, but the data available worldwide remains inconclusive," said Mancuso.

"To make a more robust global link between the CPE and dinosaur diversification will require many more detailed studies of paleoclimate with precise ages like we were able to do for the Los Rastros Formation in Argentina." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/gondwana-research">Gondwana Research</a>.

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Dinosaurs first appeared during extreme climate change

Dinosaurs first appeared during extreme climate change. In a new...

A new study from <a href="https://earth.stanford.edu/">Stanford Earth</a> reports that global methane emissions have reached the highest levels ever recorded. According to the researchers, the elevated methane concentrations are primarily tied to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-million-species-vanish/">human activities</a> including coal mining, oil and natural gas production, cattle ranching.

The findings are outlined in two papers published by researchers with the Global Carbon Project, an initiative led by Stanford University scientist Rob Jackson.

In the last two decades, methane emissions have skyrocketed to a rate that could cause dangerous global warming. Over 100 years, methane has 28 times the heat-trapping power of carbon dioxide. 

Climate models indicate that the latest known trajectory of methane emissions will lead to 3 or 4 degrees Celsius of warming before the end of this century. Scientists warn that at these temperatures, natural disasters such as floods and drought will intensify and become much more frequent.

The most recent year that we have complete global methane data for is 2017, when Earth's atmosphere absorbed nearly 600 million tons of methane. 

Methane levels were relatively stable in the early 2000s, but by 2017 human activities had driven methane emissions up by 50 million tons per year, according to the study. This annual increase in methane emissions is comparable to the climate impacts of putting 350 million more cars on the road.

"We still haven't turned the corner on methane," said Professor Jackson. "Emissions from cattle and other ruminants are almost as large as those from the fossil fuel industry for methane. People joke about burping cows without realizing how big the source really is."

The study showed that over the early 2000s to 2017, agriculture accounted for roughly two-thirds of all man-made methane emissions, while fossil fuels accounted for most of the remaining third. 

During the coronavirus pandemic, CO2 emissions dropped as a result of drastically reduced traffic and industrial activity. "There's no chance that methane emissions dropped as much as carbon dioxide emissions because of the virus," said Professor Jackson. "We're still heating our homes and buildings, and agriculture keeps growing."

The largest increases in atmospheric methane levels were found in three distinct regions: Africa and the Middle East; South Asia and Oceania, which includes Australia; and China. Each of these regions increased emissions by 10 to 15 million tons per year during the study period, and the United States followed close behind with an annual increase of 4.5 million tons.

"Natural gas use is rising quickly here in the U.S. and globally," said Professor Jackson. "It's offsetting coal in the electricity sector and reducing carbon dioxide emissions, but increasing methane emissions in that sector." 

According to Professor Jackson, greater natural gas production in the U.S. and Canada means more methane is being released from oil and gas wells and leaky pipelines.

Europe is the only region where atmospheric methane has decreased over the last two decades. "Policies and better management have reduced emissions from landfills, manure and other sources here in Europe. People are also eating less beef and more poultry and fish," said study lead author Marielle Saunois.

Despite growing concerns about methane released from thawing permafrost in the Arctic, the researchers found no evidence for increasing methane emissions in the Arctic - at least not by 2017. However, emissions from natural sources are not as easy to pinpoint as those from human activities.

"We have a surprisingly difficult time identifying where methane is emitted in the tropics and elsewhere because of daily to seasonal changes in how waterlogged soils are," said Professor Jackson.

The researchers conclude that lowering methane concentrations will require reducing fossil fuel use and controlling fugitive emissions such as leaks from pipelines and wells. Mitigation will also require changes to the way we feed cattle, grow rice, and what we eat. 

"We'll need to eat less meat and reduce emissions associated with cattle and rice farming, and replace oil and natural gas in our cars and homes," said Professor Jackson.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Global methane emissions hit highest levels ever recorded

A new study from Stanford Earth reports that global methane...

Experts have demonstrated that a single gene is all it takes to transform a female mosquito into a male mosquito. This finding is significant because male mosquitoes do not bite and are unable to transmit infectious <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/experts-find-a-gut-bacteria-that-reduces-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">diseases</a> like females.

Female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes require blood to produce eggs, which makes them primary carriers of the viruses that cause Zika and dengue fever.

Study co-author Zhijian Tu is a professor in the <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> Department of Biochemistry in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.

"The presence of a male-determining locus (M locus) establishes the male sex in Aedes aegypti and the M locus is only inherited by the male offspring, much like the human Y chromosome," said Professor Tu.

"By inserting Nix, a previously discovered male-determining gene in the M locus of Aedes aegypti, into a chromosomal region that can be inherited by females, we showed that Nix alone was sufficient to convert females to fertile males. This may have implications for developing future mosquito control techniques."

"We also discovered that a second gene, named myo-sex, was needed for male flight," said study first author Azadeh Aryan. "This work sheds light into the molecular basis of the function of the M locus, which contains at least 30 genes."

The researchers characterized multiple transgenic mosquito lines that expressed an extra copy of the Nix gene. Professor Maria Sharakhova and graduate research assistant Anastasia mapped the chromosomal insertion site of the duplicated copy of Nix.

In collaboration with experts at Texas A&amp;M University and the University of Virginia, the researchers established that the Nix transgene could convert females into males even without the M locus. The modified female mosquitoes had male-like gene expression and sexually dimorphic features.

"Nix-mediated sex conversion was found to be highly penetrant and stable over many generations in the laboratory, meaning that these characteristics will be inherited for generations to come," said study co-author Michelle Anderson.

In the future, the researchers plan to explore the mechanism by which the Nix gene activates the male developmental pathway and how the gene evolves within mosquito species of the same genus.

"We have found that the Nix gene is present in other Aedes mosquitoes. The question is: how did this gene and the sex-determining locus evolve in mosquitoes?" said Professor Tu.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

Infectious female mosquitoes converted into non-biting males

Experts have demonstrated that a single gene is all it...

A new study has revealed that some large <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-birds-looked-and-behaved-like-giant-penguins/">birds</a> rely on wind currents to fly through the air, without any need to flap their wings. The researchers discovered that the world's heaviest soaring bird, the Andean condor, only flaps its wings for one percent of the time spent flying.

Led by <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a>, the experts set out to investigate how the flight efforts of birds vary depending on environmental conditions. The research will provide new insight into the soaring capacity of large birds and the specific conditions that make flight costly.

The team used flight-recorders on Andean condors to track their wing movement during flight. The high-tech recorders logged every wingbeat, twist, and turn as the birds searched for food.

The researchers found that more than 75 percent of wing flapping was associated with take-off. Once in the air, however, the birds sustained soaring for extended time periods in a wide range of wind and thermal conditions. One bird even clocked five hours without flapping, covering more than 100 miles.

"Watching birds from kites to eagles fly, you might wonder if they ever flap," said study co-author Dr. Hannah Williams. "This question is important, because by the time birds are as big as condors, theory tells us they are dependent on soaring to get around."

"Our results revealed the amount the birds flapped didn't change substantially with the weather. This suggests that decisions about when and where to land are crucial, as not only do condors need to be able to take off again, but unnecessary landings will add significantly to their overall flight costs."

Professor Shepard pointed out that all of the birds observed in the study were immature, which demonstrates that low investment in flight is possible even in the early years of a condor's life.

Upon further analysis, the experts recognized that the birds faced challenges as they moved between weak thermals. The Andean condors flapped more as they reached the end of the glides between thermals when they were likely to be closer to the ground.

"This is a critical time as birds need to find rising air to avoid an unplanned landing. These risks are higher when moving between thermal updrafts," said study co-author Dr. Sergio Lambertucci.

"Thermals can behave like lava lamps, with bubbles of air rising intermittently from the ground when the air is warm enough. Birds may therefore arrive in the right place for a thermal, but at the wrong time."

"This is a nice example of where the behavior of the birds can provide insight into the behaviour of the air."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Andean condors ride wind currents for hours at a time

A new study has revealed that some large birds rely...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> are introducing a new scientific technique to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/employees-criminal-records-jobs/">criminal</a> justice system to help prevent wrongful convictions. The team has developed an improved method for presenting a lineup to eyewitnesses.

"Misidentification by eyewitnesses is a long-standing problem in our society. Our new lineup method uncovers the structure of eyewitness memory, removes decision bias from the identification process, and quantifies performance of individual witnesses," explained study co-author Professor Thomas D. Albright. "This study is a great example of using laboratory science to bring about criminal justice reform."

According to the Innocence Project, nearly 70 percent of people in the U.S. who are exonerated through DNA evidence were wrongly convicted as a result of misidentification by an eyewitness. 

Professor Albright said that a key factor in whether a witness will identify the correct person is the manner in which suspects are presented during the lineup. The two most common methods used by law enforcement are known as simultaneous and sequential lineups. 

A simultaneous lineup presents an eyewitness with six photographs of individuals at the same time, while a sequential lineup presents six photos, one at a time. The witness can either identify a suspect or reject the lineup if no suspect matches their memory of the crime scene.

The researchers set out to create a new lineup method that can estimate the strength of the memories that an eyewitness associates with each face in a lineup. This technique would eliminate unconscious biases that influence decisions.

"Traditional lineups just reveal the top choice - the tip of the iceberg. But the cause of the witness's decision is ambiguous. It may reflect strong memory for the culprit, or it may mean that the witness was not very discerning," said Professor Albright. "Our new procedure overcomes that ambiguity by revealing the strength of recognition memory for all lineup faces."

The scientists used a technique called the method of paired comparisons, which works similarly to an eye exam. Just like how a person looks through pairs of lenses to determine which lens is clearer, the eyewitness is presented with the photographs of two suspects and chooses the face that looks more similar to the person they remember from the crime scene. 

The procedure allows experts to calculate the strength of recognition memory for each lineup face, and these calculations can be statistically analyzed to measure the probability that the eyewitness can correctly identify the culprit.

"Our methods derive from a branch of science called sensory psychophysics," said study first Staff Scientist Sergei Gepshtein.

"Psychophysical tools are designed to reveal how properties of the physical world are ordered - or 'scaled' - in the mind. Our approach allowed us to peek into the 'black box' and measure how lineup faces are organized in the witness's memory in terms of their similarity to the culprit."

The paired comparison method produces more information about the identity of a culprit compared to previous techniques. Furthermore, it delivers an unprecedented scale for measuring the certainty or uncertainty of individual eyewitnesses, which is critical information for the judge and jury.

"The conduct of a lineup is just one application of our method. Another application is selection of lineup 'fillers,' which are faces of people known to be innocent. The fillers should not be too similar or too dissimilar to the suspect. Because the new method reveals the perceived similarity of faces, it can be used to optimize the choice of lineup fillers," said Gepshtein.

The study authors hope that the paired comparison lineup will soon be applied in police casework, leading to more correct identifications and fewer wrongful convictions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New scientific approach measures the certainty of eyewitnesses

Experts at the Salk Institute are introducing a new scientific...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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