Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, University of Basel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tiny-spearguns-matter">Why tiny spearguns matter</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>.&nbsp;



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-detect-membrane-damage">Bacteria detect membrane damage</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler. Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacterial-response-to-membrane-damage">Bacterial response to membrane damage</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny weapons when their membrane is damaged

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria. According to new research, these cells react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. This work comes from the lab of Professor Marek Basler at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Why tiny spearguns matter These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (T6SS), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals....

Flowers play a bigger role in spreading parasitic diseases to bees and other <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/farmers-can-help-save-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/">pollinators</a> than what was previously realized, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>. The researchers discovered that one in 11 flowers contains parasites associated with bee declines.

Furthermore, one in eight bees examined for the study was found to have at least one parasite.

Study senior author Scott McArt is an assistant professor of Entomology in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Cornell.

"We know very little about transmission of these diseases," said Professor McArt. "Our study shows that transmission can likely occur on a lot of different flowers, and the amount of disease in a community is shaped by both the floral community and the bee community."

The research was focused on 2,624 flowers from 89 species and 2,672 bees from 110 species through an entire growing season across field sites in upstate New York. Using molecular data for testing, the team identified five common parasites.

The study pinpointed three main factors that contribute to disease transmission: flower abundance, the numbers of social bees, and overall bee species diversity.

The number of total flowers increases as the season progresses, and the proportion of flowers with parasites decreases. This lowers the risk that a bee will encounter a flower that hosts a parasite.

"That has really important conservation implications, because if you want to limit disease spread, just plant a lot of flowers," said Professor McArt. "It's a win-win: If we plant flowers and create a lot of forage, we can also dilute disease."

The study showed that social bees, such as honeybees and bumblebees, were more likely to be infected with parasites than solitary bees. The researchers observed that later in the season, overall bee diversity drops but the number of social bees grows. Typically, higher species diversity slows the spread of disease.

"Both bee diversity and fewer of the social bees make it less likely for bees (overall) to be infected. That's another win for conservation: if we promote bee diversity, there will be less disease," explained Professor McArt. He noted that high numbers of infections in the social species may also spill over to infect other species.

Going forward, the team will investigate the potential for increased flower abundance to offset the negative effects of more social bees combined with less species diversity in late summer.

Further research may also explain why social bees are more susceptible to parasites.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Flowers spread parasitic bee diseases 

Flowers play a bigger role in spreading parasitic diseases to...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/">Pew Charitable Trusts</a>, experts have determined that the annual amount of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plastic-fibers-found-in-shrimp-are-not-harmful-to-human-health/">plastic</a> entering the ocean will triple over the next two decades unless immediate action is taken. On a positive note, the researchers also identified ways that this volume of plastic waste could be cut by more than 80 percent.

Pew collaborated with SYSTEMIQ and experts all over the world, using an advanced economic model to quantify the amount of plastic in the global system and compare the quantity of ocean plastic pollution between 2016 and 2040. The model simulations were run under six conditions, ranging from business as usual to a total overhaul of the world's plastics system.

The analysis revealed that if no action is taken to address the projected growth of plastic production, the amount of plastic entering the ocean each year will grow from 11 million metric tons to 29 million metric tons by 2040. This is the equivalent of nearly 110 pounds of plastic on each meter of coastline worldwide. 

In this scenario, the cumulative amount of plastic in the ocean could reach 600 million tons, with a weight of more than three million blue whales, in just 20 years. 

While some progress has been made, the experts determined that current commitments will only reduce the amount of plastic flowing into the ocean by seven percent. 

The researchers estimate that without major changes, about 4 billion people will be without organized waste collection services by 2040, which will substantially contribute to the projected amount of ocean plastic pollution.  

The report, "Breaking the Plastic Wave," has pinpointed a total of eight measures that could be combined to reduce the annual accumulation of by about 80 percent. These solutions include reducing growth in plastic production, substituting plastics with compostable alternatives, and increasing recycling.

Beyond improving the ocean, the recommended changes could generate savings of $70 billion for governments and create 700,000 jobs over the next 20 years.

"There's no single solution to ocean plastic pollution, but through rapid and concerted action we can break the plastic wave," said Tom Dillon, Pew's vice president for environment. "As this report shows, we can invest in a future of reduced waste, better health outcomes, greater job creation, and a cleaner and more resilient environment for both people and nature."

"Our results indicate that the plastic crisis is solvable. It took a generation to create this challenge; this report shows we can solve it in one generation," said Martin Stuchtey, SYSTEMIQ's founder and managing partner. "'Breaking the Plastic Wave' leaves no viable excuse on the table; we have today all the solutions required to stem plastic flows by more than 80 per cent. What we now need is the industry and government resolve to do so."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Plastic pollution in the ocean could triple by 2040

In a new study from Pew Charitable Trusts, experts have...

An international team of scientists has discovered for the first time that Vikings had smallpox 1,400 years ago. The experts have now genetically sequenced previously unknown strains of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/far-uvc-light-kills-99-9-percent-of-airborne-coronaviruses/">virus</a> that were found in the teeth of Viking skeletons from sites across northern Europe.

The findings suggest that Vikings helped to drive the worldwide spread of the virus, which was the deadliest in history. During the 20th century alone, an estimated 300 million people died of smallpox, before it became the only human infectious disease ever to be completely eradicated in 1980.

Study lead author Eske Willerslev is a professor in the Department of Zoology at <a href="https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/">St John's College, University of Cambridge</a>.

"We discovered new strains of smallpox in the teeth of Viking skeletons and found their genetic structure is different to the modern smallpox virus eradicated in the 20th century," said Professor Willerslev.

"We already knew Vikings were moving around Europe and beyond, and we now know they had smallpox. People traveling around the world quickly spread Covid-19 and it is likely Vikings spread smallpox. Just back then, they traveled by ship rather than by plane."

"The 1,400-year-old genetic information extracted from these skeletons is hugely significant because it teaches us about the evolutionary history of the variola virus that caused smallpox."

Historical documents suggest that smallpox may date back to as far as 10,000 BC., but the current study has produced the first scientific proof that the virus was present before the 17th century. 

While it is not known how it first infected humans, the smallpox virus is believed to have originated in animals just like COVID-19. When a pathogen jumps from an animal to a human, the resulting disease is referred to as a zoonotic disease.

The deadly disease, which spread through airborne respiratory droplets, killed about one-third of those infected and left just as many permanently scarred or blind.

"The timeline of the emergence of smallpox has always been unclear but by sequencing the earliest-known strain of the killer virus, we have proved for the first time that smallpox existed during the Viking Age," said study senior author Professor Martin Sikora from the Centre for GeoGenetics, University of Copenhagen.

"While we don't know for sure if these strains of smallpox were fatal and caused the death of the Vikings we sampled, they certainly died with smallpox in their bloodstream for us to be able to detect it up to 1,400 years later. It is also highly probable there were epidemics earlier than our findings that scientists have yet to discover DNA evidence of."

The researchers found traces of smallpox across 11 Viking-era burial sites in Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the UK. They also discovered smallpox in multiple human remains from Öland, an island off the east coast of Sweden with a long history of trade.

Using four of the samples collected from these sites, the team reconstructed near-complete variola virus genomes.

Study first author Dr. Lasse Vinner is a virologist from The Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre.

"Understanding the genetic structure of this virus will potentially help virologists understand the evolution of this and other viruses and add to the bank of knowledge that helps scientists fight emerging viral diseases,' said Dr. Conner.

"The early version of smallpox was genetically closer in the pox family tree to animal poxviruses such as camelpox and taterapox, from gerbils. It does not exactly resemble modern smallpox which show that virus evolved. We don't know how the disease manifested itself in the Viking Age - it may have been different from those of the virulent modern strain which killed and disfigured hundreds of millions."

Study senior author Dr. Terry Jones is a computational biologist at the Centre for Pathogen Evolution at the University of Cambridge.

"There are many mysteries around poxviruses. To find smallpox so genetically different in Vikings is truly remarkable. No one expected that these smallpox strains existed. It has long been believed that smallpox was in Western and Southern Europe regularly by 600 AD, around the beginning of our samples," said Dr. Jones.

"We have proven that smallpox was also widespread in Northern Europe. Returning crusaders or other later events have been thought to have first brought smallpox to Europe, but such theories cannot be correct. While written accounts of disease are often ambiguous, our findings push the date of the confirmed existence of smallpox back by a thousand years."

Dr Jones added that knowledge from the past can protect us in the present. "When an animal or plant goes extinct, it isn't coming back. But mutations can re-occur or revert and viruses can mutate or spill over from the animal reservoir so there will always be another zoonosis."

"Smallpox was eradicated but another strain could spill over from the animal reservoir tomorrow," said Professor Willerslev. "What we know in 2020 about viruses and pathogens that affect humans today, is just a small snapshot of what has plagued humans historically."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The Vikings had the world's deadliest virus 1,400 years ago

An international team of scientists has discovered for the first...

Even though there are more than 3,000 species of mosquitoes worldwide, there are only a few of these species that bite <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beluga-whales-form-complex-social-networks-like-humans/">humans</a>. Researchers set out to determine why certain mosquitoes developed a taste for human blood. They linked the evolution of human biting to a combination of two factors: prolonged dry climate conditions and increased human population density.  

Based on the findings, which have been published by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.092">Cell Press</a>, the experts predict that increased urbanization will lead to even more human-biting mosquitoes in the coming decades.

Study co-author Carolyn McBride is a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>.

"Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are invasive across the global tropics, where a strong preference for human hosts and habitats makes them important disease vectors," said Professor McBride.

"We found that in their native range of sub-Saharan Africa, they show extremely variable attraction to human hosts, ranging from strong preference for humans to strong preference for non-human animals."

Study co-author Noah Rose said mosquitoes living near dense human populations in cities such as Kumasi, Ghana, or Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, showed increased willingness to bite human hosts.

"But they only evolve a strong preference for human hosts in places with intense dry seasons - in particular, in the Sahel region, where rainfall is concentrated in just a couple months out of the year," said Rose. "We think this is because mosquitoes in these climates are especially dependent on humans and human water storage for their life cycle."

The researchers noted that while people tend to think of all mosquitoes as major pests, they are actually quite diverse and many of them do not bite humans at all. For the investigation, the team focused on Aedes aegypti - the primary spreader of dengue, Zika, yellow fever, and Chikungunya virus.

"Many people have speculated about why this species evolved to selectively bite humans, but our study is the first to address this question directly with systematic empirical data," said Professor McBride.

The researchers used special traps to capture Ae. aegypti eggs from multiple sites in 27 locations across sub-Saharan Africa. In the lab, they tested each mosquito population to examine whether the insects preferred the scent of people or other animals, including guinea pigs and quail.

The study revealed that mosquitoes living in dense urban cities were attracted to people more than those from rural areas. However, the researchers found that this only applied to modern cities, which means it was not the original driver of human biting among certain populations. This led to the discovery that mosquitoes living in places with longer and hotter dry seasons showed a stronger preference for a human scent.

"I was surprised that immediate habitat didn't have much of an effect - mosquitoes in forests and nearby towns had similar behavior," said Rose. "We thought that maybe moving into human landscapes would be a key driver of attraction to human hosts. But it seems like mosquitoes fly back and forth too readily between these habitats for their behavior to diverge in many cases."

"When we took a more regional view of things, we saw that regions with dense human populations had mosquitoes with a greater attraction to human hosts, but this wasn't dependent on the precise habitat we collected them from within each region."

"I was also surprised that climate was more important than urbanization in explaining present day behavioral variation. Many mosquitoes living in fairly dense cities don't particularly prefer to bite human hosts."

"I think it will be surprising to people that in many cities in Africa, this species actively discriminates against humans," said Professor McBride. "It is only when the cities become extremely dense or are located in places with more intense dry seasons that they become more interested in biting humans."

The researchers noted that climate change in the next few decades is not expected to drive major changes to the dry season dynamics that influence human biting in mosquitoes. But, they said, rapid urbanization could push more mosquitoes to bite humans in many cities across sub-Saharan Africa over the next 30 years.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Why do some mosquitoes have a taste for human blood?

Even though there are more than 3,000 species of mosquitoes...

High protein <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fasting-diets-are-effective-for-weight-loss/">diets</a>, especially those containing plant protein, have been linked to a longer and healthier life. After reviewing 32 relevant studies, researchers determined that higher protein intake is associated with a lower risk of death from any cause.

According to the study authors, the findings support current dietary recommendations to increase consumption of plant proteins in the general population.

A team of researchers based in Iran and the United States set out to investigate the dose-dependent health effects of animal, plant, and total protein.

The analysis was focused on data from 32 published studies that reported risk estimates for death from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer among adults over the age of 19.

The team used mathematical models to compare the effects of the highest versus lowest categories of protein intake, and evaluated the dose-response relations between protein intake and mortality.

During a follow-up period of up to 32 years, 16,429 participants died from cardiovascular disease and 22,303 died from cancer. The experts found that high intake of total protein was associated with a lower risk of all cause mortality.

Plant protein intake was linked with an 8 percent lower risk of all cause mortality and a 12 percent lower risk of fatal cardiovascular disease, while animal protein intake had no significant effect on its own.

Previous research has shown that 

plant proteins improve blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels. This may explain the lower the risk of conditions such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

The study authors acknowledge that the research has some limitations, such as differences in the way the studies assessed diet and the possibility that some effects may have been due to unmeasured factors. In addition, the majority of the participants were in Western nations.

However, strengths include the large number of participants and deaths, providing a detailed insight into the association between intake of dietary protein and risk of mortality based on the current evidence, noted the researchers.

"These findings have important public health implications as intake of plant protein can be increased relatively easily by replacing animal protein and could have a large effect on longevity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Plant proteins linked to longer, healthier life

High protein diets, especially those containing plant protein, have been...

The diets of ancient foxes may reveal the ecological impacts of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-million-species-vanish/">human activities</a> in the past, according to a new study from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/">University of Tübingen</a>. The researchers have discovered that foxes were already eating human leftovers 42,000 years ago.

Wild foxes feed on scraps left behind by larger predators like bears and wolves. However, the closer they live to civilization, the more their diets consist of food left behind by humans.

A team of researchers led by Chris Baumann theorized that if this behavior dates back to ancient times, then fox diets may be useful indicators of human impacts on ecosystems of the past.

The investigation was focused on the remains of various herbivores, large carnivores, and foxes from several archaeological sites in southwest Germany dating to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. The researchers analyzed carbon and nitrogen isotopes and compared them among the animal remains.

At sites older than 42,000 years, when Neanderthals infrequently occupied the region, fox diets were found to be similar to the local large carnivores. However, in the younger sites frequently occupied by Homo sapiens, the animals developed a more unique diet consisting largely of reindeer.

"We observed that during the Middle Palaeolithic period, when Neanderthals sparsely populated the Swabian Jura, the niches occupied by foxes suggest a natural trophic behavior," wrote the study authors. "In contrast, during the early Upper Palaeolithic periods, a new trophic fox niche appeared, characterized by a restricted diet on reindeer."

While reindeer are too large for foxes to hunt, they are known to have been important game for humans at this time in history.

The findings suggest that during the Upper Palaeolithic, the foxes made a shift from feeding on scraps left by local large predators to eating food left behind by humans. This means that the animals started relying on human food at least 42,000 years ago.

"Dietary reconstructions of ice-age foxes have shown that early modern humans had an influence on the local ecosystem as early as 40,000 years ago," said the reseachers. "The more humans populated a particular region, the more the foxes adapted to them."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Foxes have been eating human scraps for 42,000 years

The diets of ancient foxes may reveal the ecological impacts...

In a study that started out as a local project to collect dragonfly larvae, researchers have found that the young dragonflies can be used as an indicator of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mercury-pollution-has-reached-the-deepest-ocean-trenches/">mercury</a> pollution. The discovery will be useful for estimating mercury levels in birds, fish, and amphibians.

Study co-author Celia Chen is the director of the Toxic Metals Superfund Research Program at <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a>.

"Researchers needed a proxy for fish since that is what people and animals eat," said Chen. "Fish can be hard to work with for a national-level research program, so it's helpful to be able to focus our research on dragonfly larvae."

Dragonflies are found in diverse freshwater habitats across six continents. They have tissues that take up mercury in its toxic form, or methylmercury, which is formed by microbial activity in aquatic environments. 

From 2009 to 2018, more than 4,000 citizen scientists helped to collect almost 15,000 dragonfly larvae in 100 national parks across the United States. The researchers analyzed the samples for total mercury and methylmercury. 

"The support of citizen scientists around the country created the opportunity for this study to have such significance. This is a terrific example of how public outreach around science can bring results that help the entire country," said Chen.

Elevated mercury concentrations were found at several parks, but these levels varied by more than a hundredfold among different sites throughout the parks.

Mercury concentrations were found to be higher in larvae from rivers and streams than in larvae from lakes and ponds.

The experts also determined that mercury concentrations correlated with those in fish and amphibians at the same sites, which led to the development of a tool to predict mercury in other species using dragonfly larvae. 

Overall, the research showed that about two-thirds of the aquatic sites sampled were polluted with moderate-to-extreme levels of mercury.

Since the parks examined for the study span the entire United States, including Alaska and Hawaii, the findings reflect mercury levels throughout the country.

"To date, we have not conducted such a broad scale survey on mercury in the U.S. The beauty of the dragonfly data set is that it is national, covers a huge area with different systems, and has the potential to create a national baseline of mercury pollution information," said Chen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Dragonflies reveal mercury pollution levels in national parks

In a study that started out as a local project...

Scientists have conducted the first-ever worldwide survey of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-value-of-coral-reefs-in-the-red-sea/">reef</a> sharks. The study revealed that sharks have basically vanished from one out of every five coral reefs.

Study co-author Professor Colin Simpfendorfer of <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/">James Cook University</a> said that among the 371 reefs surveyed in 58 countries, sharks were rarely seen on nearly 20 percent of those reefs.

"This doesn't mean there are never any sharks on these reefs, but what it does mean is that they are 'functionally extinct' - they are not playing their normal role in the ecosystem," explained Professor Simpfendorfer.

Across 69 coral reefs in the Dominican Republic, the French West Indies, Kenya, Vietnam, the Windward Dutch Antilles, and Qatar, there was almost no sign of sharks.

"In these countries, only three sharks were observed during more than 800 survey hours," said Professor Simpfendorfer.

According to Dr. Demian Chapman of Florida International University, the main problem is clearly the intersection between high human population densities, destructive fishing practices, and poor governance.

"We found that robust shark populations can exist alongside people when those people have the will, the means, and a plan to take conservation action," added Dr. Chapman.

Professor Simpfendorfer said it was encouraging that Australia was among the best nations at protecting shark populations and ensuring they played their proper role in the environment.

"We're up there along with such nations as the Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia and the US. These nations reflect key attributes that were found to be associated with higher populations of sharks: being generally well-governed, and either banning all shark fishing or having strong, science-based management limiting how many sharks can be caught."

Jody Allen is the co-founder and chair of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation, which backs the <a href="https://globalfinprint.org/">Global FinPrint</a> project. She said the results exposed a tragic loss of sharks from many of the world's reefs, but also provided some hope.

"The data collected from the first-ever worldwide survey of sharks on coral reefs can guide meaningful, long-term conservation plans for protecting the reef sharks that remain," said Allen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Sharks have vanished from 20 percent of coral reefs  

Scientists have conducted the first-ever worldwide survey of reef sharks....

A new study from the <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a> (SFI) is describing how spider monkeys create dynamic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-harms-bees-ability-to-forage-for-food/">foraging</a> teams to collectively gain a better understanding of their environment. The researchers found that the monkeys exploit the knowledge of their teammates to make informed decisions.

The study was focused on wild spider monkeys in a protected area near Punta Laguna, Mexico, who live in a fission-fusion society. With this type of community, the composition of the social group changes over time. The animals merge into a group for sleeping and other activities, but split up into small foraging teams during the day.

"By forming these subgroups - constantly coming together and splitting - the spider monkeys develop a more thorough knowledge of their environment," said study lead author Gabriel Ramos-Fernandez of the National Autonomous University of Mexico.

'They seem to be pooling information about resources, so that as a group they know their environment better than any individual does on its own."

Over two years, the research team recorded the interactions of 47 monkeys for five hours per day. Ramos-Fernandez said that the monkeys, which are accustomed to being observed by people, typically formed subgroups of two to 17 animals. However, these subgroups only stayed together for one to two hours. "We noted who was where, and with whom, at any given time."

According to the observations, the monkeys make individual choices on how long to stay on a foraging team and when to switch to another. This behavior produces a range of foraging team sizes.

The researchers teamed up with computational experts at SFI to investigate how the monkeys collectively compute team sizes by using an approach called inductive game theory.

"This kind of methodology is useful for studying optimal foraging because it requires no a priori assumptions about benefits and costs," said Ramos-Fernandez. 

The analysis revealed that a monkey's decision to stay with or leave a foraging team was influenced by the decisions of their teammates. This behavior indicates that spider monkeys take into account the opinions of others on optimal team size and use those opinions to inform their own choices. 

The collective decisions ultimately produced a range of team sizes that worked well given the availability of fruiting trees in the monkeys' forest, even though the team sizes were not a perfect match. 

The research has implications for understanding the behavior of other collective systems, including flocks of birds or groups of fish.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/robotics-and-ai">Frontiers in Robotics and AI</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Spider monkeys use collective wisdom to find more food

A new study from the Santa Fe Institute (SFI) is...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a>, researchers have determined that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/darkling-beetle-larvae-can-degrade-plastic-in-their-gut/">plastic</a> contamination found in shrimp does not pose a threat to their health or to the health of the humans that consume them. 

The investigation was focused on shrimp from three fishing zones in the Mediterranean Sea. Some of the samples, which were collected in 2017 and 2018, were compared to samples from the same sites collected 10 years ago. This made it possible for the researchers to establish the changes in microplastic concentrations over the ten-year period.

Three out of every four shrimp examined in the study contained plastic fibers in their digestive tract. Nearly half of the affected shrimp had a large portion of the fibers tangled into a ball inside their stomach.

In one specific sample, shrimp collected off the coast of Barcelona had up to 30 times as many synthetic fibers as those from other fishing zones. 

Surprisingly, there was no significant increase in the abundance of fibers among shrimp collected in 2017-2018 when compared to the 2007 samples. The main difference was that the composition had changed over time, shifting from acrylic polymers to polyester.

The researchers found no evidence to suggest that the presence of plastic fibers had an adverse impact on the health of the animals. All of the shrimp, including those with a considerable accumulation of fibers, were in good health. For example, no damage was observed in the organs analyzed, not even in the tissue that came into direct contact with the artificial fibers. 

"The shrimp probably get rid of all of the fibers they ingest and accumulate thanks to the shedding of their exoskeleton which takes place every so often, and this could explain why although an abundance of these fibers have been found in some shrimp, they continue to show signs of being healthy," explained study co-author Ester Carreras.

According to the researchers, "the consumption of shrimp is in no way a contaminating agent that should concern us." 

"Other studies show that ingesting microplastics through shrimp is minimal in comparison to the amount of fibers entering our bodies through other means, such as the use of plastic packagings or environmental contamination, or through the synthetic fibers in clothes and also those found in dust and which inevitably also end up in our plates," said Carreras.

A previous study in the UK estimated that an individual ingests 14,000 to 68,000 microplastic particles from in the dust and air each year. With this in mind, the average of 22 fibers found in shrimp would not be harmful - especially considering that 90 percent of the particles were located in the shrimp's "head," which is usually not eaten.

"Soon it will be time to discover whether common commercial fish from our coastal waters such as red mullet, surmullet or striped mullet, and anchovy, follow the same path," said Carreras.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-pollution">Environmental Pollution</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Plastic fibers in shrimp are not harmful to human health

In a new study from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,...

A new study led by experts at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> highlights the risks of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-could-help-asian-carp-invade-lake-michigan/">global warming</a> for individuals with cardiovascular issues. According to the research, rising temperatures over the last two decades have led to a substantial increase in heat-related cardiovascular hospitalizations.

Heart conditions such as coronary artery disease and arrhythmias are exacerbated by extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, increasing the risk of a fatal stroke and heart attack. Climate change is increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme temperatures.

Previous studies have found a decrease in the link between extreme heat and cardiovascular deaths, suggesting that people may have adapted to the warming climate. The current research, however, indicates that the correlation between heat and fatal heart events has actually strengthened over time.

"Most studies have only focused on hot temperature and mortality," explained the researchers. "We aim to investigate the temporal variations in the association between ambient temperature and hospitalizations for cardiovascular diseases."

The study was focused on data involving 1,855,717 cardiovascular hospitalizations in Queensland between 1995 and 2016. During these years, the daily average temperature in Queensland increased from 20.9 degrees Celsius to 21.7 degrees Celsius, and the annual number of cardiovascular hospitalizations increased from 46,730 to 123,477. 

The relative risk of cardiovascular hospitalization associated with high temperatures was found to increase over time, regardless of the patients' age, sex, or climate zone. On the other hand, the impact of cold temperatures was found to decrease over time. 

The adverse effects of heat were stronger in male patients. The impacts of heat were also stronger among people less than 70 years old compared to those over 70.

"The findings highlight that Queensland people have adapted to the impacts of cold temperatures, but not high temperatures," wrote the study authors.

"Given the increased associations between hot temperatures and cardiovascular hospitalization and the acceleration of global warming, we highlight a worrying trend that the burden of cardiovascular healthcare facilities is to increase over time on high temperature days."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/">PLOS Medicine</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Heat-related cardiovascular hospitalizations are on the rise 

A new study led by experts at Monash University highlights...

The potential health benefits of cinnamon have been widely studied. Previous research has found that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in cinnamon lower the risk of conditions such as heart disease.

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.endocrine.org/">Endocrine Society</a> suggests that cinnamon improves blood sugar control in people with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/federal-nutrition-research-is-urgently-needed-in-america/">prediabetes</a> and could slow the progression to type 2 diabetes (T2D).

An estimated 90 million people have prediabetes in the United States, which is characterized by high blood sugar levels and often leads to type 2 diabetes. It is possible to prevent the progression of prediabetes to T2D, but identifying effective prevention strategies has been challenging. 

Study lead author Dr. Giulio R. Romeo is an endocrinologist at the Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston.

"Our 12-week study showed beneficial effects of adding cinnamon to the diet on keeping blood sugar levels stable in participants with prediabetes," said Dr. Romeo. "These findings provide the rationale for longer and larger studies to address if cinnamon can reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes over time."

The researchers used a randomized clinical trial (RCT) to examine the effects of cinnamon supplementation in 51 participants with prediabetes. For 12 weeks, Participants were given a 500 mg cinnamon capsule or a placebo three times a day. 

The study revealed that individuals who received the supplements had lower fasting glucose levels and an improved response to eating a meal with carbohydrates. In addition, cinnamon was not associated with negative side effects.

"In conclusion, treatment with cinnamon for 12 weeks, compared to placebo, resulted in favorable changes on measures of glucose homeostasis in a representative population of participants with prediabetes," wrote the study authors. 

"These findings should set the foundation for a longer and larger RCT that directly addresses the impact of cinnamon on incident T2D and/or remission of prediabetes."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jes">Journal of the Endocrine Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Cinnamon helps control blood sugar in prediabetics

The potential health benefits of cinnamon have been widely studied....

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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