Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, University of Basel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tiny-spearguns-matter">Why tiny spearguns matter</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>.&nbsp;



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-detect-membrane-damage">Bacteria detect membrane damage</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler. Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacterial-response-to-membrane-damage">Bacterial response to membrane damage</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny weapons when their membrane is damaged

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria. According to new research, these cells react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. This work comes from the lab of Professor Marek Basler at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Why tiny spearguns matter These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (T6SS), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals....

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> suggests that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-nutritional-appeal-of-moon-jellyfish/">jellyfish</a> or sardines could replace fish and chips in an effort to make commercial fishing more sustainable and to protect threatened species. The experts said that when it comes to seafood, you don't always know what you are actually eating.

After analyzing global industrial fishing records, the researchers found that 92 endangered species are caught for seafood, 11 of which are critically endangered.

Study lead author Leslie Roberson is a PhD candidate in the UQ Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science. She noted that it is legal to fish for species that are threatened with extinction, and that seafood does not have to be labeled according to its species.

"This means that the 'fish,' 'flake' or 'cod' that Australians typically order at the fish and chip shop could be critically endangered," said Roberson.

"Australian seafood is not as sustainable as consumers would like to think, and it's definitely not in line with many of the large international conservation agreements that Australia has signed to protect threatened species and ecosystems."

"We would never consider eating mountain gorillas or elephants, both of which are endangered."

Study co-author Dr. Carissa Klein was recently awarded an ARC Future Fellowship to research the nation's seafood consumption and find ways to make the industry more sustainable. Her team will investigate the costs and benefits of embracing different types of seafood that can be caught more sustainably within Australian waters, such as abalone and wild-caught sardines.

Dr. Klein said Australia was just one of many wealthy countries importing and catching threatened seafood species while maintaining its international marine conservation reputation.

"Australia imports around 75 percent of the seafood we consume and is internationally regarded as having effective conservation and fisheries management policies," said Dr. Klein.

"When importing seafood from other places, we are displacing any social or environmental problems associated with fishing to that place, which is likely to have less capacity to sustainably manage its ocean."

According to the study authors, the number of threatened species they recorded was a very conservative estimate.

"The seafood industry is difficult to manage from a conservation perspective because it has supply chains that span multiple international waters, without a governing body," said Roberson.

"A typical situation might look something like - a fishing boat operating in Australian waters, owned by a Chinese company, with a crew of fishermen from the Philippines. Then one part of the fish might get processed in China, and the other can go to Europe."

"We don't know what we're eating, it's really hard to trace seafood back to its origin and species because the industry is such a mess."

"Improving the sustainability of Australia's seafood trade policies could significantly benefit the ocean worldwide, as well as the billions of people that depend on a healthy ocean for their health and livelihoods," said Dr. Klein.

"It should be illegal to eat something that is threatened by extinction, especially species that are critically endangered - if we can better coordinate fisheries and conservation policies, we can prevent it from happening."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts work to take threatened species off the seafood menu

A new study from the University of Queensland suggests that...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> (PIK) have found that large volcanic eruptions can help predict seasonal <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/not-enough-is-known-about-how-rainfall-affects-tropical-animals/">rainfall</a> in India. While volcanic activity and monsoon season may seem to be completely unrelated, the team reports that there is a strong coupling between the monsoon over large parts of South and Southeast Asia and El Niño events triggered by eruptions.

Rainfall during the summer monsoon season is critically important for India's agricultural industry, which supports about one billion people.

The study was focused on data from meteorological observations, climate records, computer model simulations, and geological archives such as tree-rings and ice cores representing thousands of years of Earth's history.

The experts discovered that when the natural climate variability of El Niño coincides with the monsoon season, it is easier to anticipate the strength of seasonal rainfall across southern India. 

Study co-author Dr. R. Krishnan is the executive director of the Center for Climate Change Research at Indian Institute for Tropical Meteorology.

"The tiny particles and gases that a large volcano blasts into the air enter into the stratosphere and remain there for a few years. While the volcanic matter in the stratosphere to some extent blocks sunshine from reaching the Earth's surface, the reduced solar forcing increases the probability of an El Niño event in the next year," explained Dr. Krishnan. 

"This is because less sunshine means less warmth and hence a change of temperature differences between the Northern and Southern hemisphere, which in turn affects the atmospheric large-scale circulation and precipitation dynamics." 

"Advanced data analysis now reveals that large volcanic eruptions are more likely to promote the coincidence of warm El Niño events over the Pacific and Indian monsoon droughts - or, in contrast, cool La Niña events over the Pacific and Indian monsoon excess."

Study co-author Norbert Marwan said that the synchronization between the tropical Pacific Ocean and Indian monsoon is changing over time, which is partially driven by global warming - making monsoon predictions even less accurate.

"This in fact confirms a hypothesis that our colleagues Maraun and Kurths launched 15 years ago. The new findings now suggest a novel, additional path for monsoon predictions that are crucial for agricultural planning in India," said Marwan.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How volcanic activity helps predict the Indian monsoon

Experts at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK)...

A new study that tracked the development of whale sharks over ten years has produced the first evidence that males and females of this <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-and-tropical-species-may-vanish-at-alarming-rates/">species</a> develop differently. The investigation revealed that even though the male sharks grow at a faster rate, the females ultimately outgrow them. 

The research, published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, shows that male whale sharks grow at a faster rate, but their body development plateaus around the time they reach 8 or 9 meters. The female sharks develop more slowly, gradually reaching an average length of about 14 meters to overtake the males.

Study lead author Dr. Mark Meekan is a fish biologist at the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS). He noted that whale sharks have been reported up to 18 meters long.

"That's absolutely huge - about the size of a bendy bus on a city street. But even though they're big, they're growing very, very slowly. It's only about 20cm or 30cm a year."

The research was conducted along Western Australia's Ningaloo Reef during 11 seasons from 2009 to 2019. The experts tracked the growth of 54 whale sharks based on the unique "fingerprint" of spots that can be used to identify individuals.

According to AIMS marine scientist Dr.  Brett Taylor, the team recorded more than 1, 000 whale shark measurements using stereo-video cameras.

"It's basically two cameras set up on a frame that you push along when you're underwater," explained Dr. Taylor. "It works the same way our eyes do - so you can calibrate the two video recordings and get a very accurate measurement of the shark."

For the females, there are huge advantages to being big, said Dr. Meekan. "Only one pregnant whale shark had ever been found, and she had 300 young inside her. That's a remarkable number, most sharks would only have somewhere between two and a dozen."

Dr. Meekan suggested the massive females are probably getting big because of the need to carry a whole lot of pups.

Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia is one of the only places in the world where whale sharks appear regularly near the shore. Swimming with the sharks at Ningaloo Reef boosts the local economy by $24 million a year. However, the iconic fish were listed as endangered in 2016.

Dr Meekan said the new findings have huge implications for conservation, with whale sharks threatened by targeted fishing and ships strikes.

"If you're a very slow-growing animal and it takes you 30 years or more to get to maturity, the chances of disaster striking before you get a chance to breed is probably quite high, and that's a real worry for whale sharks."

Dr Meekan said the findings also explains why groups of whale sharks that gather in tropical regions are made up almost entirely of young males. "They gather to exploit an abundance of food so they can maintain their fast growth rates."

According to Dr. Taylor, the discovery that whale sharks plateau in their growth goes against everything scientists previously thought."This paper has really re-written what we know about whale shark growth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female whale sharks grow slower yet larger than males

A new study that tracked the development of whale sharks...

New model predicts economically important traits in crops. Experts at <a href="https://english.spbstu.ru/">Peter the Great St.Petersburg Polytechnic University</a> (SPbPU) have developed a new mathematical model to predict economically important traits in crops. The technique will help breeders obtain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-plants-face-more-competition-for-pollinators-as-temperatures-rise/">plants</a> with the best possible quality and performance. 

Study lead author Maria Samsonova is the head of the Laboratory of Mathematical Biology and Bioinformatics at SPbPU.

"We have developed a new mathematical model for predicting crop phenotypic traits as a function genotype," said Samsonova. She noted that such models in agriculture are called genomic selection models. 

Creating a new variety of plants is challenging and the process is very time-consuming, taking up to 12 years. However, this process can be sped up exponentially by using genomic selection models.

"Understanding how genetic variation translates into phenotypic effects is one of the central challenges facing fundamental biology, agriculture, and medicine. Solutions of this problem fall into two main classes: association studies and trait prediction studies," wrote the researchers.

"Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are designed to identify genetic variants associated with a trait. Initially, GWAS was conducted for each trait separately testing SNPs one by one. However, single-locus approaches may lead to biased estimates due to multiple testing correction, and they are not suitable in the common case of genetically correlated traits."

Samsonova explained that the new mathematical model is based on machine learning methods and performs better than modern analogs as it contains a significantly smaller number of parameters.

The research team applied the model to predict phenotypic traits of soybean, including plant height, number of seeds per plant, yield, protein, as well as oil content in seeds.

"For breeders, it is very important to select parental plants able to produce offspring of high quality," said study co-author Anna Igolkina. "Due to the small number of parameters in our model, we can rank breeding pairs according to offspring quality and selected advanced parental pairs representing new potentially interesting donors of desired traits."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcgenet.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Genetics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New model predicts economically important traits in crops

New model predicts economically important traits in crops. Experts at...

The combination of two mosquito-borne viruses may lead to a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-air-pollution-increases-stroke-risk-almost-immediately/">stroke</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a>. The team has been investigating the link between Zika and chikungunya infection and neurological disease. 

These two mosquito-borne viruses, which are most prevalent in the tropics, are responsible for large outbreaks of rash and fever in places like Brazil and India. 

Zika is known to cause brain damage in babies if expectant mothers are infected. According to the new findings, Zika also causes nervous system disease in adults.

The investigation was focused on 201 adults with new onset neurological disease, treated in Brazil during the 2015 Zika and 2016 chikungunya epidemics. The study is the largest of its kind to describe the neurological features of infection for several mosquito-borne viruses circulating at the same time.

The researchers found that each virus can cause a range of neurological problems. Zika was found to be more likely to cause Guillain-Barre syndrome, which is characterized by nerve damage in the arms and legs. Chikungunya is more likely to cause inflammation and swelling in the brain and spinal cord. 

While stroke can be caused by either virus on its own, the analysis showed that patients infected with both were more susceptible to stroke. 

"Our study highlights the potential effects of viral infection on the brain, with complications like stroke. This is relevant to Zika and chikungunya, but also to our understanding of other viruses, such as COVID-19, which is increasingly being linked to neurological complications," said study co-author Dr. Suzannah Lant.

Patients were recruited over a two-year period at Hospital da Restauração in Recife in Brazil, and the experts conducted omprehensive PCR and antibody testing for viruses.

Of the 201 patients admitted with suspected neurological disease linked to Zika, chikungunya or both, 148 had confirmation of infection through lab testing. Approximately one-third of these individuals were found to be infected by more than one virus.

Among the stroke patients, about two-thirds had infection with more than one virus. There was evidence to suggest that stroke following Zika and chikungunya viral infection most often occurs in patients who already have risk factors, such as high blood pressure.

Study senior author Professor Tom Solomon is the director of the National Institute for Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections at the University of Liverpool.

"Although the world's attention is currently focused on COVID-19, other viruses that recently emerged, such as Zika and chikungunya, are continuing to circulate and cause problems," said Professor Solomon. "We need to understand more about why some viruses trigger stroke, so that we can try and prevent this from happening in the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/issue/current">Lancet Neurology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquito-borne viruses can trigger a stroke

The combination of two mosquito-borne viruses may lead to a...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uoc.edu/portal/en/index.html">Universitat Oberta de Catalunya</a> (UOC) has revealed that the people who are bilingual have a lower risk of developing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dementia-gene-elevates-covid-19-risk/">dementia</a>. The researchers found that regularly speaking two languages protects against cognitive decline.

Study lead author Marco Calabria is a professor at the UOC Faculty of Health Sciences and a member of the University's Cognitive NeuroLab research group.

"The prevalence of dementia in countries where more than one language is spoken is 50% lower than in those regions where the population uses only one language to communicate," said Professor Calabria.

Previous studies produced evidence that the lifelong use of two or more languages could be a key factor in increasing cognitive reserve and delaying the onset of dementia. Research has also shown that bilingual people have improved memory and executive function.

"We wanted to discover the mechanism through which bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve in cases of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's, and whether there were differences in terms of the benefit gained from different degrees of bilingualism, and not only between monolingual and bilingual people," said Professor Calabria.

Unlike in previous studies, the researchers established a scale of bilingualism,  ranging from people who speak only one language but are passively exposed to another to individuals who have excellent proficiency in both and use them on a daily basis. 

The study was focused on the population of Barcelona, where the use of Catalan and Spanish is highly variable.

"We wanted to take advantage of this variability, and instead of comparing monolingual and bilingual people, we looked at whether in Barcelona - where everyone is more or less bilingual - there was a certain degree of bilingualism that had neuroprotective benefits," explained Professor Calabria.

"We saw that the people with a higher degree of bilingualism received a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment later than those who were passive bilinguals."

Professor Calabria considers speaking two languages and regularly switching from one to the other to be lifelong training for the brain. He explained that such linguistic gymnastics is related to other cognitive functions, such as executive control, which kicks in when we perform several actions at once to help us filter out relevant information.

The brain's executive control system is used to control two languages and it has to switch between them. The brain must focus on one and then the other, to avoid the languages interfering with each other.

"In the context of neurodegenerative diseases, this system could offset symptoms. So, when something is not functioning well due to the disease, thanks to the fact that it is bilingual, the brain has efficient alternative systems for resolving the problem," said Professor  Calabria. 

"We have seen that the more you use both languages and the better your language skills, the more neuroprotective advantage you have. In fact, active bilingualism is an important predictor of delay in the onset of symptoms of mild cognitive impairment - a preclinical phase of Alzheimer's disease - because it contributes to cognitive reserve."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/neuropsychologia">Neuropsychologia</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speaking two languages protects against dementia

A new study from the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC)...

Researchers at <a href="https://uci.edu/">UC Irvine</a> have found that rapidly increasing rates of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-love-hormone-oxytocin-can-prevent-stress-related-digestive-issues/">stress</a> and depression in the United States are directly linked to pandemic-related losses, including the loss of a loved one or a job, and media consumption. 

"The pandemic is not hitting all communities equally," said study lead author Professor E. Alison Holman. "People have lost wages, jobs and loved ones with record speed. Individuals living with chronic mental and physical illness are struggling; young people are struggling; poor communities are struggling. Mental health services need to be tailored to those most in need right now."

The research also highlights the connection between mental health and exposure to media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings suggest that many people need to take a break from their television, computer, or smartphone in order to protect their psychological well-being.

"The media is a critical source of information for people when they're faced with ambiguous, ongoing disasters," said Professor Roxane Cohen Silver. "But too much exposure can be overwhelming and lead to more stress, worry and perceived risks."

The experts conducted a national survey of more than 6,500 U.S. residents in March and April of 2020, when the first wave of COVID-19 gripped the country. The study was the first of its kind to investigate the early predictors of rising mental health problems in the United States.

"Over the course of the study, the size of the pandemic shifted dramatically," said Professor Holman. As a result, respondents who were surveyed later in the study period reported the highest rate of acute stress and depressive symptoms.

The findings offer new insight into how communities can build resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers identified several circumstances that must be prioritized. 

The top priority is protecting people with pre-existing mental and physical conditions, who are more likely to show both acute stress and depressive symptoms. Secondary stressors, such as job and wage loss, a shortage of necessities, are also strong predictors of stress and depression.

In addition, the study revealed that extensive exposure to pandemic-related news and conflicting information in the media is among the strongest predictors of pandemic-related stress.

"It's critical that we prioritize providing resources to communities most in need of support right now - the unemployed, poor or chronically ill people, and young people," said Professor Holman. "We also encourage the public to limit exposure to media as an important public health intervention. It can prevent mental and physical health symptoms and promote resilience."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic-related losses and media exposure linked to stress and depression

Researchers at UC Irvine have found that rapidly increasing rates...

Scientists solve the mystery of why we need sleep. In the first couple years of life, sleep helps build the brain's infrastructure. After the age of two and a half, sleep takes on an entirely new decluttering role, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>.

While it is known that sleep deprivation can lead to severe <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/our-immune-system-may-protect-us-from-mental-health-issues/">health</a> problems, much about the purpose and function of rest has remained a mystery. The UCLA team has discovered for the very first time that the purpose of sleep takes a dramatic shift early in life.

Before the age of 2.5 years, the brain grows very rapidly. As vivid dreams occur during the REM phase, the young brain is building and strengthening synapses, which are the structures that connect brain cells together so they can communicate.

"Don't wake babies up during REM sleep - important work is being done in their brains as they sleep," said senior study author Professor Gina Poe, who has conducted sleep research for more than 30 years.

The researchers report that after the age of 2.5, the primary purpose of rest switches from building the brain to maintaining and repairing it, and this becomes its permanent role.

A certain amount of neurological damage naturally accumulates during waking hours, including damage to genes and proteins within neurons. Over time, this debris can build up and cause brain disease. Sleep helps repair this damage, essentially decluttering the brain and eliminating the debris that can lead to serious illness.

According to study senior author Professor Van Savage, nearly all of this brain repair occurs during sleep. "I was shocked how huge a change this is over a short period of time, and that this switch occurs when we're so young. It's a transition that is analogous to when water freezes to ice."

For the investigation, the researchers conducted the most comprehensive statistical analysis of sleep to date. The analysis was focused on data from more than 60 studies involving humans and other mammals. 

The evidence was very consistent that all species experience a dramatic decline in REM sleep when they reach the human developmental equivalent of about 2.5 years of age. The fraction of time spent in the REM phase after this point was found to be roughly the same across all humans and animals studied.

While newborns spend about 50 percent of their rest time in the REM phase, this drops to 25 percent by age 10 and continues to decline with age. The significant dropoff in REM sleep at about 2-and-a-half happens just as the major change in the function of sleep occurs, said Professor Poe.

"Sleep is as important as food. And it's miraculous how well sleep matches the needs of our nervous system. From jellyfish to birds to whales, everyone sleeps. While we sleep, our brains are not resting."

Chronic sleep deprivation likely contributes to long-term health problems such as dementia and other cognitive disorders, diabetes, and obesity, to name a few, said Professor Poe. When you start to feel tired, she said, don't fight it - go to bed.

"I fought sleep and pulled all-nighters when I was in college, and now think that was a mistake," said Professor Savage. "I would have been better off with a good night's sleep. Now when I feel tired, I don't have any guilt about sleeping."

According to Professor Poe, a regular seven-and-a-half hours of rest a night is normal, and time lying awake doesn't count. "A good night's sleep is excellent medicine. And it's free."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists solve the mystery of why we need sleep

Scientists solve the mystery of why we need sleep. In...

The immune system may not only be guarding our physical health, but our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/resilience-training-can-help-address-mental-health-crisis/">mental health</a> as well. Experts led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> came to this conclusion while they compared immune system cells in the spinal fluid of MS patients and healthy subjects.

In the spinal fluid of healthy patients, the team discovered an inflammatory autoimmune response that is typically associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS).

The findings support an emerging theory that gamma interferons, a type of immune cell that helps induce and modulate a variety of immune system responses, may also help to prevent depression in healthy people.

"We were surprised that normal spinal fluid would be so interesting," said study senior author Professor David Hafler.

Previous studies have shown that blocking gamma interferons, along with the T cells they help produce,  can cause depressive symptoms in mice. Professor Hafler noted that depression is also a common side effect in patients with MS treated with a different type of interferon.

The investigation was made possible through a powerful new technique which allows individual cells to be examined in great detail. Using this technology, the researchers determined that while the characteristics of T cells in the spinal fluid of healthy people share similarities with those of MS patients, they lack the ability to replicate and cause the damaging inflammatory immune system response seen in autoimmune diseases such as MS.

In the brain of all people, the immune system is prepared to make an inflammatory response and may have another function than defending against pathogens, said Professor Hafler. "These T cells serve another purpose and we speculate that they may help preserve our mental health."

According to Professor Hafler, his lab and colleagues at Yale plan to explore how immune system responses in the central nervous system may affect psychiatric disorders such as depression.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://immunology.sciencemag.org/">Science Immunology</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Our immune system may protect us from mental health issues

The immune system may not only be guarding our physical...

A study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> describes a new early-warning method for predicting droughts in the Amazon rainforest up to 18 months in advance. The experts have confirmed that sea surface temperatures in the adjacent tropical <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/unraveling-the-mysteries-of-the-ocean/">oceans</a> can be used to forecast droughts in the central Amazon basin.

Weather extremes in tropical South America can cause enormous damage to ecosystems and threaten the livelihoods of millions of people. The ability to predict when droughts will strike can help to mitigate some of these impacts. 

Study lead author Dr. Niklas Boers is a researcher at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK).

"The fact that changes in sea surface temperatures in the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans impact rainfall patterns in the tropical parts of South America is long known," said Dr. Boers. "What we did was use a new complex network approach which made it possible to discriminate between areas in the oceans which have negative or positive effects on rainfall in tropical South America." 

The study revealed that monitoring two specific regions in the Atlantic Ocean will reliably forecast droughts in South America. These two areas, which are north and south of each other, sometimes go out of phase - one ocean region warms up while the other cools down. When this occurs, the Amazon is likely to experience a severe drought within one to 1.5 years.

Sea surface temperature anomalies in the two relevant areas of the Atlantic shift the so-called trade winds north or south. This changes the overall moisture budget for the Amazon, which cause severe droughts in the rainforest.

"For the first time, we can accurately predict drought in the tropical regions of South America as far as 18 months in advance. The two crucial factors in this research are the selection of the precise, relevant locations in the Atlantic Ocean, and the observation that the correlation between the southern and the northern ocean regions can be used for prediction," said Dr. Boers.

There are numerous indigenous tribes in the Amazon whose way of life is already threatened by land removal and deforestation. In addition, farmers with cattle and fisheries throughout the Amazon depend on rainfall to keep lakes and rivers high enough for transport. An early warning system will give people the opportunity to prepare for drought conditions.

Unfortunately, there is no way to protect the forest itself from damaging droughts, which are increasing in frequency and duration. During two separate "droughts of a century" in 2005 and 2010, the Amazon rainforest was transformed from being a carbon sink to becoming a carbon source for months at a time. 

Climate models predict the Amazon will eventually reach a tipping point due to global warming and deforestation. At this time, the rainforest will permanently transition into a savanna.

"It is really the combined effect of the two which is the problem. I am not expecting the Amazon to be there more or less like today at the end of my life," said Dr. Boers.

The research is part of the TiPES project, an EU Horizon 2020 funded climate science project investigating tipping points in the Earth system.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean temperatures in the Atlantic can be used to forecast droughts in the Amazon

A study from the University of Copenhagen describes a new...

Rapidly melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica are believed to be the two main drivers of sea-level rise, and calculating future ice loss is critically important to gain a better idea of how much we can expect the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-oceans-absorb-much-more-carbon-than-previously-thought/">oceans</a> to expand in the coming decades. 

In an unprecedented study from <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/about-us/organisation/profile.html">AWI</a>, 36 research institutes have compared 14 ice-sheet models using the same atmospheric and ocean data to calculate the amount of sea-level rise that will be contributed by Greenland and Antarctica throughout the remainder of this century.

The model simulations showed consistent results for Greenland. If greenhouse gas emissions and global warming continue at the current rate, Greenland will lose enough ice to contribute nine centimeters to global sea-level rise by the year 2100.

On the other hand, the model simulations for Antarctica were widely variable. Some models predicted an additional sea-level rise of up to 30 centimeters, while others projected much lower numbers. 

Developing realistic ice-sheet models is challenging for several reasons. First of all, certain measurements of ice sheets cannot be tested and confirmed in the lab. In addition, there are key parameters that are missing, such as how the land surface in Greenland and the Antarctic affects the behavior of ice masses. The only way for ice sheet modelers to test the quality of a model is to compare it to other models. 

Study co-author Dr. Martin Rückamp is a glaciologist and ice-sheet modeler at the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) in Bremerhaven.

"The 14 ice-sheet models compared match our latest observations, which indicate that the Greenland Ice Sheet is increasingly losing ice, especially at the margins," said Dr. Rückamp. "But viewed more broadly, the losses of mass predicted by the models for the timeframe from 2015 to the present lie far below the actually observed losses. To put it simply: the ice-sheet models for Greenland underestimate the current changes in the ice sheet due to climate change."

The study findings suggest that global warming will lead to more snowfall and strengthen ice masses in East Antarctica.

"These simulations show that, in a warmer world, there would be so much snowfall in East Antarctica that the new ice formed there would outweigh the ice lost to the warming seawater in West Antarctica," said study co-author Dr. Thomas Kleiner.

In West Antarctica, the models predict that ice retreat that will produce an additional 18 centimeters of sea-level rise by 2100. However, if global warming is limited to two degrees Celsius, the ice losses in the Antarctic would be significantly less and would produce an additional sea-level rise of between -1.4 and 15.5 centimeters.

"For the past 40 years, we've observed a clear downward trend in the Antarctic. The ice sheet is losing more and more ice, especially in West Antarctica, where our models also predicted major losses of ice," said study co-author Professor Angelika Humbert. "That being said, the acceleration of the glaciers simulated in the models was much less pronounced than what we actually observed."

"If our suspicions prove to be true, it will also mean that the models underestimate how much Antarctica as a whole will contribute to future sea-level rise."

According to Dr. Kleiner. the spectrum of results produced by the models is now smaller. "As a result, we can have more confidence in their projections." 

However, the study had some limitations. For example, in the Antarctic simulations, the ocean's effects on ice shelves and glaciers were not represented using complex approaches for each ice tongue. The models relied on simplified formulas, which introduced considerable uncertainty. 

"As a result, the models weren't able to reflect the different melting rates on the underside of the ice shelves, or to simulate the actually observed acceleration of the glaciers, which I personally find quite troubling," said Professor Humbert.

"Our goal will then be to produce simulations of the ice sheets' development that are as realistic as possible. To do so, simulation timeframes need to be selected that will allow the models' results to be compared to actual observational data." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.the-cryosphere.net/">The Cryosphere</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How much sea-level rise can we expect this century?

Rapidly melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica are believed...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> have found that the alcohol industry is increasingly funding academic research into the impacts of alcohol consumption. Many of these studies make claims about the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exercise-during-pregnancy-improves-the-health-of-babies/">health</a> benefits of alcohol.

Since 2009, there has been a 56-percent increase in research funded by alcohol companies or affiliated organizations, according to the study.

The sponsorship of scientific research by the alcohol industry raises concerns over the potential for conflicts of interest and selective reporting of outcomes, explained the researchers. The team discovered just under 13,500 studies that were directly or indirectly funded by the alcohol industry.

Study co-author Dr. Su Golder is an expert in the Department of Health Sciences at the University of York. 

"Our study identified a worrying trend. While there has been a steep decline in the alcohol industry conducting its own research on health at the same time there has been an increase in the alcohol industry funding such research, by providing financial support to researchers or via alcohol related organizations," said Dr. Golder.

"This allows alcohol companies to exploit a 'transparency loophole' as many people assume these organizations are charities and don't realize the connection to the industry."

"While there are many legitimate fields for research funded by the alcohol industry - such as studies into ingredients and environmental impacts - their involvement in health research is particular cause for concern. Many of these studies make claims about the protective cardiovascular effects of alcohol and suggest that substance abuse problems are down to individual choices rather than industry behaviors."

Furthermore, the researchers believe that the level of involvement by the alcohol industry in scientific research uncovered in their investigation is likely to be just the tip of the iceberg.

"While researchers are meant to declare funders in peer reviewed research publications this often doesn't happen and we don't get the level of transparency we should have," said study co-author Professor Jim McCambridge from York's Department of Health Sciences.

"It is well known that by sponsoring research pharmaceutical and tobacco companies successfully conspired to subvert the scientific evidence-base in order to influence policy for decades and so, while more research is needed, the scale, nature and breadth of the alcohol industry's influence on scientific research provides cause for concern."

"While alcohol companies may claim they are carrying out a civic duty through their funding of research, these are studies that independent academics would be much better placed to conduct."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurpub">European Journal of Public Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Surge in alcohol-industry funded research may be cause for concern

Researchers at the University of York have found that the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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