Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-and-nano-spearguns">Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. 



They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>. 



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t6ss-genes-the-basics">Understanding T6SS genes - the basics</h2>



T6SS genes control the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), an impressive molecular weapon that bacteria use to fight each other and sometimes even mess with host cells. 



Think of it as a microscopic harpoon gun - bacteria literally shoot toxic proteins into rival microbes to kill them or weaken their defenses. 



Some bacteria also use T6SS to interact with host organisms, either to establish infections or to outcompete other microbes in a shared environment. 



This system gives bacteria a serious advantage in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic battlefield</a>, whether they're battling it out in soil, water, or even inside a host’s gut.



Scientists are fascinated by T6SS because it plays a huge role in bacterial survival, competition, and even virulence. 



Some nasty pathogens, like Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a major threat in hospitals), use T6SS to dominate their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. 



The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. 



These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-attack-detection">Pseudomonas bacteria attack detection</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler.



 Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. 



This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-pseudomonas-bacteria-study">Next steps for Pseudomonas bacteria study</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. 



Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. 



This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. 



Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



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Featured image: Pseudomonas bacteria deploy their nano-spearguns when damaged by a sharp tip (15,000 x magnification). Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum/<a href="https://nanoscience.unibas.ch/en/services/nano-imaging-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNI Nano Imaging Lab</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny 'nano-spearguns' to fight back against attacks

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria. According to new research, these cells react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. This work comes from the lab of Professor Marek Basler at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (T6SS), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, researchers emphasize that farmers have the knowledge that is needed to vastly improve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-model-predicts-economically-important-traits-in-crops/">crops</a>. The scientists propose that combining the expertise of farmers with high-tech breeding could unleash the potential to make crops more resilient to climate change.

The researchers suggest that involving farmers in the development of  better crops increases the likelihood that new varieties will be adopted, making crop improvement more efficient.

Study co-author Carlo Fadda is the research director at the Alliance of Biodiversity and International Center for Tropical Agriculture.

"Modern breeding under a microscope in the lab can speed up breeding of 'elite' varieties able to provide significant yield increase," said Fadda."But are those varieties and traits most important to farmers? Do they plant them? On the other hand, traditional varieties can better withstand changing climatic conditions, but are these varieties high-yielding enough?"

The "Seeds for Needs" approach was first introduced in Ethiopia to speed up durum wheat breeding. Scientists took a selection of elite and traditional durum wheat varieties obtained from Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute (EBI) to farmers to get their feedback, and discovered that traditional varieties were superior. These varieties produced double the average national durum wheat yield and exhibited resistance to major diseases.

"Rather than mass-producing seed to cope in a broad range of conditions, we need to find varieties for local contexts in order to maximize yields at each site," said Fadda. "Traditionally, farmers grow a portfolio of crops to withstand different conditions and make different products. Some will plant wheat for bread, for local-brewed beer, for injera - the local flatbread - to minimize their risk."

The Seeds for Needs method relies on cutting-edge breeding to quickly achieve climate-resilient traits and crop varieties. When this technique is combined with farmer-selected crops that can cope in field conditions, the result is a better-adapted food supply that is more resilient to the impacts of the impending climate crisis, said the study authors.

"Climate change is a shifting target, and to address it we need a dynamic process," saif Fadda. "This approach provides a constant injection of new material adapted to a broader set of conditions within one locality. With this approach, as climate change advances, there will always be well-adapted crop varieties for local conditions, bringing together high tech approaches and traditional knowledge."

Study co-author Matteo Dell'Acqua is a geneticist at the Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, in Italy.

"This approach shows the value of combining the most advanced genomics approaches with traditional knowledge of farmer communities," said Acqua. "In this framework, modern breeding and crowd-sourcing methods can complement each other in supporting local adaptation of farming systems to the impacts of climate change."

Now that digital tools are available, the researchers say  that farmer "citizen scientists" can provide reliable information to identify varieties with superior traits tolerant to climate-induced stress. The previous collaborations with farmers show they are eager to be part of trials, to contribute to research or in exchange for advice.

In Ethiopia, two wheat varieties that were developed using the Seeds for Needs technique have been released four years faster than the average time required to release new crop varieties. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmers can help make crops more resilient

In a new study published by Frontiers, researchers emphasize that...

Biologists at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> are describing how cichlid fish changed their shape after a river in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-is-rapidly-approaching-a-tipping-point/">Amazon</a> was dammed. By studying fish in this context, experts can gain a better understanding of how living organisms, in general, may adapt to major human-induced environmental changes.

In 1984, a dam was closed in the Tocantins River in Brazil. The modification rapidly transformed this clear, flowing river into a deep, murky reservoir. The researchers theorized that fish would exhibit changes in body shape as they shifted their habitats and foraging behavior to adapt to the drastically different surroundings. 

"The once-historic rapids and streams that characterized the system have disappeared from the surrounding area, which in turn has affected the abundance and variety of food sources available to native fishes," wrote the study authors.

The team analyzed museum collections of cichlid fish from before the dam was closed and compared the characteristics of these fish with specimens collected by fishermen 34 years later.

Study co-lead author Craig Albertson said that cichlid fish are known for their ability to alter, in as little as a single season, aspects of their body shape to match feeding conditions and other environmental shifts. 

The researchers evaluated changes in six native species of cichlid fish, ranging from large carnivores to small omnivores. The fish represented distinct local groups with body shapes that match their ecological roles.

"Our overarching hypothesis is that the damming of the Tocantins and subsequent formation of the Tucuruí reservoir has induced shifts in habitat and foraging behavior and that the anatomy of resident cichlid populations has change in ways that allow them to adapt to this novel environmental conditions. This study represents a first step toward assessing this hypothesis," explained Albertson.

"Was anything surprising? Yes! While we expected to see changes in generalist species - those that are already predisposed toward living in a variety of habitats - we were surprised to see shape changes in the specialists as well," said study co-lead author Chase Gilbert. 

"Evolving to specialize on a particular prey-type or habitat, can provide a competitive advantage in the near term, but it can also be an evolutionary dead end in the face of major environmental changes."

According to the researchers, not only are these specialist species still found in the area, but they seem to be just as capable of changing body shape as the generalists.

Albertson said that changes across all species were associated with functionally relevant aspects of anatomy, such as the head, fin, and body shape. He noted that the parts of the body that changed over time are exactly those most likely to allow them to survive in their new environment.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17524571">Evolutionary Applications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cichlid fish transform their shape to handle environmental changes

Biologists at the University of Massachusetts Amherst are describing how...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) have turned their attention to one of the driest regions on the planet to study the complex dynamics of carbon cycling. The team conducted field work in the Namib Desert, which stretches more than 1,200 miles along the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-in-the-atlantic-can-be-used-to-forecast-droughts-in-the-amazon/">Atlantic</a> coast, to investigate what controls the release of carbon dioxide from soils.

The study ultimately revealed that subtle differences in surface topography and erosion have a strong influence on the behavior of microorganisms in the soil, which affects carbon cycling. Even in the driest places, there were signs of life influencing carbon cycling.

Study lead author Heather Throop is an associate professor in the ASU School of Earth and Space Exploration and the School of Life Sciences.

"The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere affects our climate, so understanding what affects the release of carbon from soils is important for predicting how climate will change in the future." said Professor Throop.

The research was focused on six separate sites in the desert that varied in annual precipitation. At each site, the team worked continuously day and night for 48 hours to collect data. The scientists analyzed the landscape structure and the local plants to select the best representative areas to sample. 

Next, the researchers simulated rainfall and used gas analyzers to measure carbon dioxide release from soils. This allowed the experts to gain a better idea of how carbon cycling responded as soils dried after the simulated rain.

"It's really an incredible amount of data to collect manually," said Professor Throop. "And having a crew of dedicated and enthusiastic students made this work possible. Often for remote field work like this we just get a snapshot of what is happening at one or two sites or at a few points in time. It was exciting to be able to collect the data continuously for a few days and at six different sites."

The ASU team collaborated with students from the University of Namibia and the Namibia University of Science and Technology. Study co-author Vimbai Marufu is a graduate student at the Namibia University of Science and Technology.

"The ability of technology to record soil carbon was outstanding," said Marufu. "What I treasure the most from the experience is what it means to work on an interdisciplinary team and the unexplainable satisfaction of being close to nature."

With a recent grant from the National Science Foundation to ASU, students from the United States will continue to conduct research in the desert with Namibian researchers. 

"We hope to use this work to help us in understanding how deserts respond to a changing climate," said Professor Throop. "How biological processes function in the extreme dry of the Namib Desert will gives us clues about how relatively wet deserts will behave under drier conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789401797887">Planet and Soil</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Studying carbon cycling in one of the driest places on Earth

Researchers at Arizona State University (ASU) have turned their attention...

Loving-kindness meditation helps to eliminate negative emotions and increase <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hedonistic-pleasures-promote-long-term-happiness/">happiness</a>, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.hse.ru/en/">National Research University</a>. The team found that loving-kindness meditation is more effective than compassion meditation in evoking positive feelings among those who are new to both practices.

"Despite being often overlapped and used interchangeably in academic literature, loving-kindness meditation (LKM) and compassion meditation (CM) are also seen to have their distinct features," wrote the researchers.

"As a differential approach towards LKM and CM can promote a more accurate integration of these practices into the clinical field, it is worth studying their differential effects."

In Buddhism, there are "four immeasurable meditations," including loving-kindness, compassion, appreciative joy, and equanimity meditation. While these are different practices, they share the common goal of sharing positive messages.

"LKM and CM represent two theoretically different practices. However, as they belong to the same tradition of meditation, they are similar in their intention of forming positive wishes towards self and others, and this appeared to have a positive effect on practitioners’ emotional experience. At the same time, LKM was found to be more effective in evoking positive emotions in first-time practitioners, compared with CM," wrote the study authors.

Meditation is used to restore energy, decrease stress, and find inspiration, and different types of meditation produce different results. Experts are increasingly interested in finding ways to measure these differences as well as the impact they have on people's emotional state.

In the current study, the researchers wanted to compare the outcomes of loving-kindness and compassion meditation, including the various emotions they evoke.

The investigation was focused on 201 American students who had never practiced meditation before. Compared to a control group, the participants who practiced one of the meditations for 15 minutes noticed a significant increase in happiness, as well as love and care for other people. The study revealed that the loving-kindness intervention was more effective in increasing positive emotions and happiness.

"The higher effectiveness of loving-kindness meditation may be a sign that this type of meditation is more suitable to newcomers - those who have never tried meditation before," said study co-author Ulyana Sirotina. "Compassion meditation is traditionally practiced after one has already mastered LKM."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/12671">Mindfulness</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Loving-kindness meditation increases positive emotions and happiness

Loving-kindness meditation helps to eliminate negative emotions and increase happiness,...

Scientists in the Department of Astronomy at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> have been studying the potential for planet-grazing meteors to transfer life between Earth and other planets. The researchers theorize that Earth may have been the origin of phosphine gas that was recently detected in the clouds above <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-life-found-in-the-clouds-surrounding-venus/">Venus</a>. 

The discovery of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere came as a huge surprise, considering that the gas is almost exclusively associated with life on Earth.

The Harvard team believes that the gas arrived on Venus when asteroids that grazed Earth's atmosphere crashed into the planet. In 2017, for example, a meteor lingered in the atmosphere over Australia for 90 seconds before heading back out into space. The asteroid was estimated to be about 12 inches across with a weight of at least 132 pounds.

According to the researchers, the meteor could have collected up to 10,000 microbial colonies from Earth. The study authors also noted that over the last 3.7 billion years, at least 600,000 space rocks have made contact with Earth before colliding with Venus.

"Although the abundance of terrestrial life in the upper atmosphere is unknown, these planet-grazing shepherds could have potentially been capable of transferring microbial life between the atmospheres of Earth and Venus," wrote the researchers. "As a result, the origin of possible Venusian life may be fundamentally indistinguishable from that of terrestrial life."

The study authors said that further research is needed "to investigate the existence and abundance of microbial life in the upper atmosphere."

The experts explained that if a meteor that has just left Earth enters the atmosphere of another planet, any microbes that it is carrying could be released in the clouds before the rock disintegrates.

"A future probe that could sample the habitable cloud deck of Venus will potentially enable the direct discovery of microbial life outside of Earth," wrote the study authors.

"Specifically, the capability to either directly analyze microbes in situ or to return an atmospheric sample to Earth will be critical in the design of a successful mission. Finding exactly the same genomic material and helicity on Venus and Earth would constitute a smoking gun for panspermia."

The full Harvard study is available <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2009.09512.pdf">here</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Meteors may transfer life from Earth to other planets

Scientists in the Department of Astronomy at Harvard University have...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.uab.cat/">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> have investigated the case of the first known cat infected with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/viruses-related-to-sars-cov-2-could-cause-future-pandemics/">SARS-CoV-2</a> in Spain. The researchers ultimately confirmed that cats produce antibodies that not only block the spread of the virus, but also protect cats from developing any symptoms.

The 4-year-old cat named Negrito lived with a family affected by COVID-19. When the cat seemed to be having respiratory difficulties, he was diagnosed with a terminal case of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and euthanized at a veterinary hospital.

A necropsy performed at the High Biosafety Level Laboratories of the Animal Health Research Center (CReSA) confirmed that Negrito suffered from feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and had no other symptoms compatible with a coronavirus infection. Meanwhile, testing showed that the cat had been infected by SARS-CoV-2 with a low viral load.

The experts performed serological tests on Negrito and on another cat that also lived with the same family, Whisky, who had not displayed any symptoms of coronavirus. The tests revealed that both cats had developed antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. 

"In both cases we have detected neutralizing antibodies, in other words, they have the ability to bind to the virus and block it, this is important because it shows us that the immune system of cats can deal with SARS-CoV-2 and, in these specific cases, protect them from developing symptoms," said study co-author Julià Blanco. 

Ongoing trials have shown that, in addition to becoming infected with SARS-CoV-2, cats can transmit the virus to nearby cats without any clinical signs. However, the researchers suspected that both Negrito and Whisky had been infected by their owners because they did not have contact with other cats.

The genetic sequence of the virus that infected Negrito turned out to share 99.9 percent similarity with the virus of one of the owners, who had died from COVID-19. Study co-author Marc Noguera-Julián said that this suggests that the cat became directly infected from family members.

Considering the number of humans infected with COVID-19 compared to the relatively few cases in animals, the experts say that animals are not playing a significant role in the spread of the virus.

"Pets play a negligible role in the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 and, in particular, cats become very residually infected and there is no evidence of transmission of the virus to humans. This is a case of reverse zoonosis, in which cats are the side victims without the virus causing them health problems," said study co-author Júlia Vergara-Alert.

There has been one reported case in the Netherlands in which a farmer became infected with SARS-CoV-2 through a minks cat, which is the first known potential case of human transmission from a cat.

"We want to check if the case of Negrito and Whisky has been punctual or is repeated in more cases; in this way we will have more scientific information on how the most common pets can become infected with SARS-CoV-2 and to what degree," said study co-author Professor Joaquim Segalés. 

"So far, it is known that around the world there have been some cases of cats and dogs that have become infected through their owners, but these animals have not suffered a serious illness and there is no evidence that they have transmitted the virus to their owners."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cats can fight off COVID-19 with no symptoms of infection

Scientists at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona have investigated the case...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.arl.army.mil/">U.S. Army Research Laboratory</a> are developing stimulation technology that may ultimately be capable of modifying the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/people-with-brains-that-learn-implicitly-have-stronger-religious-beliefs/">brain</a> to improve decision-making and enhance team performance. 

The team is collaborating with experts at the Italian Institute of Technology, Harvard Medical School, and UC Irvine to gain a better understanding of the human brain. 

"We are working toward fused human-technology systems that work synergistically to not only impact perceptions, decisions and actions of the soldier, but also to enhance the hybrid human system's capabilities for rapid and adaptive decision making," said Dr. Javier Garcia, an Army neuroscientist.

The researchers used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and functional magnetic resonance imaging on volunteers as they executed a difficult attention tracking task.

"TMS is the type of neurostimulation that is simply an electromagnet that you put on your head and as you quickly send pulses through the electromagnetic, it induces current into whatever conductive body is next to it will, modifying neural activity - and sometimes behavior," said Dr. Garcia. "We are stimulating the brain, except in this stimulation protocol, we use very rapid and consecutive pulses to the brain to inhibit a part of the brain."

After a specific region of the brain was inhibited, the experts used a stroke model to examine neural changes and monitor the brain's recovery. They wanted to track how long the changes would last, which brain networks would undergo changes from the stimulation, and the behavioral consequences.

"Noninvasive brain stimulation is a tool that allows neuroscientists to gain insight into disease spreading and compensatory reorganization following stroke," said Professor Emily Grossman. "We know from patient and brain imaging work that brain injury to a focal, or localized, brain site has a spreading effect that destabilizes connected circuits far from the actual site of impact."

Professor Grossman explained that in many cases the downstream effects are significant, but also difficult to predict due to the complicated nature of brain organization, which can be best described as a set of large-scale networks that have various points of connection.

"In this study, we target the attention network of the brain, which consists of a specialized set of brain regions involved in controlling where and when we best encode information about the world around us. Visual attention is essential for everything we do in daily life, including tasks like monitoring streams of visual information when driving, engaging in conversation and tracking our children on a busy soccer field."

When individuals experience an injury to the attention network, tracking skills become impaired and it is more difficult to maintain focus on individual items embedded in a cluttered environment, said Professor Grossman.

"This study suggests that recovery may depend, in part, on the compensatory reorganization of brain networks downstream and connected to the site of impact. These downstream networks experienced a brief interval of dynamic reorganization after stimulation, and are known to be important for manipulating information that we are attending to and are using to make decisions about events in the visual environment."

The experts in the U.S. Army Research Laboratory are investing in a variety of techniques and methods to further advance neuroimaging capabilities.

"This unique collaboration brings cognitive, clinical, and army researchers together from across the globe to probe the dynamic network changes as a consequence of neurostimulation," said Dr. Garcia. "While we provided the innovative methods and analysis to this research - others brought the clinical and cognitive aspects."

The international team plans to explore more neurostimulation protocols and apply this technology to a human-autonomy teaming perspective, building upon evidence that the brain can be prompted or manipulated to enhance decision-making and performance. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain stimulation may enhance team performance

Researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory are developing stimulation...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/">Yale-NUS College</a> and Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) have discovered that tarantulas can see colors, which provides brand new insight into why the giant <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hurricanes-aggressive-spiders/">spiders</a> are often bright blue or green.

The experts report that tarantulas are not as color-blind as previously thought, as their findings suggest that the spiders can perceive the bright blue colors on potential mates. While the blue colors on tarantulas are likely used for signaling mates, the researchers theorize that the green colors are used as a camouflage.

"While the precise function of blueness remains unclear, our results suggest that tarantulas may be able to see these blue displays, so mate choice is a likely potential explanation," said study co-lead author Dr. Saoirse Foley.

"We have set an impetus for future projects to include a behavioural element to fully explore these hypotheses, and it is very exciting to consider how further studies will build upon our results."

The researchers studied the expression of various proteins known as opsins, which are usually found in the eyes of animals. They found that most tarantulas have almost the same range of opsins that are expressed in spiders that have good color vision, such as the Peacock Spider.

The team used phylogenetic analyses to  reconstruct the colors of 110 million-year-old tarantula ancestors and determined that they were most likely blue. The study revealed that the evolution of green coloration appears to depend on whether the spider is tree-dwelling, which means that the color functions as a camouflage.

The research also showed that the blue coloration of tarantulas has been lost more frequently than it has been gained. On the other hand, the green coloration has evolved a few times but has never been lost.

"Our finding that blueness was lost multiple times in the New World, while regained in the Old, is very intriguing. This leaves several fascinating avenues for future research, when considering how the ecological pressures in the New and the Old Worlds vary," said study co-lead author Dr. Vinod Kumar Saranathan. 

"For instance, one hypothesis would be differences in the light environments of the habitats between the New and the Old World, which can affect how these colours might be perceived, if indeed they can be, as our results suggest."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/rspb/for-authors">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists solve the mystery of why tarantulas are blue

Scientists at Yale-NUS College and Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) have...

Pets played a role in protecting their owners from psychological <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-related-losses-and-media-exposure-linked-to-stress-and-depression/">stress</a> and loneliness during COVID-19 lockdowns, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>. Among thousands of survey respondents who were pet owners, 90 percent said their pet helped them cope emotionally with the lockdown, while 96 percent said their pet helped keep them stay active and fit.

"Findings from this study also demonstrated potential links between people's mental health and the emotional bonds they form with their pets: measures of the strength of the human-animal bond were higher among people who reported lower scores for mental health-related outcomes at baseline," said study lead author Dr. Elena Ratschen.

Overall, most pet owners who participated in the research perceived their pets to be a source of considerable support for them as they sheltered in place. The researchers found that the mental health benefits were not significantly different among species, with the most common pets being cats and dogs.

"We also discovered that in this study, the strength of the emotional bond with pets did not statistically differ by animal species, meaning that people in our sample felt on average as emotionally close to, for example, their guinea pig as they felt to their dog," said Dr. Ratschen. "It will be important to ensure that pet owners are appropriately supported in caring for their pet during the pandemic."

Study co-author Daniel Mills  is a professor in the School of Life Sciences at the University of Lincoln.

"This work is particularly important at the current time as it indicates how having a companion animal in your home can buffer against some of the psychological stress associated with lockdown. However, it is important that everyone appreciates their pet's needs too, as our other work shows failing to meet these can have a detrimental effect for both people and their pets."

The surveys, which were conducted in the UK, revealed that the most popular interaction with animals other than pets was birdwatching. Nearly 55 percent of participants reported watching and feeding birds in their garden.

"While our study showed that having a pet may mitigate some of the detrimental psychological effects of the COVID-19 lockdown, it is important to understand that this finding is unlikely to be of clinical significance and does not warrant any suggestion that people should acquire pets to protect their mental health during the pandemic," noted Dr. Ratschen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pet owners felt less lonely and stressed during COVID-19 lockdown

Pets played a role in protecting their owners from psychological...

The world should prepare for a "silent wave" of neurological complications stemming from the COVID-19 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-related-losses-and-media-exposure-linked-to-stress-and-depression/">pandemic</a>, according to a team of neuroscientists and clinicians at the <a href="https://florey.edu.au/">Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health</a>. 

In a paper published by <a href="https://www.iospress.nl/">IOS Press</a>, the researchers describe the potential link between COVID-19 and increased risk of Parkinson's disease. They are urgently calling for the availability of more accurate diagnostic tools to identify neurodegeneration early on, as well as a long-term monitoring approach for people who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2.

"Although scientists are still learning how the SARS-CoV-2 virus is able to invade the brain and central nervous system, the fact that it's getting in there is clear," said Professor Kevin Barnham. "Our best understanding is that the virus can cause insult to brain cells, with potential for neurodegeneration to follow on from there."

The team reports that the neurological symptoms associated with COVID-19 have ranged from the loss of smell to much more severe symptoms, such as lack of oxygen to the brain, or hypoxia.

"We found that loss of smell or reduced smell was on average reported in three out of four people infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. While on the surface this symptom can appear as little cause for concern, it actually tells us a lot about what's happening on the inside and that is that there's acute inflammation in the olfactory system responsible for smell," explained study co-author Leah Beauchamp.

Inflammation is known to play a major role in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, and this link has been extensively studied in patients with Parkinson's. Further research into neurodegenerative issues may prove critical for addressing the lasting health impacts of COVID-19 infection.

"We believe that loss of smell presents a new way forward in detecting someone's risk of developing Parkinson's disease early. Armed with the knowledge that loss of smell presents in around 90% of people in the early stages of Parkinson's disease and a decade ahead of motor symptoms, we feel we are on the right track," said Beauchamp.

By the time Parkinson's disease is diagnosed, which is based on the loss of motor dysfunction, dopamine cells in the brain have already been lost to some degree. 

"By waiting until this stage of Parkinson's disease to diagnose and treat, you've already missed the window for neuroprotective therapies to have their intended effect. We are talking about an insidious disease affecting 80,000 people in Australia, which is set to double by 2040 before even considering the potential consequences of COVID, and we currently have no available disease-modifying therapies," said Professor Barnham.

The researchers hope to establish a simple, cost-effective test to identify people in the community at risk of developing Parkinson's, or who are in early stages of the disease. The team has also developed two neuroprotective therapies that are currently under investigation.

"We have to shift community thinking that Parkinson's is not a disease of old age. As we've been hearing time and time again, the coronavirus does not discriminate - and neither does Parkinson's," said Professor Barnham.

"We can take insight from the neurological consequences that followed the Spanish Flu pandemic in 1918 where the risk of developing Parkinson's disease increased two to three-fold. Given that the world's population has been hit again by a viral pandemic, it is very worrying indeed to consider the potential global increase of neurological diseases that could unfold down track."

"The world was caught off guard the first-time, but it doesn't need to be again. We now know what needs to be done. Alongside a strategized public health approach, tools for early diagnosis and better treatments are going to be key."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journalofparkinsonsdisease.com/">Journal of Parkinson's Disease</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

COVID-19 could lead to a "silent wave" of neurological issues

The world should prepare for a "silent wave" of neurological...

Plants contain various bioactive compounds, or phytocompounds, that have disease-fighting properties such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. By gaining a better understanding of how phytocompounds interact with the body, experts could develop more effective treatments for a range of major <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/our-immune-system-may-protect-us-from-mental-health-issues/">immune</a> disorders.

A new study from <a href="https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/">Tokyo University of Science</a> has identified a polyphenolic compound found in blueberries called pterostilbene (PSB) that has strong immunosuppressive properties. This means that the phytocompound has the potential to treat chronic inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Pterostilbene was found to share many similarities with the powerful phytocompound resveratrol, which is known to have powerful anti-inflammatory effects. "RSV, a polyphenol, was known to have pronounced immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects on animal models of colitis ulcer. Therefore, we investigated the possibility of other compounds structurally similar to RSV as a new type of treatment for IBD," explained study co-author Dr. Takuya Yashiro.

Inflammatory bowel disease is characterized by long-lasting ulcers that line the gastrointestinal tract. The ulcers are caused by chronic inflammation due to an elevated immune response in the body.

The heightened immune response involves the excessive production of molecules called cytokines, as well as two types of immune cells - dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells. 

When an immune response is triggered, the dendritic cells produce inflammatory cytokines and activate T cells to initiate a defense response. Collectively, these reactions form a complex pathway that promotes a potentially dangerous "hyper" immune response. 

The study authors set out to test various phytocompounds on the cells that are involved in a hyperactive immune response to determine which of these compounds may be capable of suppressing the immune activity. Right away, pterostilbene showed stronger immunosuppressive ability than the other candidates. 

Upon further analysis, the researchers found that PSB treatment prevents T cells from differentiating into Th1 and Th17, which elevate the immune response, while increasing their differentiation into regulatory T cells, which inhibit inflammation. The study also revealed that PSB treatment inhibits inflammatory cytokine production by dendritic cells.

Using a mouse model, the team demonstrated that orally-administered pterostilbene improved symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease.

"For disease prevention, it is important to identify the beneficial components in foods and to understand the underlying mechanism by which immune responses and homeostasis are modulated in the body," said Dr. Yashiro. "Our findings showed that PSB possesses a strong immunosuppressive property, paving the way for a new, natural treatment for IBD."

The study is published in <a href="https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15306860">The FASEB Journal</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Compounds found blueberries could treat inflammatory disorders

Plants contain various bioactive compounds, or phytocompounds, that have disease-fighting...

Extreme marine heatwaves like the 2015 Pacific "blob" are much more likely to occur now than before man-made global <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/global-warming-is-turning-the-arctic-green/">warming</a> began, according to a new study published by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>.

"Anthropogenic climate change is causing not only more episodes of historically high air temperatures but also more frequent spells of unusually increased ocean temperatures," wrote the study authors. "Marine heatwaves, defined as periods of anonymously high regional surface ocean temperatures, have also become common in recent decades." 

Marine heatwaves can cause irreparable damage to underwater ecosystems. In the last several decades, extremely high localized ocean temperatures have been recorded in every ocean.

The longest and largest of these events, often known as "the blob," pushed temperatures in the North Pacific up by more than 2.5 degrees Celsius between 2013 and 2015.

Just like many similar events in recent years, the blob severely impacted marine ecosystems and the economic systems they support. Despite the extent of the damage, however, very few studies have explored the link between global warming and the frequency and severity of marine heatwaves.

To investigate, a research team led by Charlotte Laufkötter analyzed seven of the most recent and most damaging marine heatwaves. They used computer models to predict how likely it would be for each to occur during preindustrial and modern climate conditions. 

The study revealed that the frequency of marine heatwaves has already increased more than 10-fold because of anthropogenic global warming. 

Under 1.5 degrees Celsius of global warming above preindustrial temperatures, marine heatwaves which typically occurred once in hundreds to thousands of years can be expected to occur every 10 to 100 years. However, if global warming reaches three degrees Celsius, extreme marine heatwaves like the blob could strike once per decade, or even annually. 

The findings highlight the urgent need for countries worldwide to reach ambitious climate targets in an effort to mitigate the risks of

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Severe marine heatwaves are becoming much more common

Extreme marine heatwaves like the 2015 Pacific "blob" are much...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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