For decades, astronomers have puzzled over the intense heat and persistence of the fiery hot gas surrounding the Milky Way.&nbsp;



New research by scientists from the <a href="https://www.rri.res.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Raman Research Institute</a> (RRI), <a href="https://iitpkd.ac.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIT-Palakkad</a>, and <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a> sheds light on this mystery. The team has proposed a model to identify the sources responsible for heating and maintaining this extraordinary phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-hidden-gas-reservoir">The Milky Way’s hidden gas reservoir</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> contains more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mechanism-discovered-that-creates-the-gas-disks-around-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas</a> than stars, and this gas plays a crucial role in sustaining star formation. This massive gas reserve has enabled the galaxy to continue forming stars over billions of years.&nbsp;



However, the gas is so tenuous that it has long eluded observation, making it difficult for astronomers to measure its true volume.



In the past few decades, scientists confirmed the existence of a vast sphere of hot gas enveloping the Milky Way. This gas extends up to 700,000 light-years and reaches temperatures of several million degrees Kelvin.&nbsp;



Researchers initially attributed its high temperature to the galaxy’s gravitational forces. The gas swirls constantly, preventing it from falling inward under the pull of gravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery-of-even-hotter-gas">The discovery of even hotter gas</h2>



Recent observations revealed something even more astonishing: a hotter layer of gas surrounding the Milky Way.&nbsp;



This gas, estimated to be around 10 million degrees Kelvin, was identified through faint X-ray emissions detected in all directions. The same gas also appeared as an absorbing medium in the spectra of three distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-quasars-defied-the-laws-of-physics-with-rapid-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quasars</a>.



This discovery posed new questions: What was causing this gas to reach such extreme temperatures, and how was it being sustained? These findings sparked a surge of research aimed at identifying the mysterious heat sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supernovae-the-engines-heating-the-milky-way">Supernovae: The engines heating the Milky Way</h2>



The new model proposed by RRI and its collaborators provides a detailed explanation for the heating mechanism.&nbsp;



The research shows that the X-ray-emitting gas and the absorbing gas are not the same. Instead, the X-ray-emitting gas originates from a puffed-up region surrounding the Milky Way’s stellar disk.



This region is created by the ongoing star formation within the Milky Way. Massive stars in these star-forming regions eventually explode as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, releasing vast amounts of energy. These explosions heat the surrounding gas to extreme temperatures.



“Explosions keep heating up the gas floating around the disk of the Milky Way, and they enrich the gaseous matter with elements synthesized within massive stars,” explained Mukesh Singh Bisht, a PhD student at RRI.



The turbulent gas, propelled by supernovae, either escapes into the surrounding medium or cools and falls back onto the disk. This process sustains the hot gas layer observed in X-rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-enriched-gas">Clues from enriched gas</h2>



The absorbing hot gas also provided critical insights into its origins. Researchers found that it was enriched with α-elements such as sulfur, magnesium, and neon.&nbsp;



These elements, whose nuclei are multiples of helium nuclei, are produced through nuclear reactions within massive stars. They are expelled into space during supernova explosions.



“This fiery gas, at least in a few directions, seems to be enriched with large quantities of α-elements. This is a vital clue of nuclear reactions occurring within the stellar core,” said Biman Nath, an RRI faculty member and co-author of the studies.



Runaway stars - stars ejected from the Milky Way’s disk - also play a role in this process. When these stars explode as supernovae above the disk, they create pockets of α-enriched gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-the-observed-signals">Explaining the observed signals</h2>



The researchers found that the absorbing gas interacts with light from distant sources, such as quasars. When aligned with these light sources, the gas absorbs specific wavelengths, creating shadow signals that match observations.



Meanwhile, the X-ray-emitting gas forms a veil around the stellar disk, produced by the continuous star formation and supernova activity within the Milky Way.



“A veil of fiery hot gas keeps engulfing the Milky Way disk as a result of the star-forming activities in the stellar disk,” Bisht added .



This dual mechanism explains both the absorbing and emitting signals detected by astronomers, offering a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics within our galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-galaxy-evolution">Implications for galaxy evolution </h2>



The faint X-ray signals emitted by the hot gas offer valuable opportunities for further study. The research team plans to test their models at other frequencies, hoping to gather more clues about the composition and behavior of the gas.



Their work also raises questions about how these processes affect the larger-scale evolution of the Milky Way. Understanding the interplay between star formation, supernovae, and the surrounding gaseous envelope could provide insights into the life cycles of galaxies.



This research not only solves a long-standing mystery but also highlights the importance of gas dynamics in shaping the Milky Way. The interplay between supernovae and the surrounding gas regulates the galaxy’s star formation and energy distribution.



The enriched gas observed in the study also points to the ongoing recycling of materials within the galaxy, where elements created in stellar cores are redistributed through explosions, fueling new generations of stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-the-milky-way-s-fiery-gas">Sources of the Milky Way’s fiery gas</h2>



The new model proposed by RRI and its collaborators sheds light on the sources of the fiery hot gas surrounding the Milky Way, offering answers to a decades-old mystery.&nbsp;



By identifying supernovae as the primary heat engines, the study reveals the complex interplay between star formation, explosions, and gas dynamics that sustain the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy’s evolution</a>.



With future research planned to explore these phenomena further, scientists are poised to gain even deeper insights into the processes that shape our galaxy and others like it.



The findings are <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad77c0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in two studies in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad77be" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Fiery gas surrounds the Milky Way, but what is heating it?

For decades, astronomers have puzzled over the intense heat and persistence of the fiery hot gas surrounding the Milky Way.&nbsp; New research by scientists from the Raman Research Institute (RRI), IIT-Palakkad, and Ohio State University sheds light on this mystery. The team has proposed a model to identify the sources responsible for heating and maintaining this extraordinary phenomenon. The Milky Way’s hidden gas reservoir The Milky Way contains more gas than stars, and this gas plays a crucial role in sustaining star formation. This massive gas reserve...

Some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-phytoplankton-blooms/">marine plankton</a> classified as dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, lighting up themselves and the waters surrounding them with an incredible glow. A new study has revealed that one particular dinoflagellate species, Lingulodinium polyedra, uses this ability to deter predators called copepod grazers. 

"That bioluminescence, in addition to being a beautiful light phenomenon in the sea, is a defensive mechanism that some species of plankton use to ward off their enemies," said Andrew Prevett of the <a href="https://www.gu.se/english">University of Gothenburg</a>. 

"The bioluminescent cells sense very low concentrations of their grazers and turn up the light when needed, which is rather impressive for a unicellular organism. This in turn helps to better protect them from their grazers, letting them survive longer to reproduce and therefore compete better within the plankton."

By studying high-speed and low-light sensitive videos, the research team found that the bioluminescent cells flash upon contact with the copepod grazer, and the copepod rapidly rejects the flashing cell.

Observational data from the west coast of Sweden confirmed the theory that the presence of copepod grazers would increase the abundance of bioluminescent L. polyedra. These single-celled dinoflagellates have a competitive disadvantage because they grow at about a third of the rate of other plankton. However, copepods reject L. polyedra and turn to faster-growing plankton species that have poorer defenses.

The researchers assumed that increased bioluminescence would result in reduced grazing by copepods, but the reduction was much greater than what they had anticipated. 

"Earlier studies had shown that dinoflagellates with naturally brighter bioluminescence than L. polyhedra were grazed less but still required cell concentrations to be relatively high before all grazing on the bioluminescent cells ceased," said Prevett. "L. polyedra abundance in our study is low by comparison, and we were surprised at how effective the bioluminescence defense became despite this."

It is still not clear how the glow protects L. polyedra, but Prevett described three popular theories. 

"The first is that it acts as aposematic coloration, a warning to potential grazers that the cell is toxic or harmful to the grazer in some way," explained Prevett. "The second is that the flash of bioluminescence behaves like a flash-bang and startles the copepod, provoking a copepod escape response or disorienting it long enough for the dinoflagellate to escape." 

"The third theory suggests that the flash acts as a form of burglar alarm, attracting the attention of a larger visual predator, like a fish, which could track and consume the copepod. There is evidence to support each of these theories and bioluminescence protection could be combinations of some or all of the above."

Regardless of how it works, the researchers said their ability to ward off predators with bioluminescence seems to serve as a key mechanism behind the success of an otherwise poor competitor such as L. polyedra.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Michael Latz and Jenny Lindström

The ability to glow protects marine plankton from predators

Some marine plankton classified as dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, lighting up...

Scientists identify the two molecules that activate life itself. Chromosomes contributed by the egg and sperm form a unique genome within hours of fertilization. Initially, however, this new genome is inactive and must be "awakened" for the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/genetics-expert-dna-determines-success/">DNA</a> transcription process to facilitate embryonic development. 

Antonio Giraldez is the Fergus F. Wallace Professor of Genetics and chair of the Department of Genetics at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>.

"This is the beginning of life from a molecular standpoint," said Professor Giraldez. "What hasn't been clear is how and what kick-starts the transcriptional activity of the embryonic genome, so that the embryo starts taking control of its own development with its own genetic blueprint."

The researchers identified two specific factors that are needed to activate DNA in a new genome. They examined the first step of DNA-based gene expression, or transcription, in the nucleus of a zebrafish embryo using a combination of microscopy and RNA sequencing analysis.

The experts developed tools that would allow them to visualize the first activated gene in the zebrafish genome, miR-430, so that its activity could be traced in living embryos.

"Now we can visually look inside the nucleus and analyze how the first gene within the silent genome is awakened," said study lead author and doctoral student Shun Hang Chan.

The team found that the presence of two proteins produced by the mother, P300 and Brd4, are required for the activation of the zebrafish genome. When the researchers disrupted the activity of these two proteins using small molecule inhibitors, the activation of the embryonic genome was prevented. As a result, the development of the embryo was blocked.Scientists identify the two molecules that activate life itself 

The researchers discovered, however, that they could prematurely trigger the activation of the embryonic genome by artificially introducing P300 and Brd4, even after the production of the maternal proteins was inhibited. 

"These molecular factors act as a sort of molecular timer, which sets the timing of genome's awakening," said Professor Giraldez. "Finding these key factors involved in genome activation serve as the critical first step towards our understanding of how life begins."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/home">Developmental Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/crystal light

Scientists identify the two molecules that activate life itself

Scientists identify the two molecules that activate life itself. Chromosomes...

Warming oceans are dangerous for marine species, and not just because the temperature shift can harm delicate species. Warmer waters also lose oxygen – and that could be bad news for many of the large species that live in the Antarctic region. 

Since the mid-1900s, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-oxygen-levels-global/">ocean oxygen levels</a> have declined, on average, by 2 to 5 percent, data shows. 

Dr. John Spicer of the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a> and Dr. Simon Morley of the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> teamed up to see what kind of effect the warming oceans and their lower oxygen levels had on Antarctic species.

"Marine animals thrive in the Southern Ocean but life in these freezing waters has led to the evolution of many distinct characteristics. These 'strategies,' which allow animals to survive in the cold, are expected to make many Antarctic marine invertebrates and fish vulnerable to the impact of climate change,” Morley said. “Understanding these impacts will not only help us to predict the fate of marine biodiversity at the poles but will also teach us much about the mechanisms that will determine the survival of species across the world's oceans."

The pair of scientists studied various amphipod species that live in the Antarctic’s warming oceans. Amphipods come in a variety of sizes and can easily be found all over the region.

They found that in waters where the oxygen levels had fallen, larger amphipod species were not thriving as their smaller cousins were. The findings indicate that larger species might struggle as oxygen levels decline, while smaller species may adapt more easily.

The researchers did note that there are factors beyond size that will influence how species adapt to warmer temperatures and shrinking oxygen supplies.

"Our research also shows that some species have evolved mechanisms to compensate for reductions in oxygen, and so it is not always as simple as drawing a link between size and future survival. But it would be foolhardy to pin our hopes on such 'evolutionary rescue,'” Spicer said.

Still, large species that have not adapted those coping mechanisms could struggle to keep their populations afloat in the warming oceans.

“Unless they adapt, many larger marine invertebrates will either shrink in size of face extinction, which would have a profoundly negative impact on the ecosystems of which they are a part. This is obviously a major cause for concern,” Spicer said.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0034">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Dr. Simon Morley, British Antarctic Survey

Paid for by Earth.com.

As warming oceans lose oxygen, large species are at risk

Warming oceans are dangerous for marine species, and not just...

The world’s population of 7.5 billion people is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-billion-people/">expected to increase</a> to 9 billion by 2050, and 70 percent of those people will likely be living in big cities and urban areas. 

Cities offer employment opportunities and the potential to make more money, but rapid growth can limit living spaces and put a strain on infrastructure and city health and safety services. 

With that many people flocking to urban landscapes, city planning will be crucial to ensure that pollution and waste are kept in check and that residents have access to proper sanitation, healthcare, and sturdy infrastructure. 

One way to help city developers proactively plan for projected population growth is to map current human settlements and show how peak populated areas will change over time. 

The <a href="https://tep.eo.esa.int/">European Space Agency Urban Thematic Exploitation Platform</a> (ESA U-TEP) provides a platform for the World Settlement Footprint 2015 (WSF-2015) map to help monitor urbanization. 

U-TEP’s high-resolution global map is based on 700,000 satellite images from the Copernicus Sentinel-1 radar and Landsat-8 which were taken from 2014 through 2015.

[caption id="attachment_1874001" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Urban-sprawl-in-Shanghai.png"><img class="wp-image-1874001" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Urban-sprawl-in-Shanghai.png" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Urban sprawl in Shanghai, Image Credit: DLR, GEE[/caption]

The World Settlement Footprint 2015 is the first global map of the world’s human populations, and U-TEP incorporated the WSF-2015 dataset into its Visualization and Analytics Tool to explore how factors like socio-economic statistics or social media use influence human settlement. 

Having the data and map available in one space will be helpful for researchers, policymakers, and city planners not just in major cities but also in smaller communities. 

The map is especially helpful for examining urbanization and human settlements in countries where little data has been collected. 

“U-TEP will benefit from the new WSF-2015 data, particularly in view of services for more effective urban planning and service provision, enhanced risk analysis related to natural disasters, or improved assessment of human impact on ecosystems,” says Mattia Marconcini, who managed the WSF-2015 development at the <a href="https://www.dlr.de/dlr/en/">German Aerospace Center. </a>

The German Aerospace Center in collaboration with the <a href="https://earthengine.google.com/">Google Earth Engine Team</a> is working on an extended version of the U-TEP platform, the WSF-Evolution, which will use six million satellite images to help model human settlement from year to year. 

U-Tep is just one of seven Thematic Exploitation Platforms in development that will allow users access to large datasets based on satellite missions. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: ESA/DLR

New global map provides bird’s-eye view of human settlements

The world’s population of 7.5 billion people is expected to...

Mining the Moon for important resources may soon be a reality, as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> has invested in several promising new projects involving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nights-moon-colder/">lunar exploration. </a>

It was announced that the agency has plans to return to the Moon by 2024 and even build a lunar base by 2028. 

NASA is now entering the next phase of its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/index.html">Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program </a>which will focus on robotics and mining to help make the Moon a more feasible jumping off point for future space exploration. 

Two proposals were greenlit by the agency to make this a reality. 

“We are pursuing new technologies across our development portfolio that could help make deep space exploration more Earth-independent by utilizing resources on the Moon and beyond,” said Jim Reuter, the associate administrator of NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invests-in-tech-concepts-aimed-at-exploring-lunar-craters-mining-asteroids"> in a statement</a>. “These NIAC Phase III selections are a component of that forward-looking research, and we hope new insights will help us achieve more firsts in space.”

Each proposal is guaranteed funding up to $2 million, and in the next two years, researchers working on the projects will test and refine their methodologies for the next phases. 

The first proposal, called Skylight, will involve finding more efficient ways to survey and model lunar craters. Researchers from <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a> created the Skylight proposal with the goal of using high-resolution images to create 3D crater models. 

NASA scientists could then use these models to determine which craters should be explored further. 

A new way to quickly and efficiently surveil the Moon’s surface will be hugely beneficial for any future lunar missions, human-crewed or otherwise. 

The second proposal will look at the feasibility of optical mining on the Moon and nearby asteroids. With optical mining, the idea is that a targeted beam of light from the sun will release valuable minerals and debris from the Moon’s surface that can be easily extracted and put into an inflatable bag. 

“This is the first year NASA offered a NIAC Phase III opportunity, and there were many strong proposals,” said Jason Derleth, NIAC program executive. “We selected two proposals because we think both of the technologies could positively impact the industry. We are excited that these technology concepts could help humanity explore space in new ways.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: William Whittaker, Carnegie Mellon University

New NASA projects could allow for mining the Moon and asteroids for resources

Mining the Moon for important resources may soon be a...

Veggie burgers and lab cultures: Most meat will soon need to be artificial. If food demand is to keep up with population growth and climate change, experts are predicting that soon the majority of meat consumed will have to be produced artificially. 

In fact, a new report estimates that in the next 20 years, only 40 percent of the world’s meat supply will come from animals. 

Where will the rest of our beloved beef, chicken, pork, and other favorite meats come from? 

Most meat will either be grown in a lab with cultures or made with plant products meant to mimic meat, like vegan tofurkey or veggie burgers. Veggie burgers and lab cultures: Most meat will soon need to be artificial 

The report was compiled by the <a href="https://www.atkearney.com/retail/article/?/a/how-will-cultured-meat-and-meat-alternatives-disrupt-the-agricultural-and-food-industry">AT Kearney,</a> a global consultancy firm, and includes interviews with industry experts to help assess the current meat economy. It aims to understand how the challenges facing agriculture due to climate change and projected population growth will impact meat demand supply. 

According to the report, the meat industry as is will not be able to keep up with growing demand, especially once you factor in the huge amounts of water, feed, and land needed to produce just one pound of beef. 

Livestock and meat processing are also one of the biggest sources of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-higher-methane-emissions/">greenhouse gas emissions </a>worldwide. 

Luckily, huge strides are being made in meat substitutes, viable alternatives that don’t compromise taste but are made from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-food-future/">insects</a>, plants, or grown in a lab. 

“With the advantages of novel vegan meat replacements and cultured meat over conventionally produced meat, it is only a matter of time before they capture a substantial market share,” the report states. 

Some companies working on plant-based meat alternatives include <a href="https://www.beyondmeat.com/products/">Beyond Meat</a>, <a href="https://impossiblefoods.com/">Impossible Foods</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JUST,_Inc.">Just Foods. </a>

The AT Kearney report estimates that around one billion dollars have been invested in making vegan products. 

The report also projects that while lab meat is still not available to consumers, it will soon take over the market. 

In response to the growing global awareness of the harmful environmental impacts of the meat industry, many consumers are trying to shift their diets to incorporate more plant-based foods and less meat. 

“For passionate meat-eaters, the predicted rise of cultured meat products means that they still get to enjoy the same diet they always have, but without the same environmental and animal cost attached,” Carsten Gerhardt, a partner at AT Kearney, told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/12/most-meat-in-2040-will-not-come-from-slaughtered-animals-report">The Guardian</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Steve Heap

Veggie burgers and lab cultures: Most meat will soon need to be artificial

Veggie burgers and lab cultures: Most meat will soon need...

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening of plants. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) created mutant plants to get a better understanding of plant cells, including how they coordinate growth and development. The study has uncovered a cellular communication pathway that has eluded experts for decades. 

Specialized light-sensitive proteins in the retina enable humans to see. In plants, these proteins are called phytochromes and are mainly concentrated in the nucleus, which is the control center for cellular activity. 

The photosynthesis process that fuels <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-virus-pest-free/">plant growth</a> is initiated when light hits the phytochromes in the nucleus. A signal is then sent from the nucleus to a plastid, which informs the small organelle to transform itself into a chloroplast. This results in the production of the green pigment chlorophyll.

The lab of Meng Chen, an associate professor of Cell Biology at UCR, is one of the few laboratories in the world focused on phytochrome communications.

"The nucleus is like the federal government of the cell, while a sub-organ called the plastid functions more like the state," said Professor Chen. "Until now, we did not know how the nucleus sent the 'turn green' command to the plastids, telling them to activate their photosynthesis genes."

In the past, scientists have faced the challenge of determining which of the 25,000 nuclear genes is responsible for regulating the cell's greening process. The UCR team theorized that the same genes involved in plant greening must be involved in other processes as well. "The regulator we were looking for would control both qualities, height and color," explained Professor Chen.

The researchers chemically altered a small flowering plant so that it was unable to manufacture chloroplasts, even when exposed to light. The team discovered that some of the mutant plants were tall and albino, which were also qualities needed to test their theory. 

By comparing the DNA of these mutants to the DNA of the unaltered wild plant, the experts were able to identify two genes responsible for regulating greening. "Plants without either of these genes fail to respond to light, becoming tall and albino seedlings," said study first author and molecular biologist Chan Yul Yoo.

A better understanding of the mechanisms which control chloroplast development could lead to new technologies to improve crop yields and help plants cope with climate change. 

In addition, the findings will be helpful for research focused on what facilitates the cell death associated with cancer. Professor Chen's laboratory is funded by the National Institutes of Health because of such implications for cancer research. 

"Uncovering the nucleus-chloroplast communication pathway in plants could yield new insights into gene expression in human cells and its misregulation in cancers," said Professor Chen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Chan Yul Yoo / UC Riverside

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening of plants

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening...

In the process of searching for planets orbiting around distant stars using the Kepler Space Telescope, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> scientists observed stars releasing the occasional burst of energy known as a “flare” – but some of the flares they observed were thousands of times more intense than normal. Scientists now call these events “superflares,” and it’s still not exactly clear how they occur. But the more pressing issue was for researchers to determine whether or not our sun was capable of emitting a superflare.

A normal solar flare looks like an intense flash of light – often combined with the release of plasma – coming from the surface of the star. Our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plasma-rain-sun/">sun</a> has flares all the time, but a superflare has a resulting energy blast of radiation that would disrupt electronics across the planet were it to hit the Earth. This could cause widespread blackouts and short out the communications satellites in orbit. Obviously, this would be a major issue if it happened in our technology-driven era. 

“When our Sun was young, it was very active because it rotated very fast and probably generated more powerful flares,” says astronomer Yuta Notsu, a visiting researcher at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a>. “But we didn’t know if such large flares occur on the modern Sun with very low frequency.”

In order to investigate this question, Dr. Notsu and an international team of researchers analyzed superflares detected from 43 Sun-like stars by using data from the European Space Agency’s Gaia spacecraft and New Mexico’s Apache Point Observatory. Their study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X">The Astrophysical Journal</a> and found that, while younger stars produce the most superflares, older stars such as our Sun are able to produce superflares too.

“'Young stars have superflares once every week or so. For the Sun, it’s once every few thousand years on average,” explains Notsu. “If a superflare occurred 1,000 years ago, it was probably no big problem. Now, it’s a much bigger problem because of our electronics.”

Notsu also believes that there is “some possibility” that a superflare on our sun could occur in the next 100 years. And while researchers don’t know exactly when the next superflare will hit Earth, they are certain that one will eventually happen. Before this occurs, we would need to develop shielding that protects electronics on the ground and in orbit from these destructive bursts of high-energy radiation. Hopefully, this study will have given us enough time to begin this process before our Sun has another superflare.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit Shutterstock/Jurik Peter

Is a destructive solar superflare less than a century away?

In the process of searching for planets orbiting around distant...

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat. These days, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/almonds-fertility-sperm-quality/">almonds</a> are known as a tasty snack with numerous health benefits, as they are packed with antioxidants and Vitamin E and also help lower cholesterol.   

But the almonds we eat today are almost nothing like the wild, bitter almonds that grew during and before the Holocene era. 

After mapping out the complete genome of the almond, a team of international researchers, led by Raquel Sánchez-Pérez, found that a point mutation in the almond’s genes made them sweet and edible. 

Wild species of almond taste bitter and unsafe to eat due to their toxic cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin. However, when early humans began domesticating the almond tree during the early Holocene period, they domesticated the sweet, edible almond genotypes, which actually were spawned from the inedible species.

To figure out how the sweet almond came about, Sánchez-Pérez and colleagues completed the almond’s genome to reveal the split from bitter to sweet almond species. Sweet kernel almonds contain a cluster of transcription factors, including bHLH2, believed to be responsible for regulating the production of the toxic compound amygdalin. 

However, a mutation in bHLH2 prevents the production of amygdalin, which therefore produces the sweet almond genotype.

This sweet almond was actively selected for domestication during ancient times, and has carried through to today.

The study is published in <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6445/1095">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat. These days, almonds...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-extinct-declining-fertility/">Neanderthals</a> and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/early-denisovans-tibetan-plateau/">Denisovans</a> are two distinct distant relatives of modern humans. Both evolved along a separate branch of the evolutionary tree, which split off from our direct ancestors in the last million years or so. Denisovans lived in East Asia, while Neanderthals lived in Europe and West Asia. However, studies show that the two species interbred with each other and with modern humans, which is why some people still have traces of Neanderthal DNA today. 

Some researchers have also postulated that Denisovans mated with a mysterious and unknown group of archaic hominins. In an effort to determine if this occurred, evolutionary geneticist Alan Rogers of the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> and his colleagues collected DNA from ancient Denisovans and Neanderthals – along with DNA from present-day Europeans and a modern African group called the Yoruba.

Rogers initially wanted to see if the known episodes of interbreeding were enough to explain the distribution of genes amongst Neanderthals, Denisovans, modern-day humans, and this mystery ancestor. The results of the study determined that they were not, but suggest that adding a single extra episode of interbreeding roughly 700,000 years ago would be enough to have the data make sense. This occurrence would have involved a shared ancestor of both Denisovans and Neanderthals.

The shared ancestor was the result of a split with the human branch of the hominin family tree, and is thought to have bred with a mystery population of “super-archaic” hominins, which is the same group the Denisovans would later mate with. 

“This is the only model I’ve come up with that fits well,” Rogers told <a href="https://subscription.newscientist.com/packages/newscientist-2019-book-space-ppc.php?promCode=13454,13455&amp;packageCodes=TAP&amp;offerCode=Q,6M&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwxYLoBRCxARIsAEf16-u-0O7zxbqMx8LBuVKSfw2adQGAzb0MxR5lSd7CXqg-hGFP2v8Ko9caAsSGEALw_wcB">New Scientist</a>. “No one else has come up with a model that explains these data this well.”

It is believed that hominins evolved in Africa about 13 million years ago. The first species to migrate into other continents was most likely Homo erectus, coming from Africa 2 million years ago and heading east to Dmanisi in Georgia around 1.8 million years ago. 

“My results are consistent with the view that these super-archaics are descendants of that original out-of-Africa migration,” Rogers explains. 

Based on this, it could be possible that the unknown super-archaic hominin population was H. erectus, as their emergence 2 million years ago matches the study’s estimated dating of the split between super archaics and other hominins.

The mating of Neanderthals and humans took place after they had been evolving separately for no more than 750,000 years. But if the Neanderthal/Denisovans ancestors (called “Neandersovans” by Rogers) mated, this occurred after they had been evolving away from each other for around 1.3 million years. 

This would make the interbreeding of these two groups the most extreme known example of interbreeding. However, due to their more significant differences, it would be likely that this interbreeding resulted in health issues for the offspring.

This study’s findings suggest that fragments of DNA from the super archaic populations could be preserved in Neanderthal genomes, and potentially even in modern humans. However, any remnants would be dispersed throughout the genome, making them difficult to find. And while some scientists are skeptical about these findings, Rogers stands by his model and the possibility that this extreme interbreeding took place.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Chettaprin.P/Shutterstock

An unknown human ancestor may have mated with Neanderthals and Denisovans

Neanderthals and Denisovans are two distinct distant relatives of modern...

Atmospheric oxygen leads to the development of fingers over webbed digits. The presence of webbed fingers on an animal typically indicate that the species either lives in an aquatic environment, or gets around by gliding through the air, as these are where webbed fingers have an advantage. On land, free fingers allow us and many other species to grasp objects and move around easily. But how does the developing body decide whether its fingers should be webbed or free? 

New research published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/home">Developmental Cell</a> has found that during embryo development, some animal species detect the presence of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-booms-oxygen-levels/">atmospheric oxygen</a>, which causes the removal of interdigital webbing.Atmospheric oxygen leads to the development of fingers over webbed digits

Amphibians and amniotes – which includes mammals, reptiles, and birds – can have webbed digits. Amniotes rely on interdigital cell death to form fingers, while amphibians have differential growth patterns between the digits and the areas between them, known as interdigital regions. The researchers found that removal of the interdigital membrane through cell death by amniotes depends on the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Embryos are only able to produce ROS when they are exposed to sufficient oxygen levels during their development.

Because high oxygen levels are able to cause cell death in frogs, the researchers believe that this mechanism is shared by both amphibians and amniotes. 

“But amphibians do not employ cell death to shape their interdigital regions; it is the difference in growth rate between the digital and interdigital regions that will determine their final proportions,” explains Mikiko Tanaka of the <a href="https://www.titech.ac.jp/english/">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>. “We think that interdigital cell death appeared in amphibians only as a by-product of the high oxygen levels, a first step in this evolutionary process. This new step eventually was integrated to the limb development and became essential to shape the limbs of modern amniotes.”

The study led by Tanaka involved analyzing embryos from a number of species. When oxygen levels were changed for chicken embryos – an amniote with interdigital cell death – this directly affected the number of dying cells. When oxygen levels were increased for African clawed frog embryos, interdigital cell death was induced, which is out of the norm for this amphibian.

[caption id="attachment_1873848" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Interdigital-Cell-Death-in-Tetrapods-.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1873848" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Interdigital-Cell-Death-in-Tetrapods-.jpeg" alt="" width="650" height="231" /></a> How interdigital cell death and environmental oxygen are correlated in various tetrapods. Image Credit: Cordeiro et al. / Developmental Cell[/caption]

In an effort to expand their evolutionary perspective, the research team also studied cell death and ROS in the Japanese fire-bellied newt and the coqui frog. Similar to the African clawed frog, the Japanese fire-bellied newt had not interdigital cell death, but coqui frogs did have cell death in their interdigital regions. But one important distinction is that, unlike the other two amphibians, coqui frogs grow as terrestrial eggs and breathe oxygen from the air. “This way, we show both experimentally and comparatively that interdigital cell death is correlated with life history strategy and oxygen availability in tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates),” Tanaka says.

While these findings being related to ROS is interesting, particularly because ROS is usually considered a detriment in aging and fertility, Tanaka also explains that “while both amniotes and amphibians can have either free or webbed fingers, they are formed in different ways in these two groups. The new developmental mechanism acquired by amniotes – interdigital cell death – allowed for the evolution of a great variety of limb shapes, such as the lobed fingers of coots, and even removal of some fingers in horses and camels.”

For future research, the researchers want to figure out exactly which pathways are regulated by ROS during development. They also are looking to discover how cell death became a key part of the limb development of amniotes. Furthering our understanding of these processes could help us gain insight into how drugs that combat excessive ROS production (i.e. ethanol, phenytoin, and thalidomide) may cause development defects.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Paikong

Atmospheric oxygen leads to the development of fingers over webbed digits

Atmospheric oxygen leads to the development of fingers over webbed...

A team of international scientists were able to measure how “bad” ozone levels have increased since the Industrial Revolution by studying ancient oxygen molecules trapped in air bubbles within old layers of snow and ice. 

"We've been able to track how much ozone there was in the ancient atmosphere," said lead author Laurence Yeung, a geochemist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a>. "This hasn't been done before, and it's remarkable that we can do it at all."

The team combined their new data with state-of-the-art atmospheric chemistry models to determine that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/drought-ozone-pollution-levels/">ozone levels</a> in the lower atmosphere, also known as the troposphere, have increased by about 40% since 1850.

"These results show that today's best models simulate ancient tropospheric ozone levels well," said Yeung. "That bolsters our confidence in their ability to predict how tropospheric ozone levels will change in the future."

"These measurements constrain the amount of warming caused by anthropogenic ozone," Yeung continued. 

He explained that the most recent estimate from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted that ozone in the troposphere is contributing 0.4 watts/square meter of radiative forcing to Earth’s climate. However, the margin of error for that estimate was 50% (0.2 watts/square meter). 

"That's a really big error bar," Yeung said. "Having better preindustrial ozone estimates can significantly reduce those uncertainties. It's like guessing how heavy your suitcase is when there's a fee for bags over 50 pounds. With the old error bars, you'd be saying, 'I think my bag is between 20 and 60 pounds.' That's not good enough if you can't afford to pay the penalty.’”

The majority of the Earth’s ozone resides in the stratosphere, where it’s considered “good” ozone because it blocks most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, thus making Earth habitable. The rest of the ozone lies in the troposphere, closer to Earth’s surface, where it is labelled “bad” due to its harmful reactivity that affects plants, animals, and humans. When you think of tropospheric ozone, think smog in urban areas.

"The thing about ozone is that scientists have only been studying it in detail for a few decades," Yeung said. "We didn't know why ozone was so abundant in air pollution until the 1970s. That's when we started to recognize how air pollution was changing atmospheric chemistry. Cars were driving up ground-level ozone."

Pre-1970s, “starch-paper tests,” where paper changes color after reacting with ozone, were used to measure ozone. But these tests are incredibly unreliable because of the barrage of outlying factors that could have influenced the results.

“But [starch-paper tests] suggest, nevertheless, that ground-level ozone could have increased up to 300% over the past century,” Yeung said. “In contrast, today's best computer models suggest a more moderate increase of 25-50%. That's a huge difference. There's just no other data out there, so it's hard to know which is right, or if both are right and those particular measurements are not a good benchmark for the whole troposphere."

To find new data, Yeung and his colleagues looked to ozone’s wake — the traces it leaves behind in oxygen molecules.

"When the sun is shining, ozone and oxygen molecules are constantly being made and broken in the atmosphere by the same chemistry," Yeung said. "Our work over the past several years has found a naturally occurring 'tag' for that chemistry: the number of rare isotopes that are clumped together."

These clumps are molecules that have the usual two atoms for molecular oxygen, but they also have rare isotopes of those atoms rather than the commonly found ones. These isotope clumps are called oxygen-18 because they contain two additional neurons in comparison to the common oxygen-16 atom.

Yeung and his team studied how many oxygen-18 clumps are in a given sample of air, and found that isotope clumps in molecular oxygen vary in number depending on where ozone and oxygen chemistry occurs. The odds of an oxygen-18 pair forming in the lower stratosphere are slightly increased due to the cold. However, where it is warmer in the troposphere, fewer oxygen-18 pairs get the chance to form.

During the Industrial Revolution in the mid-19th century, people began adding more ozone into the troposphere, and therefore, the number of oxygen-18 clumps should have decreased. The molecules found in ice confirm just that.

"We constrain the increase to less than 40%, and the most comprehensive chemical model predicts right around 30%," Yeung said.

"One of the most exciting aspects was how well the ice-core record matched model predictions," he continued. "This was a case where we made a measurement, and independently, a model produced something that was in very close agreement with the experimental evidence. I think it shows how far atmospheric and climate scientists have come in being able to accurately predict how humans are changing Earth's atmosphere — particularly its chemistry."

The findings are published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1277-1">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Jeff Fitlow/Rice University

Ancient air bubbles show how much ‘bad’ ozone levels have increased

A team of international scientists were able to measure how...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...