There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>, shrubs in the desert Southwest have significantly increased their water use efficiency in order to cope with a decades-long megadrought. However, although the shrubs’ efficiency increases are extraordinary, they may not be enough to help them survive the long-term drying trend in the American Southwest.



Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-not-keeping-pace-with-climate-change/">climate</a> data from various Southwestern sites did not show significant changes in mean annual precipitation from 1989 to 2019, at several sites, vapor pressure deficit (a key measure of how dry the air is) has increased dramatically since 2007.



“The Southwest is in a really dry period, and this is further evidence of how much the ‘megadrought’ has impacted plant functioning and how anomalous this period is,” said study lead author Steven Kannenberg, a postdoctoral research associate in Biology at the University of Utah.



Kannenberg and his colleagues have found that,&nbsp; in order to adapt to their increasingly dry environments, the desert shrubs from those area have ramped up their water use efficiency (iWUE), that is, the ratio of the amount of photosynthesis in a plant to how open its stomata (the small openings in the leaves that allow carbon dioxide to enter and water waper to go out) are.



For nearly four decades, researchers have traveled to the Mojave Desert and collected shrub leaves, which they brought to the University of Utah’s labs to analyze their stable isotopes - the chemical signatures that offer clues regarding how the plants obtain and use water and carbon dioxide. These measurements helped the scientists calculate the shrubs’ annual iWUE.



They discovered that, in comparison with other plants in desert environments, shrubs’ iWUE in the Mojave Desert went up six to ten times faster, suggesting that shrubs are much more sensitive to increasing aridity than trees and other types of plants.



“Given the rapid uptick in aridity across the region in recent decades, this has resulted in shrub iWUE increasing at (as far we can find) the second fastest rate ever documented in any plant species [after the conifers],” said Dr. Kannenberg.



Although shrubs’ ability to adapt to environmental stressors is extraordinary, the scientists fear that if the Southwest will become even drier, increased iWUE may not be enough to save them.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2118052118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How desert shrubs have survived a megadrought

According to a new study led by the University of...

Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-cause-a-global-loss-of-floristic-uniqueness/">plants</a> such as thyme and oregano are known to possess an anti-cancer compound that can suppress tumor development, the amount that can be found in these plants is not sufficient to cure disease. A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> argue that the key to unlocking the therapeutic potential of these plants is amplifying the amount of the compound they create, or synthesizing the compound in the laboratory.



“These plants contain important compounds, but the amount is very low and extraction won’t be enough,” said study co-leader Natalia Dudareva, a distinguished professor of Biochemistry at Purdue University. “By understanding how these compounds are formed, we open a path to engineering plants with higher levels of them or to synthesizing the compounds in microorganisms for medical use.”



Thymol, carvacrol, and thymohydroquinone are flavor compounds in thyme, oregano, and other herbs from the Lamiaceae family that have anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties that are highly beneficial for human health. Among these, thymohydroquinone has been found to have significant anti-cancer properties.



Together with colleagues from <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> in Germany and <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> in the US, Professor Dudareva uncovered the biosynthetic pathway to the formation of thymohydroquinone. By using RNA sequencing and correlation analysis, the scientists screened over 80,000 genes from plant tissue samples and identified those necessary for the formation of this extraordinary compound.&nbsp;



“These findings provide new targets for engineering high-value compounds in plants and other organisms,” said study co-first author Pan Liao, a postdoctoral researcher in Professor Dudareva’s lab at Purdue University. “Not only do many plants contain medicinal properties, but the compounds within them are used as food additives and for perfumes, cosmetics and other products.”



According to Professor Dudareva, the results of this study could be applied to understand the biochemical composition of other plant species, and to assess their potential therapeutic use.



“We, as scientists, are always comparing pathways in different systems and plants,” she explained. “We are always in pursuit of new possibilities. The more we learn, the more we are able to recognize the similarities and differences that could be key to the next breakthrough.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unlocking anti-cancer compounds in thyme and oregano

Although plants such as thyme and oregano are known to...

According to new research from experts at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>, using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-absorbs-heavy-metals-that-may-harm-human-health/">cannabis</a> together with other medicines may increase the likelihood of dangerous drug interactions.



Cannabinoids - a type of compounds found in cannabis plants - and their primary metabolites found in cannabis users' blood were studied. The researchers discovered that these compounds interact with two enzyme families that assist to metabolize a wide range of medications prescribed for a variety of illnesses. The unfavorable effects might increase with too much building up in the body, resulting in unanticipated side effects such as toxicity or unintentional overdose.



While further research is needed, the study authors claim one initial insight from these trials is that cannabis should be used with caution when combined with other prescription medications.



“Physicians need to be aware of the possibility of toxicity or lack of response when patients are using cannabinoids. It’s one thing if you’re young and healthy and smoke cannabis once in a while, but for older people who are using medications, taking CBD or medicinal marijuana may negatively impact their treatment.” said study senior author Philip Lazarus, a distinguished professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences.



The findings from a pair of research works were published in the journal <a href="https://dmd.aspetjournals.org/">Drug Metabolism and Disposition</a>. One study examined the cytochrome P450s (CYPs) enzyme family, while the other analyzed the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) enzyme family. These two enzyme families work together to help the body digest and remove more than 70 percent of the most widely used medicines.



While previous research on cannabinoids' potential drug interactions has been limited, this new study is the first to look at the interaction between three of the most abundant cannabinoids - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN) - and their metabolites, as well as all of the major CYP enzymes. The study is also the first to examine explicitly for drug interactions between these cannabinoids and UGT enzymes.



“Cannabinoids stay in your body only for about 30 minutes before they are rapidly broken down. The metabolites that result from that process stay in your body for much longer - up to 14 days - and at higher concentrations than cannabinoids and have been overlooked in previous studies, which is why we thought we should focus on those as well.” explained first author Shamema Nasrin, a graduate student in the WSU College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.&nbsp;



The researchers tested their findings in human liver and kidney tissues that contained many of these enzymes, using modified human kidney cells that enabled them to look at a single enzyme at a time. Several CYP enzymes were shown to be substantially inhibited by cannabis and the primary THC metabolites.&nbsp;



One important finding was that THC-COO-Gluc, one of the most abundant THC metabolites, appeared to have a large role in blocking numerous essential enzymes in the liver, which had never been studied before. 



When the researchers looked at the UGT enzyme family, they discovered that all three cannabinoids, but notably CBD, blocked two of the liver's key UGT enzymes. Cannabidiol was also discovered to suppress three enzymes that account for nearly 95 percent of kidney UGT metabolism, which aids in the elimination of toxins and some medications.



“If you have a kidney disease, or you are taking one, or more drugs that are metabolized primarily through the kidney, and you’re also smoking marijuana, you could be inhibiting normal kidney function, and it may have long-term effects for you," said Professor Lazarus.



“Taking CBD or marijuana might help your pain but could be making the other drug you’re taking more toxic, and that increase in toxicity may mean that you can’t continue taking that drug," said Nasrin. "So, there could be serious ramifications for anti-cancer drugs, and that’s only one example of the many drugs that could potentially be affected by the cannabinoid-enzyme interactions we’re seeing."



The Health Sciences and Services Authority of Spokane County and the State of Washington's Initiative Measure No. 502, which funds the university's Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Program, provided funding for these studies.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis use may cause dangerous drug interactions

According to new research from experts at Washington State University,...

Apple,Orchard,,Ripe,Fruits,Hanging,On,Branch

A new study suggests that wells in Connecticut are contaminated by arsenic from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-the-obesity-crisis-linked-to-the-use-of-a-common-pesticide/">pesticide</a> use more than half a century ago.&nbsp;



Much of the land that was once dedicated to fruit orchards has been converted into residential and commercial property. Regardless, researchers at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a> and Eastern Connecticut State University have now found a strong correlation between arsenic contamination and proximity to historic orchards.



In the 1930s, the state was home to about 47,000 fruit orchards that were heavily treated with lead arsenate-based pesticides through the 1950s.



The study revealed that the closer a well is to the location where fruit trees were once raised, the greater the likelihood of finding arsenic.&nbsp;



Study co-author Professor Gary Robbins explained that the research project started with a request from the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection (DEEP) in 2013. The team has since been investigating groundwater contamination to trace the source of contaminants.



The researchers were asked to survey wells for arsenic in eastern Connecticut starting in Lebanon. The project was led by Dr. Meredith Metcalf, who collected water samples from hundreds of homes around the eastern half of the state



Overall, the experts analyzed over 100 wells and 189 orchards, using soil samples to look for the presence of lead and arsenic.



“After sampling, we looked at the distribution and possible sources of arsenic that caused the groundwater contamination, because a significant percentage of wells were contaminated and many of those were above the EPA drinking water standard,” said Professor Robbins. “The issue that came up is, Where is this all coming from?”



He explained that initially, it was suspected that arsenic-rich geologic formations could be the culprits. But when the researchers investigated historic uses of arsenic, they found that arsenic-based pesticides were widely used from the late 1800s until the 1950s, when DDT became popular.



During this time frame, tens of millions of pounds of arsenical pesticides were applied every year in the United States, according to the study authors. Lead arsenate pesticides were not fully prohibited in the country until 1988.



Study lead author Dr. Mark Higgins, a hydrogeologist at Haley &amp; Aldrich, Inc. who maintains a research affiliation with UConn, found a report listing all the registered farms and agricultural lands in Connecticut in 1935. There more than 47,000 individual fruit orchards documented, including peach, pear, and apple trees.



“These pesticides would be sprayed on all fruit trees to kill the pests like gypsy moths up to six times a year in some cases,” said Dr. Higgins. He explained that heavy application rates, coupled with the fact that lead and arsenic can travel quite slowly through the ecosystem, is a combination that makes for long-lasting remnants of the poisons



When the researchers analyzed soil cores down to three feet at the orchard sites, they found high levels of arsenic persisting. They said it was more than one would expect for 50 to 60-plus years after these pesticides were applied. "It is unlikely that they’re migrating downward into the water anymore and are probably immobile.”



Dr. Higgins pointed to recent studies which show that certain compounds (like phosphate-containing fertilizers) can alter environmental conditions and begin to mobilize previously immobile contaminants in the soil.



In other areas of the state, domestic wells are in close proximity to both historic orchards and arsenic-rich geologic formations, and this poses additional challenges to determining the source of the contamination, said Dr. Higgins.&nbsp;



“How do we definitively say the contamination came from one or the other or both? We need these additional lines of evidence."



With this paper, we have a strong dataset as far as the numbers of orchards. With additional funding and data from a larger area, I think it will be telling of whether it’s coming from the orchards or not, and how it is getting into the wells.”



“It is important for people in these areas to know, because arsenic at these concentrations is not something that will make you sick tomorrow or in 10 years. But if you’re drinking this low-level arsenic for 30 years, there are likely health risks from chronic exposure to this known carcinogen.”



The study is published in <a href="https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15372537">The Journal of Environmental Quality</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arsenic in Connecticut wells linked to former fruit orchards

A new study suggests that wells in Connecticut are contaminated...

A new study has found that bananas, the world’s most consumed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-vegetables-memory-loss-men/">fruits</a>, are under threat due to an emerging “blood disease.” This bacterial infection has already caused severe outbreaks and crop losses in Indonesia and Malaysia. Scientists fear that, if left unchecked, the disease will spread throughout all of Southeast Asia.



Caused by the Ralstonia syzygii&nbsp;(subsp.&nbsp;Celebesensis) bacterium, the blood disease – so named because afflicted banana stems look like they are bleeding - makes banana fruits rot and leaves wilt, ultimately leading to the plant’s death. It was first reported in the Kayuadi Island in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, in 1905, where it devastated the local banana plantations.&nbsp;



Although farmers managed to contain the outbreak to this small area for 60 years due to restrictions on the movement of banana plant materials, it eventually escaped. In 1987, the disease was found in West Java and afterwards it spread rapidly across the entire country. To date, it is recorded in 25 or the 34 Indonesian provinces, and even managed to spread to Malaysia, making scientists and farmers worry that it will soon spread to other Asian countries.



“Without intervention, the losses are likely to be devastating due to epidemics in areas where growers have no experience managing this disease,” explained study lead author Jane Ray, a PhD student in Biology and Epidemiology at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, Australia.&nbsp;



“I am determined to understand this disease and use this information to develop improved diseases management options, helping to reduce crop loss, and mitigate the risk of spread to new areas, improving food security in the tropics.”&nbsp;



Dr. Ray and her colleagues reviewed multi-lingual information about the disease from Dutch, Indonesian, and English sources and conducted extended surveys across Indonesia to assess the current geographical distribution of the disease. They confirmed the disease in 18 different types of bananas, including Cavendish – the world’s most popular type. “Greater clarity regarding modes of disease transmission is urgently required to develop effective disease management approaches as the rapid expansion of blood disease is an emerging threat to banana production in Southeast Asia,” said Ray.&nbsp;



“Our study shows that all disease problems start small and can be contained if acted on early but if left unchecked and allowed to spread, they can become major constraints to production over large geographic areas.”&nbsp;



“The rapid expansion of its geographical range makes Blood disease an emerging threat to banana production in Southeast Asia and beyond,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-01-21-0149-RE">Plant Disease</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deadly banana disease has arrived in Southeast Asia

A new study has found that bananas, the world’s most...

Forests with higher levels of diversity are more resilient to extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-honey-bee-diseases-are-influenced-by-the-weather/">weather</a> conditions than forests with fewer species, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences Headquarters</a>. The researchers also found that diverse forests with a greater number of species grow more consistently and produce more wood.&nbsp;



The study was focused on data from the Biodiversity Ecosystem Functioning Experiment China (BEF-China), the world's largest experiment studying forest biodiversity and the functioning of ecosystems.



In recent decades, forests are under an increasing amount of stress as a result of climate change and they do not always have the ability to adapt to rising temperatures. The trees experience reduced growth and carbon absorption, which acts as a reinforcing feedback factor that further drives global warming.&nbsp;



When the forests suffer, ecosystems services like climate regulation, water storage and the provision of materials for building also decline.



The researchers set out to identify the factors that influence the functioning of forests under environmental stress and how these factors interact. The study revealed that diverse forests are best safeguarded against the effects of climatic stress.&nbsp;



For example, explained the study authors,&nbsp; if some tree species in a forest grow less due to extreme weather conditions such as heavy rainfall or drought, others can counterbalance the loss. This stabilizes the overall forest system.



The study also showed that diverse forests provide more stable timber growth and wood production than less species-rich forests because they have improved weather protection.



Study lead author Florian Schnabel said that the connection between species richness and stable productivity, as well as the mechanisms underlying this connection, had previously only been shown in grassland experiments.



"We can now, for the first time, show this under experimental conditions for highly diverse subtropical forest ecosystems."



The experts report that the stability of forest growth in this study was not primarily linked to the number of different tree species - but to their different functional characteristics. While one tree species may grow well in a wet year, another grows better a dry one. These characteristics and interactions affect the growth stability of the entire tree community.



"In particular, the trait based mechanism underlying the links between tree species richness, asynchrony and community stability remain unknown for forests," said study co-first author Dr. LIU Xiaojuan.



The findings suggest that drought tolerance, hydraulic conductance, and evaporative capacity are especially important factors in tree growth stability. The more diverse the characteristics of a forest community, the more stable that the community's biomass production rate will be under unstable environmental conditions.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diverse forests are more resilient and productive

Forests with higher levels of diversity are more resilient to...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-reduces-epileptic-seizures-by-86-percent/">Cannabis</a> plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils and hemp - have a strange propensity to absorb heavy metals from soils. This ability makes them valuable for restoring contaminated soils, it can also lead to health problems in those consuming cannabis products.&nbsp;



A new meta-analysis led by scientists from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> looks at the absorption of heavy metals by cannabis and the ensuing health risks for consumers.&nbsp;



“Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, are known to be carcinogenic," said Professor Louis Bengyella. "The heavy-metal content of cannabis is not regulated; therefore, consumers could unknowingly be exposed to these toxic metals. This is bad news for anyone who uses cannabis but is particularly problematic for cancer patients who use medical marijuana to treat the nausea and pain associated with their treatments.”



Unfortunately, the problem is made worse by selective breeding of some strains, specifically for phytoremediation, that is the absorption of toxins from soil, air and water.&nbsp;



“The problem is if we use these strains that were developed for phytoremediation without considering why they were developed in the first place, we may unknowingly expose consumers to heavy metals,” explained Bengyella.



In the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/journal/Toxin-Reviews-1556-9551">Toxin Reviews</a>, Bengyella and colleagues looked at and analyzed previous research on phytoremediation, what happens to absorbed metals and the resulting health problems.&nbsp;



The researchers found that some commonly grown plants were used for phytoremediation because of their long stem length, fast growth, high root and leaf surface areas, all qualities that improve heavy metal absorption. The team also found that trichomes - hair like structures - are where heavy metals exit the plant.



“Trichomes are important because they store the CBD oil and the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) that are desired by consumers," said Bengyella. "This led us to question if these heavy metals are there at the level of the trichome, what can they do to people?”



The scientists turned to the known health effects of heavy metals on people. They found that the metals absorbed by cannabis can cause a variety of health problems. Through reactions inside the human body, the metals can cause damage to enzymes, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Heavy metal consumption can lead to cancer and neurological problems.&nbsp;



“Cannabis consumed in combustive form represents the greatest danger to human health, as analysis of heavy metals in the smoke of cannabis revealed the presence of selenium, mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel and arsenic," said Bengyella.



"It is disturbing to realize that the cannabis products being used by consumers, especially cancer patients, may be causing unnecessary harm to their bodies.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis absorbs heavy metals that may harm human health

Cannabis plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils...

In order to better understand how climate change will affect ecosystems, a team of 80 international scientists have recently performed an unprecedented <a href="https://www.laurameredith.com/?page_id=1293">experiment</a>: they forced the world’s only enclosed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-rainforests/">rainforest</a> (located in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://biosphere2.org/">Biosphere 2</a> research facility) through a four-month long controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-will-face-more-frequent-and-extreme-droughts/">drought</a> and recovery.



The researchers noted that, although there was a 70 percent drop in the rainforest’s carbon storage capacities during the drought period, an intricate web of water-use strategies and soil interactions emerged to support the forest’s resilience against severe drought.



"The forest was, in some ways, surprisingly resilient to the drought," said study lead author Laura Meredith, an assistant professor in the&nbsp;<a href="https://snre.arizona.edu/">School of Natural Resources and the Environment</a> at the University of Arizona.



"We used stable isotopes to trace the movement of carbon and water through the ecosystem under normal conditions and severe drought, which revealed surprising plant-ecosystem interactions," Professor Meredith explained.&nbsp;



"Importantly, individual plants did not all respond to drought in the same way. Some were highly drought sensitive and quickly slowed their critical carbon and water cycling to play it safe, while others were more tolerant of drought and maintained their function even under more risky drought conditions."



Large, drought-sensitive trees which generally consume the most water, suffered the fastest and most severely from the lack of water. However, they did not immediately tap into the water resources in the deep soil, as researchers expected.



“Instead, they drastically reduced their water consumption and only resorted to their deep-water reserves under very extreme drought," said another of the project leaders, Christiane Werner, a professor of Ecosystem Physiology at the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/">University of Freiburg</a>. "In this way, they conserved the deep-lying water reserves for as long as possible."



On the other hand, large, drought-tolerant trees held onto their canopy leaves the longest, providing shade to the undergrowth to protect it against further dehydration.



"Having a diversity of drought responses within the plants helped maintain greater carbon and water cycling functions of the entire ecosystem, both during the fullest extent of drought, as well as for quickly responding to the renewed availability of moisture with the arrival of rain," Meredith explained.



“Experimental ecosystems, like what we have at Biosphere 2, allow researchers to understand the holistic response of an entire ecosystem to stress. As we work to understand and predict ecosystem function in response to global change, we have to consider plant functional groups and their interactions with soils and the atmosphere, in both observational and modeling studies," she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diverse water-use strategies help forests cope with drought

In order to better understand how climate change will affect...

Holly,,Ivy,And,Mistletoe,Christmas,And,Winter,Greenery,Background.,Traditional

Christmas time has come around again and we are ready to deck our halls and trim our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-greening-infects-entire-trees-before-its-detected/">trees</a>. But first, we are encouraged by the authors of a new article published in <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The British Medical Journal</a> to take note of some of the nastier characteristics of the festive plants typically associated with the holiday season.



The researchers conducted informal interviews with 22 friends and colleagues on the plants they associated with Christmas, checked aisles of shops, garden centers and florists, looked in magazine back catalogs, and immersed themselves in Yuletide songs, films, and stories. Their friends and colleagues were largely from a British background, and the traditions and festive plants they mentioned reflect this.&nbsp;



The experts then looked up each plant species in the TOXBASE database to determine whether it had any harmful attributes. Those listed as low toxicity were excluded from further search criteria. For those listed as toxic, the authors searched PubMed, along with the terms “poison,” “poisoning,” and “Christmas.”&nbsp;



Luckily, their searches turned up little negative information about Christmas trees. It seems that these are safe to gather around, although some people who handle a lot of Christmas trees may develop a case of contact dermatitis.&nbsp;



The ivy we may use to deck our halls or adorn our tables is also a friendly plant. But the holly has sharp, spiky leaves and its berries contain saponins, which can cause an upset stomach, drowsiness, and even problems with balance and speech (ataxia), if consumed in large quantities.



It may well be fine to sneak a kiss with a loved one under the Christmas mistletoe, but you should not get any closer than this to the plant. All parts of it (the stem, leaves and berries) are poisonous. Mistletoe&nbsp;contains toxic proteins known as viscotoxins (ricin is a famous member of this family), and eating it may lead to blurred vision, gastrointestinal upsets, vomiting and fever. Cliff Richard’s famous seasonal song&nbsp;Mistletoe and Wine&nbsp;is a particularly disastrous combination, warn the study authors.



And if someone were to give you a pear tree for Christmas, you should be sure not to eat the seeds. Pears have seeds that contain amygdalin, which is converted to cyanide in the gut. While there are no reports of human cyanide poisoning resulting from pear seed consumption, it would be wise not to overindulge in these fruits.&nbsp;



Beware if your neighbor hangs up a wreath containing bittersweet and yew. Bittersweet is a nightshade, the berries of which contain solanine glycoalkaloids; high levels of these can bring on unpleasant abdominal cramps. Yew leaves contain alkaloids known as taxines, that cause cardiac dysrhythmias; eating just a few can prove fatal. The researchers state that yew was used as a method of suicide among defeated Celtic tribes in Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul.



People love to decorate their homes with indoor flowers during Christmas time. Cyclamen are safe indoor Christmas flowers, as are Christmas cactus and poinsettia. It seems that, although poinsettias have a reputation for being toxic, this is not true and most exposures to this festive plant don’t require medical attention. The sap may irritate your skin, however, and should definitely be kept away from your eyes.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the ornamental Christmas rose, or hellebore, is not as benign. This plant contains cardiac glycosides, which may affect the heart’s rhythm and cause unpleasant symptoms in the stomach, intestines, kidneys and nervous system. The Jerusalem or Christmas cherry is another nightshade; its tempting berries contain toxic solanine glycoalkaloids that cause gastrointestinal symptoms if ingested.&nbsp;



And then there is the matter of Christmas dinner, which is also not without its pitfalls. For example, your roast potatoes are from the nightshade family and are related to the Christmas cherry. The growing buds (“eyes”) contain the same solanine glycoalkaloids on exposure to light and these are not destroyed by cooking. Luckily the potato tuber has a low concentration of solanines, unless it has turned green in the cupboard, prior to cooking, in which case these toxins may cause vomiting, diarrhea, delirium, and tachycardia.



Buttered parsnips should not present any dangers, say the study authors, as long as you are sure of their identity. In the past, foragers have sometimes mistaken poisonous water hemlock for parsnips, and have suffered seizures and kidney damage as a consequence.



It seems that even a sprig of rosemary used to flavor and garnish your roast dinner may be hazardous. The experts point to a case where a rosemary twig caused a perforated bowel and subsequent hepatic abscess. On the other hand, Brussels sprouts, do not seem to be poisonous, note the authors. “Looks like you’ll have to endure them after all.”



Finally, they sound a note of caution regarding cinnamon and nutmeg, two of the spices found in eggnog or mulled wine, not to mention Christmas pudding.&nbsp;



They suggest avoiding the “cinnamon challenge,” a viral video challenge to eat a spoonful of ground cinnamon in under 60 seconds without drinking anything. This challenge was apparently responsible for several cases of respiratory distress requiring medical attention. Cinnamon is a noxious powder that is bio-resistant in the lungs and may also cause hypersensitivity reactions.&nbsp;



Nutmeg, another typical Christmas spice, can trigger hallucinations at a remarkably low dose (less than a tablespoon). The chemical agent responsible, myristicin, has also been linked to gastrointestinal distress, seizures, psychosis, delirium and death.



In summary, the researchers recommend moderation in everything, along with sensible precautions, such as refraining from consumption of foliage, festive household plants, and unidentified wild species.&nbsp;



“We hope that this piece has given you the information necessary to navigate holiday foliage more safely,” they conclude.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Festive Christmas plants may not be as safe as you think!

Christmas time has come around again and we are ready...

In cold temperatures, brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat generates heat to keep the body warm, and has significantly more mitochondria (subcellular organelles that help producing energy) than white adipose tissue. Thus, it can burn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-who-are-obese-have-a-harder-time-burning-calories/">calories</a> and produce heat by activating the mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 (Ucp-1). The stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) after exposure to cold, exercise, or calorie restriction induces white fat browning. BAT activation and fat browning are essential in the fight against cardiovascular conditions, as well as obesity.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.shibaura-it.ac.jp/en/">Shibaura Institute of Technology</a>, Japan, has discovered that the dietary administration of flavanols, chemical compounds with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that can be found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-can-help-people-live-longer-healthier-lives/">cocoa</a>, apples, grapeseed, and red wine, can also activate BAT and enhance browning of adipose tissue by activating the SNS. These findings show a direct connection between fat browning and flavanol consumption, which could help scientists develop new treatments for obesity-related disorders.



By administering both single and multiple doses of flavanols to mice, the researchers found that flavanols activate fat browning via the SNS, which secretes catecholamine neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and noradrenaline. The white fat cells of mice that were fed flavanols daily for two weeks eventually turned brown, exhibiting notable structural changes.



“Although the mechanism of adipose browning is not fully understood, it is possible that repeated administration of FLs may produce browning via catecholamines and its receptors,”&nbsp;explains study lead author Naomi Osakabe, a professor of Bioscience and Engineering at the Shibaura Institute. “Further studies will be required to understand how this process is induced by FL-rich foods.”



Previous findings have already proven the positive role of flavanols in improving glucose and insulin levels. According to Professor Osakabe and her colleagues, the results of this new study can significantly contribute to scientific advances in the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases, such as cardiovascular illness or obesity.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/12/4214">Nutrients</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Foods rich in flavanols can help burn excess fat

In cold temperatures, brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat...

Summer,Background.,Lemon,Garden

It can take weeks for the symptoms of citrus greening to appear, and by this time the entire tree is infected, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>. For the very first time, the researchers were able to measure the speed of the bacteria that causes citrus greening disease.



“We found that CLas can move at average speed of 2.9 to 3.8 cm per day. At these speeds a tree that is 3 meters in height will be fully colonized by CLas in around 80 to 100 days, and this is faster than the symptoms appear, which generally takes at least 4 months,” explained Silvio A. Lopes, a plant pathologist at Fundecitrus.



Citrus greening disease is the most deadly  citrus disease in the world. Once infected, trees produce low-quality fruit until they are eventually unable to grow fruit. The disease has caused billions of dollars of economic losses in the state of Florida alone.



The disease-causing bacteria, Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), is carried by small insects that infect the tree as they feed on sap. The scientists used a new statistical modeling analysis to track the path of CLas as it spreads throughout the tree in the sap. 



The results indicate that by the time a grower can detect symptoms of citrus greening disease, the tree has already been infected from the roots up. The findings explain why a diseased tree cannot be cured by removing symptomatic branches.



The researchers also investigated the impact of temperature on the speed of colonization. It had been previously established that CLas does not multiply well in hot or cold environments.



“We estimated that 25.7°C (78°F) was the best condition for CLas to move from one side to the other side of the tree,” said Lopes. “The grower can use this information to select areas less risky for planting citrus trees.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/journal/phyto">Phytopathology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Citrus greening infects entire trees before it's detected

It can take weeks for the symptoms of citrus greening...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a> has found that, when alien plants invade an existing ecosystem and successfully spread there, a homogenization of regional floras occurs along with the loss of global floristic uniqueness. The so-called “super-invaders,” plants that are highly effective at colonizing new territories and displacing local species, are causing flora in separated, distant geographical regions to become increasingly similar.



By using large global databases, the scientists compared the composition of 658 regional floras from all over the world. In order to assess the floristic uniqueness of particular regions, they took into account the number of plant species a region shares or does not share with other regions, as well as the degree to which species are related to one another. Moreover, they also investigated the influence of biogeographic and anthropogenic factors on the increased homogenization of floras.



An important biogeographic factor helping the spread of alien species is the similarity in climate between different regions. “The more similar two regions are in terms of climate, the more likely it is that a plant from one region will succeed in establishing itself as a naturalized species in the other region, once geographic barriers have been crossed. In a sense, plants from a region with short climatic distance to their new habitat are 'climatically pre-adapted,’" said study lead author Dr. Qiang Yang, an ecologist at the University of Konstanz.



However, anthropogenic factors are also crucial in driving the global homogenization of regional plant communities. Regions that are now or had been under the same political administration in the past show an increased level of homogenization.&nbsp;



"Between regions of the same national territory or regions with historical colonial ties, there is or at least was lively exchange in the past – in the form of both cargo and passenger traffic. This usually also increases the exchange of plants across geographical borders, be it intentionally, as trade goods or agricultural crops, or unintentionally," Dr. Yang explained.



According to study senior author Mark Van Kleunen, a professor of Ecology at the University of Konstanz, such effects are now evident “even in the most remote corners of the world.”



"Unless more effective protective measures are taken to counter the ongoing spread and naturalization of alien plants in the future, they will continue to destroy the uniqueness of our ecosystems – making the world a less diverse place," he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27603-y">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive plants cause a global loss of floristic uniqueness

New research led by the University of Konstanz has found...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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