There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, claiming an estimated 17 million people each year. In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>, experts report that grapes can help protect&nbsp; heart health by boosting beneficial gut bacteria and lowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-has-extraordinary-health-benefits/">cholesterol</a>.



Even among people who rarely eat fruit and vegetables, the study revealed that four weeks of grape consumption produced substantial heart health benefits, reducing the risk of heart attack or stroke.



“We found that grapes have a beneficial effect on gut bacteria, which is great news, since a healthy gut is critical to good health,” said study lead author Professor Zhaoping Li.



“This study deepens our knowledge and expands the range of health benefits for grapes, even as the study reinforces the heart health benefits of grapes with lowered cholesterol."



Grapes are considered to be a "superfood" that is rich in powerful antioxidants called polyphenols that can decrease inflammation.



The study was focused on participants between the ages of 21 and 55 who consumed about 40 grapes per day, which is the equivalent of two servings. After several weeks, the individuals had higher levels of gut microbiome diversity.



This community of trillions of bacteria in the gut is widely considered to be the body's first line of defense against chronic illness and disease. Therefore, diverse gut bacteria are critically important to human health.&nbsp;



After a month of eating grapes on a daily basis, the study participants were found to have nearly eight percent less “bad” cholesterol. In addition, bile acids fell by more than 40 percent. This is significant because malabsorption of bile acid leads to a drop in good cholesterol and a rise in bad cholesterol.&nbsp;



The harmful fats associated with bad cholesterol can cause blocking and clotting of blood clots and cut off blood flow to the heart or brain.



Previous studies have linked improved heart health to grapes in other forms as well, including red wine. According to the researchers, the findings suggest a promising new role for grapes in gut health and reinforce the benefits of grapes on heart health.



“In summary, our results provide novel preliminary information about the effects of grape intake on the gut microbiome, host cholesterol, and BA metabolism. These data will assist in the future design of studies to explore the health benefits of grape consumption.”



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Grapes lower bad cholesterol and protect heart health

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death...

Citrus Greening Disease, also known as Huanglongbing (HLB), causes bitter, useless citrus fruit. Florida’s citrus industry has been decimated by the disease, which has now been discovered in California where 80 percent of the US’s citrus is grown. Over a quarter of a million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oranges-lower-risk-macular-degeneration/">oranges</a>, grapefruits and mandarins are threatened.&nbsp;



To combat this menace, a $1.5 million grant has been given to <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California Riverside</a> (UCR) scientists to find disease resistant citrus plants.&nbsp;



“If you find a disease affecting your crops, a good first step is to look for plants that are able to grow and produce despite infection," said UCR geneticist Danelle Seymour. "Then you can start to identify the genetic basis of the disease tolerance and make sure the next generation of plants includes these genes.”



To find tolerant plants, Seymour and UCR plant pathologist Philippe Rolshausen will study 350 citrus hybrids grown by collaborators in Florida. These plants are already infected with HLB but seem to be living longer, healthier lives and producing more fruit than other infected plants. This is what makes this project unique, in that it’s looking at infected plants in an area where the disease is endemic and the test size is quite large as well.&nbsp;



“The environment in which these plants were grown means we can be confident that these rootstocks will enhance tree health and yield in HLB-affected areas," said Seymour. "Also, because our data set is so large, we’ve got the opportunity to identify plants with levels of tolerance that exceed current commercial varieties.”



Beyond resistance to HLB, the scientists are also testing citrus plants for resistance to other diseases already found in California.&nbsp;



“This way, we’re making sure the next generation of rootstocks will include the right genes and that we’re being as efficient as possible in our breeding practices,” said Seymour.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists seek out citrus plants with disease resistance

Citrus Greening Disease, also known as Huanglongbing (HLB), causes bitter,...

Land use changes are a major contributor to local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-critical-for-reaching-climate-goals/">climate</a> and extreme weather, and a new study reveals how this phenomenon can be seen across rapidly developing West African coastal cities. Here, the researchers found that the frequency of thunderstorms has doubled over the past 30 years, and this increase is strongly connected to deforestation. 



The clearing of vegetation is known to heighten the risk of mudslides and flooding by removing Earth's natural barrier of trees. The new study demonstrates a previously overlooked connection between deforestation and storms that also heightens the risk of flooding. 



The experts analyzed three decades of satellite data in West Africa to investigate how deforestation may have altered weather patterns. The results of the analysis show that the removal of large forested areas had greatly intensified global warming and storm activity along the coastal regions of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria. 



In areas where forests had been cleared, the frequency of thunderstorms doubled over the past two decades. Forested areas experienced an increase of storm activity by just 40 percent.



“The extent of increase in coastal storm activity is likely to vary in different regions, depending on the local climate, but we would expect deforestation to have a similar effect in other coastal deforested areas," said Professor Chris Taylor of the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology</a>.



“Around 40 percent of the world’s population lives within 100km of the coast, so increases in flash flooding causes disruption to millions of people’s lives. Our findings therefore provide a warning to fast-growing coastal cities across the world.”



Many of the communities that are most affected by deforestation and the subsequent changes in local climate have infrastructure that is not equipped to handle major flooding. In places such as Freetown, the capital city of Sierra Leone, increasingly frequent storms and torrential rainfall will certainly lead to more devastating extremes, including deadly floods and landslides.



“Deforestation is exacerbating the impacts of climate change in some of the least resilient cities on Earth, making it much harder for these communities to cope with extreme weather events," said Professor Taylor.



The research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), part of UK Research and Innovation. The study results are published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation exposes coastal cities to more deadly storms

Land use changes are a major contributor to local climate...

Unrelenting swarms of Azteca <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-swap-spit-to-share-food-and-special-fluids/">ants</a> fiercely guard the Cecropia trees they live in throughout neotropical forests. Recently, a bored teenager found that there’s something more to the ant’s relationship with the tree than the fearsome stinging and biting of herbivores and clumsy humans.&nbsp;



Wandering through the forest in Panama, a high school student shot a hole through a Cecropia tree with a clay ball fired from a slingshot. Returning to the scene of the crime the next day, he noticed that the ants living inside the Cecropia had neatly patched up the slingshot hole.&nbsp;



This intriguing discovery inspired five high school students to participate in the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute’s (STRI) volunteer program.&nbsp;



"Some species of Azteca ants live in a permanent symbiosis with Cecropia plants: these mutualistic ants aggressively defend their host plants against herbivores, and in exchange the plants provide them with food and shelter," wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



"The ants prevent damage to their hosts’ leaves, because the ants’ food is produced at the base of the petioles and the undersides of the leaves. Worker ants also open and maintain small entrance holes in each internode that they occupy."



The teens set out to determine what happens when damage to the Cecropia tree compromises the ant's shelter instead of its food production. Working with STRI staff scientist William T. Wcislo, the students drilled holes into Cecropia trees and documented repair by the ants.&nbsp;



The research revealed that as soon as holes were completed, ants were on the job repairing them. Within two and a half hours, significant progress was made and the work was often finished within twenty four hours.&nbsp;



“I was totally surprised by the results," said Wcislo. "And I was impressed by how they developed a simple way to test the idea that ants repair damage to their home.”



Anteaters often visit Cecropia trees and sometimes punch holes in branches with their sharp claws. The research group speculates that this is how the ants evolved their repairing behavior.&nbsp;



The research leaves some questions remaining though. Some of the ants did not repair holes in their homes. The factors of why or why not the repairs were made remain unclear and a good topic for future research.



The study is published in the <a href="https://jhr.pensoft.net/">Journal of Hymenoptera Research</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ants living in Cecropia trees quickly repair wounds to their host

Unrelenting swarms of Azteca ants fiercely guard the Cecropia trees...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41588-021-00971-3">Nature Genetics</a> has found that lychees have been grown in China since ancient times, with records of their cultivation dating back to 2,000 years ago. In fact, this radiant and flavorful fruit seemed to have been so highly esteemed by ancient Chinese that it was domesticated twice, in two different regions of the country.



Lychee is a tropical agricultural crop in the&nbsp;Sapindaceae family (including also maples and horse chestnuts). It is one of the most widespread fruit crops in Eastern Asia, and is becoming increasingly famous even in the United States, where it is often found as a flavorful ingredient in bubble gum, cocktails, or ice creams.



In this recent study, scientists used genomic analysis to peer deeper into the lychee’s history. “By sequencing and analyzing wild and cultivated lychee varieties, we were able to trace the origin and domestication history of lychee. We demonstrated that extremely early- and late-maturing cultivars were derived from independent human domestication events in Yunnan and Hainan, respectively,” explained study senior author Jianguo Li, a professor at the <a href="https://english.scau.edu.cn/">South China Agricultural University</a>.



The results suggest that wild lychees originated in the Yunnan province of southwestern China, spread east and south to Hainan Island, and then were domesticated independently in each of these two regions. According to the scientists, the evolutionary split between lychee populations in Yunnan and Hainan probably occurred around 18,000 years ago.



Besides shedding new light on the history of lychee plants, the study also provides an in-depth look at flowering time, a crucial trait in agriculture. “Early-maturing lychees versus late-maturing lychees came from different places and were domesticated independently,” said senior co-author Victor Albert, an evolutionary biologist at the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo</a>. “This, by itself, is an interesting story, but we also wanted to know what causes these differences: Why do these varieties fruit and flower at different times?”



By comparing the DNA of several lychee varieties, Professor Albert and his colleagues have discovered a genetic variant (a chunk of missing DNA) that can now be used to create a simple test for identifying early- versus late-blooming lychee plants. Yunnan varieties that bloom early appear to have this genetic deletion, while Hainan varieties that mature late do not have it at all.&nbsp;



“This is very useful for breeders. Because the lychee is perishable, flowering times have been important to extending the season for which the lychee is available in markets,” Albert concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic testing sheds new light on lychee plants

A new study published in the journal Nature Genetics has...

Although many people, myself included, find spinach wonderful as it is, some find it less palatable. Researchers from <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> (BTI) and six different Chinese universities have set out to change spinach.



The focus is partially on the genetics of “spinach teeth,” the chalky mouthfeel caused by the plant’s concentration of oxalate. The scientists are also looking into genes that fight downy mildew, a major disease of spinach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-have-a-drought-memory-that-prepares-them-for-tough-times/">crops</a>.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the study provides valuable insights into spinach evolution and domestication, as well as valuable resources to facilitate breeding.



“I think more consumers would be willing to buy spinach that has less oxalate," said BTI faculty member Zhangjun Fei who co-led the study. "Dietary oxalate can interfere with mineral absorption and may lead to kidney stones, and less oxalate would also make spinach more palatable to a wider market.”



The research provides information on producing disease resistant spinach with a different mouthfeel than traditional varieties. To accomplish this, the scientists compared the genetics of cultivated spinach to those of two wild relatives. They discovered genes that will be of particular interest to farmers.&nbsp;



Study co-author Chen Jiao is a former postdoctoral researcher with Fei’s group and now professor in the College of Agriculture and Biotechnology at Zhejiang University.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our results provide rich resources for the spinach community, especially those working on increasing downy mildew resistance, improving leaf texture and reducing oxalate content,” said Jiao.



The researchers also sequenced the genome of 295 varieties and 10 accessions of two wild relatives. Most of the varieties of the different plants come from environmental adaptations to different locations.&nbsp;



“I think our most interesting finding is that the genetic diversity between Asian and European spinach is higher than it is between cultivated and wild spinaches, which is not very common in other crops," said Jiao. "This increases our knowledge of how human selection diversifies crop plants.”



Overall, the team identified a complex network of genetic regions that are responsible for disease resistance. They also found genes that encode for oxalates, the chemicals responsible for “spinach teeth,” and made the important discovery that oxalates are also important for the crop's survival, such as resistance to pests.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>,



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are working to make spinach more appealing

Although many people, myself included, find spinach wonderful as it...

Begonia is one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-based-diet-may-be-a-great-way-to-start-the-new-year/">plant</a> genera, comprising over 2,050 known species all over the world. Most begonias are small weeds, measuring only a few centimeters. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.187.75854">PhytoKeys</a> has recently described the world’s largest specimen of a Begonia species, measuring over three meters in height and 2.5 meters in width.



In 2019, study lead author Dr. Daike Tian, a plant scientist at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> led a research team to perform a field survey of wild Begonias in Tibet, China. While exploring the county of Mêdog, the researchers saw a huge Begonia in full bloom. This type of Begonia appeared to be a previously unknown species.



From a small population with only a few dozen individuals, the researchers collected two of the tallest ones to measure them and prepare the specimens for future studies.&nbsp;



One of the plants was 3.6 meters tall, with the thickest part of its ground stem reaching almost 12 centimeters in diameter. In order to be able to measure the tallest Begonia recorded in the entire Asian continent, Dr. Tian had to ask his driver to climb on top of the vehicle. To carry them back to Shanghai for further investigations, the researchers had to cut the plants into four sections.



Begonia gigantica, recently described as a new species, grows on forest slopes along streams at an elevation of approximately 450 to 1,400 meters. It is sparsely distributed in Southern Tibet, and was recently added in the “endangered” category on the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List</a>.



Starting on October 2020, visitors were able to see the enormous plant at the first Chinese Begonia show in&nbsp;<a href="https://tools.bgci.org/garden.php?id=4544">Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden</a>. Currently, the staff at the Chenshan Herbarium is applying for Guinness World Records for this extraordinary specimen.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

World's tallest Begonia species discovered in Tibet

Begonia is one of the largest plant genera, comprising over...

A new grafting technique could help protect bananas and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-slow-global-warming-but-they-cannot-stop-it/">plants</a> from destructive diseases. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have used embryonic tissue from certain plant seeds to promote disease resistance and other beneficial traits.&nbsp;



Grafting involves joining the shoot of one plant with the root of another so that they merge and grow together as one. Previously, experts did not believe it was possible to apply grafting to grass-like plants known as monocotyledons. This was because they lack a certain type of tissue - the vascular cambium - in their stem.



But now, the Cambridge team has demonstrated that root and shoot tissues taken from the seeds of monocotyledonous grasses can be successfully fused together. This breakthrough could benefit an estimated 60,000 types of monocotyledons, including major crops like rice and wheat.



According to the study authors, the research has implications for the control of serious soil-borne pathogens including Panama Disease, which has been destroying banana plantations for over 30 years. This disease has recently been spreading at an increasing rate, prompting fears of global banana shortages.



“We’ve achieved something that everyone said was impossible. Grafting embryonic tissue holds real potential across a range of grass-like species. We found that even distantly related species, separated by deep evolutionary time, are graft compatible,” said study senior author Professor Julian Hibberd.



A series of tests revealed that the grafting technique is effective in a range of monocotyledonous crop plants including pineapple, banana, onion, and tequila agave.



“I read back over decades of research papers on grafting and everybody said that it couldn’t be done in monocots. I was stubborn enough to keep going - for years - until I proved them wrong,” said study first author Dr. Greg Reeves.



"It’s an urgent challenge to make important food crops resistant to the diseases that are destroying them. Our technique allows us to add disease resistance, or other beneficial properties like salt-tolerance, to grass-like plants without resorting to genetic modification or lengthy breeding programs.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New breakthrough will promote disease resistance in bananas

A new grafting technique could help protect bananas and other...

New research led by <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/">King’s College London</a> has found that getting outside and enjoying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/to-avoid-future-pandemics-we-must-protect-nature/">nature</a> can reduce feelings of loneliness by up to 28 percent in city dwellers. This is the first study about loneliness that uses real time data from a phone app (the <a href="https://www.urbanmind.info/">Urban Mind</a> app) instead of asking participants questions after an event already happened.



Loneliness is considered a major public health problem, increasing the risk of death more than air pollution or obesity. In order to assess how contact with nature could alleviate feelings of loneliness, researchers collected data from 756 participants using the Urban Mind app, which prompted them to regularly answer questions on topics such as loneliness, overcrowding, social inclusion, and the natural environment.



After adjusting for factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, occupation, and education, the scientists found a significant link between lower levels of loneliness and contact with nature. “There can be aspects such as natural features and social inclusivity which can actually decrease loneliness,” said study senior author Andrea Mechelli, a professor of Early Intervention in Mental Health at King’s College London.



According to Mechelli and his colleagues, “people experience different levels of loneliness throughout the day depending on their surrounding environment.”&nbsp;



While feelings of overcrowding increased loneliness by an average of 39 percent, when people were able to see trees or the sky, or heard birdsong, their feelings of loneliness decreased by 28 percent. 



The scientists argue that natural places in cities can reduce loneliness by enhancing feelings of attachment to a place, or by providing more possibilities to socialize.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It has long been recognized that having access to natural environments can foster social interactions and connectedness. This study adds further weight to existing evidence of our affinity for natural environments and the potential benefits for social wellbeing,” explained Christopher Gidlow, a professor of Applied Health Research at <a href="https://www.staffs.ac.uk/">Staffordshire University</a>.



“Familiarity with environments was not measured, but is likely to be at play as people tend to visit the same natural environments. Such familiarity has been linked with feeling more connected to a place, with possible mental health benefits,” he added.



“Cities are probably the only habitat that is increasing at a high rate. So we should be creating urban habitats where people can thrive,” urged study co-author Johanna Gibbons, a landscape architect. “Nature is a critical component of that because, I believe deep in our souls, there are really deep connections with natural forces.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03398-2?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink#Sec14">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Contact with nature reduces feelings of loneliness

New research led by King’s College London has found that...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01616-8">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a> has found that diverse plant traits, including characteristics such as plant size, structure, and life span, are determined to a large extent by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/">climate</a> and soil properties.



The diversity of plant form and function can be described in terms of morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics. According to scientists, traits across plant species fall into two main categories: size and economy of metabolism.&nbsp;



By analyzing a global dataset for 17 different plant traits, researchers from <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, the <a href="https://www.bgc-jena.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry</a> in Jena and the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en/">University of Leipzig</a>, have confirmed for the first time that these two main categories apply to all plants studied worldwide.



In the size category, plants continuously balance height, leaf size, seed size and similar traits, which are influenced by hydraulic components of water transport. The economics of metabolism category describes how rapidly and effectively plants gain energy and biomass through photosynthesis, in correlation with how long the plants survive. Metabolism can be determined by features such as the structure and composition of leaves, including the concentrations of chemical compounds like nitrogen, phosphorous, or carbon.



Plant traits are influenced by a variety of external factors. By analyzing the characteristics of over 20,000 species of plants, the researchers found that the most decisive factors in shaping these traits are climate and oil conditions.



"Our study clearly demonstrates that plant traits worldwide can be explained by joint effects of climate and soil," said study lead autor Julia Joswig, a doctoral student in Geography and Spatial Genetics at the University of Zurich. “This suggests that aspects of climate change and soil erosion, both of which occur as a result of land use change, for example, should be researched together."



For example, the height of plant species changes along latitudes, due to differences in climate, and both morphological and metabolic processes are strongly influenced by soil-forming factors including organisms living in the soil, geography, and topography.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Miguel Mahecha, a professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Leipzig, "studies of this kind can guide global Earth system models to represent the complex interaction of climate, soil, and biodiversity, which is an important prerequisite for future predictions."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant traits are shaped by climate and soil conditions

A recent study published in the journal Nature Ecology &amp;...

<a href="https://www.ciwf.org.uk/">Compassion in World Farming</a> (CIWF) is encouraging people to consider a plant-based diet for real change in the New Year. The organization claims that despite some positive changes, a greater number of animals are raised in factory farms. With the number of humans on the planet projected to reach ten billion by 2050, current dietary trends would lead to disastrous consequences.&nbsp;



Scaling up the current global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocado-linked-to-overall-healthier-diets/">diet</a> to feed a population of ten billion would increase greenhouse gasses, destroy wildlife and natural habitat and of course increase the suffering of livestock. Besides this, CIWF claims that a plant-based diet is healthier. A well-rounded diet without meat, eggs or dairy has been shown to decrease risk of heart disease, type II diabetes and cancer. 



Beyond these benefits, CIWF highlights the positive impacts that a plant-based diet can have on animals raised for food. Over 60 billion animals are farmed globally for food each year.&nbsp;



Nine billion chickens are raised in the US annually alone. Factory farmed chickens suffer from a host of genetic ailments and are kept cruelly confined.&nbsp;



"The more I learned about what goes on over in the factory farms, the less I was able to write it off as a necessary evil," said Laura Union, a CIWF supporter.



"Switching to a plant-based diet was a simple swap of the meat on my plate to other protein sources like beans, tofu, lentils, or plant-based meat."



"Everything else stayed the same. My plant-based diet has resulted in a much more diverse diet. I'm more inclined to try new things and have concocted various vegetable experiments in my kitchen - many of which are now requested by friends."



"In addition to the economic, environmental, and health benefits, it's just a pleasant change that is surprisingly easy to stick with. There are way more options out there than people realize."



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A plant-based diet may be a great way to start the new year

Compassion in World Farming (CIWF) is encouraging people to consider...

New research led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> has found that a microorganism causing bacterial leaf spot disease in tomato <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-not-keeping-pace-with-climate-change/">plants</a> - Xanthomonas euvesicatoria&nbsp;(Xe) - has recently evolved, managing to acquire features that makes it less detectable by the plants’ immune systems. This capacity to defeat host defenses through rapid evolution makes breeding for disease resistance significantly difficult in tomatoes.



“It’s part of the evolutionary warfare between plants and pathogens, where the plant has some defense trait and then some portion of the pathogen population evolves to escape it,” said study co-author Sarah Hind, an assistant professor of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois.



“The plant has to develop or acquire a new defense trait, but the process is much slower in plants compared to microbes. This study is a great example of that ongoing battle in progress. It tells us we can’t completely rely on this trait to combat bacterial spot disease caused by Xe.”



These bacteria have long whip-like tail structures called flagella which allows them to move through soil and plant tissue. Over time, tomatoes learned to detect flagella through their immune receptors. However, Professor Hind and her colleagues have discovered that one of the tomato’s receptors, FLS3, no longer works to detect flagellin proteins in Xe. This immune evasion is caused by a single amino acid change in these proteins.



&nbsp;“It was surprising to see that only one amino acid change was making all the difference. It made us wonder how binding between flagellin and FLS3 could be so dramatically altered,” said study co-author Maria Malvino, a graduate student at the University of Illinois. Scientists expect that other bacteria affecting tomatoes could soon develop similar immune-evading mutations.



The fact that these bacteria can now sneak past tomato’s defense systems means farmers can rely less on inherent disease resistance and will need to use artificial methods of protection, such as spraying with copper-based pesticides.



“It’s like whack-a-mole for breeders. It takes a long time to release a resistant variety. Often, by the time they go to release a new one, the pathogen population shifts,” Hind said. “And when you add to that the difficulty of maintaining all the desirable traits of a tomato, it’s a tough situation. Again, that leaves us relying on fungicides and copper treatments to keep tomato production profitable here in Illinois.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/MPMI-08-21-0211-R">International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interaction.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria sneak past tomato’s defense mechanisms

New research led by the University of Illinois has found...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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